Let’s compare the far-field response with the on axis response.

From the near-field on axis response

 kr   a2   
p ( r ,0 ) = 2 ρocU o sin   1 +  2  − 1 
 2   r   

The axial pressure amplitude for the far field (Fraunhofer zone) is given by (for θ = 0)

jωρo a 2Uo j (ω t− kr )  2 J1 ( ka sinθ ) 

p ( r, θ , t ) = e  
2r  ka sinθ 
so
ωρo a 2Uo ( kc ) ρ oa U o 1
2
a
p ( r ,0,0) = = = ρo cU o   ka (Eq 7.4.7)
2r 2r 2 r

Normalizing axial-only p ( r ,0 ) and far-field axial p ( r ,0,0) to 2 ρo cU o gives:

p ( r, 0)  kr   a2    p ( r ,0,0) 1a
= sin   1 +  2  − 1  and =   ka
2 ρo cUo  2  r    2 ρocU o 4 r 

Plotting these two values

where the solid line represents a λ = 3 , the dashed line represents the a λ = 7 . Did one reduce to the
other? Why not?
So,
k 
k
− j (R 1 +r )
p ( r , t ) = 2 j ρocU oe jω t e 2 sin  ( R1 − r ) where R1 = r 2 + a 2
2 
and
jωρo a 2Uo j (ω t− kr )  2 J1 ( ka sinθ ) 
p ( r, θ , t ) = e  
2r  ka sinθ 
Homework EXERCISE: Show that these two expressions are the same, on-axis, in the Fraunhofer
Zone.

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 7 pg 27

*************************** Example 7.4 ***************************
Compare and contrast the directivity and number of side lobes for the case of a continuous-line
source of length L, and a circular transducer of radius L excited at the same frequency and into the
same medium.

ANSWER: The equations for the line source and circular transducer are listed below:
 kL sin θ 
H L (θ ) = sinc   (Line source)
 2 
 2 J ( ka sinθ ) 
HC (θ ) =  1  (Circular transducer)
 ka sinθ 
The plots for the two cases are shown below. Note that the continuous-line source has the x-axis
1
“expanded out” by a factor of two because of the factor of 0.5 in the expression kL sin (θ ) . Thus,
2
one can immediately see that the circular transducer (i.e. the circular piston source) has greater
directivity, but at the same time has more side lobes than the continuous-line source. Also note that
L for the line source is the “full length” whereas L (a) for the piston source is “1/2 the length.”
Log Comparison of Directivity

10
Continuous-line Source
0 Circular Piston Source

-10

-20
20 log |H(theta)|

-30

-40

-50

-60

-70

-80
0 5 10 15

kL*sin(theta)

Direct Comparison of No. of Sidelobes

1.00 Continuous-line Source

Circular Piston Source

0.80

0.60
|H(theta)|

0.40

0.20

0.00
0 5 10 15

kL*sin(theta)

How would the plots be different if L = D , the diameter of the circular transducer?

******************************************************************
Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 7 pg 28
The far field pattern can be modified by changing U0 over the face of the source. For example, if U0
decreases toward the edges of the circular piston then the side lobe levels will decrease and the main
lobe will be broader.

Ex 1 – High frequencies in a loudspeaker move the center more than outer parts.

Ex 2 – “Shading” of a piezoelectric transducer.

Transducer dimension (thickness) changes in response to electric field. “Shading” lowers the field
in the outer portions of the disk.

Beamwidth

Defined as angular width where the intensity is down a specified amount from that on the axis.

Ex 0.5 → 3 dB down
0.25 → 6 dB down
0.1 → 10 dB down

Thus if θ = 13° for the acoustic amplitude down by 10 dB then the –10 dB beam width is 2θ = 26°.

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 7 pg 29

*************************** Example 7.5 ***************************
Computation of –10 dB beamwidth

For –10 dB the intensity directivity function will have a value of 0.1
2

Thus,  1  = 0.1 , where x = ka sin(θ). This occurs at approximately x = 2.74.

2 J ( x)
 x 
Consider two different values of ka
 2.74 
For ka = 7, θ = sin -1   = 23o , so the beamwidth is 2θ = 46°
 7 
 2.74 
For ka = 21, θ = sin -1   = 7.5o , so the beamwidth is 2θ = 15°
 21 
******************************************************************

Alternatively, at a specific distance from the source the beam width might be specified in terms
of a linear distance as opposed to an angular width.
I
I0

0.5 I0

1/2 power beam width

Beam patterns for circular sources with uniform velocity amplitude distributions.
6 z0
0 1/2 z0 z0 3 z0

2θ1

p
Spherical
Waves-Field

Sound field of a circular piston. 2a/λ = 16.

Transverse pattern in near field is very irregular.

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 7 pg 30

(7.5) Radiation Impedance
An electromechanical transducer has an electrical impedance which is, through some
electromechanical coupling parameters (depends on type of transducer), directly dependent upon
the mechanical parameters of the transducer and its load.

∴ Total mechanical impedance = mechanical impedance of transducer (radiating into a vacuum)

plus the radiation impedance of the fluid load

comp. ⊥ surface
→
dfs df s
zr = ∫ r
u

The mechanical impedance of the transducer is analogous to discussion from Chapter 1 for the mass
loaded, damped driven harmonic spring system.

Piston → mass m
mechanical resistance Rm
stiffness s
jωt r
Driven by external force f = Fe to give u0 = U 0 e jωt = jωξ 0 for simple harmonic time dep.

f s = force of fluid = z%r u 0 where z%r is the radiation impedance

We can plug all of this into a second order differential equation (just like the damped, driven
harmonic oscillator)

r r dξ 0 d 2 ξ0
f – f s – Rm – sξ 0 = m 2
dt dt
or

du0
f = f s + Rmu0 + s ∫ u0dt + m
dt

We can assume a simple harmonic time dependence like the driving force so that

 s 
f = f s +  R m + jω m +  u0
 jω 
= ( z%r + z%m ) u% 0
where

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 7 pg 31

 s
z% m = Rm + jω m +
jω
is the mechanical impedance. Hence,

f%
u%0 =
z%m + z%r
jωt
dividing by e gives
F
U0 =
z% m + z% r
where
N–s
z% r = ( zr ) e jθ = Rr + jX r
m
↑ ↑
radiation radiation
resistance reactance

Radiation resistance – loss term for the system

two loss terms – Rm → loss in transducer
Rr → radiated energy

1
Power radiated Π r = U 20 Rr
2
Let’s look at the Simple Source

ρ0 c( kS ) 2
Rr = unbaffled, where S is the surface area
4π
ρ c( kS ) 2 baffled simple source
Rr = 0
2π ( twice Rr and Π r )
_________________

Looking at Ztotal = Zm + Z r
 s
= Rm + j  ωm –  + Rr + jX r
 ω

a positive Xr means that we are loading the system with mass from the surrounding fluid so that the
resonance frequency is decreased for the oscillator.

Xr
Thus, we define a radiation mass m r = .
ω
Since the resonance frequency of the system is

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 7 pg 32

 s s
ω0 = ⇒ ω0 =
mass m + mr

The radiation mass reduces the resonance frequency. mr is related to mass of material moved in
front of source. Less mass at higher frequency.
What does this mean for a transducer operating in air compared to a transducer operating in water?

Let’s look briefly at one particular case: The Circular Piston

Rr = ρ0cSR1 ( 2ka )
X r = ρ0cSX 1 ( 2ka )
where
2 J 1 ( 2ka )
R1 ( 2 ka ) = 1 −
2ka
2 H1 ( 2 ka )
X1 ( 2ka ) = (To be shown in homework)
2 ka
and S = π a (the area of the piston face).
2

1.0
R1(x)

0.5 X1(x)
Figure 7.5.2 Radiation resistance and
reactance for a plane circular piston of
radius a radiating sound of wave
0 number k(x = 2ka).
0 4 8 12
x
For ka << 1 (a small compared to λ)

We use the series expansion for J and H to get

1
Rr ≈ ρ 0cS ( ka )2
2
8
Xr ≈ ρ0cS ( ka)
3π
8a
mr ≈ ρS
3π 0

Physically, this means that the piston appears to be loaded with a cylindrical volume of fluid mass
with cross sectional area S (the same as the piston surface) and a depth of the fluid mass cylinder
8a
reaching to z = ; 0.85a .We see how the fluid changes the resonant frequency.
3π
Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 7 pg 33
For ka >> 1 (a large compared to λ)
Again we use the series expansion for J and H at large ka.

Rr ≅ ρ0cS (1)
2
Xr ≅ ρ0cS ⇒ 0 for ka very large
π ka
2ρ a
mr ≅ 02 ⇒ 0 for ka very large
k
Thus, at large ka  or  the radiation impedance is almost real with no mass loading
a
 λ
So, the power is given by
1 1
Π r = U 20 Rr ≅ ρ0cSU 20 .
2 2
This is the same power as a plane wave propagating through area S with characteristic impedance
ρ0 c .

*************************** Example 7.6 ***************************

Calculate Rr, Xr and mr in air and water for a circular piston source

Take a = 3 cm, f = 10 kHz, and U0 = 1 m/s

4π 10 4
Air 2 ka = 0.03 = 11
343
4π 104
Water 2 ka = 0.03 = 2.55
1481

Parameter Air Water

2
π a ρ0 c 1.173 4,128
2ka 11 2.55
R1 1.0321 0.6375
Rr 1.21  N –s 
2,632  m 

Πr = 1
U
2
Rr
0.61 1,316 (W)
2 0

X1 0.1464 0.693
Xr 0.172 2,861
mr 2.73 × 10–6 4.56 × 10–2 (kg)

Physically it takes a lot more work done against Rr in water than in air. Hence, the more power
expended in water than in air by the transducer.

******************************************************************

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 7 pg 34

(7.6) Fundamental Properties of Transducers
(a) Directional Factor and Beam Pattern

The general expression for beam pattern, b(θ , φ ) , represents the variation of intensity level with
angle. The expression is given by

 I ( r ,θ ,φ ) 
b(θ ,φ ) = 10 log  
 axI (r )  Note: is generally a function of both θ and φ
 P( r ,θ ,φ )  since it may not have circular symmetry.
= 20 log  
 pax (r ) 
= 20 log ( H (θ ,φ ) )

(b) Beam Width

Discussed previously – must specify criterion: half-power, quarter power, 0.1 etc. Remember
in some cases, for a specified distance from source, can use a linear measure.

(c) Source Level

 P (1) 
Source Level = SL(Pref) = 20 log  e  where Pe(1) is effective axial pressure at r = 1 m,
 P 
 ref 
extrapolated back from far field. Must specify reference pressure

Pref = 1 µPa, 20 µPa, 1 µbar

(d) Directivity
 nonspherical 
 
I ax ( r )  directional 
 source  P ax2 (r )
directivity = D =  =
I S ( r )(spherical) P S2 (r )
for a simple source having the same acoustic power as the directive source. For the simple
source

1
Πs = 4π r 2 P S2 ( r )
2 ρ0 c
and there is no preferred direction. For the directional source

1
2 ρ0c ∫4π
Π directional = P 2 ( r ,θ , φ ) r 2 d Ω where dΩ = sin(θ) dθ dφ and the integration is

over 4π steradians (φ varies from 0 to 2π and θ from 0 to π)

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 7 pg 35

 P( r ,θ , φ ) = Pax ( r ) H (θ , φ )

1 2 2
Π directional = r P ax ( r ) ∫ H 2 (θ ,φ )d Ω
2 ρ0 c 4π

Since the acoustic powers are the same, we can solve for P ax2 (r ) and P 2S (r ) in terms of the
acoustic power giving

2Π ρ0c
r2 ∫ H 2 (θ ,φ )d Ω
2
P ax
( r)
4π
∴D = = 4π
=
2Π ρ0c
∫ H (θ ,φ ) d Ω
2
P S2 4π
4π r 2

The larger the ratio a/λ the more directional the beam since ∫
4π
H 2 (θ ,φ )d Ω is smaller.

(e) Directivity Index

Directivity Index = DI = 10 log D

Directivity of baffled piston source

4π 4π
D= =
∫ H (θ ,φ ) d Ω
2
 2 J1 (ka sin θ ) 
2
π 2
4π
∫
0  ka sin θ  2π sinθ dθ
 

(ka ) 2
D= again Bessel functions are tabulated in appendix A6
J (2 ka)
1– 1
ka

for ka >> 1
2
D ≅ (ka)

which is greater for greater a/λ, or the beam is more highly directive when the frequency is
increased

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 7 pg 36

*************************** Example 7.7 ***************************
Examples of directivity calculations.

10
Take a λ = > 1 ka = 10 D ≅ 100
2π
15
aλ= > 2 ka = 15 D ≅ 225
2π

Thus the source starts to become quite directive even for a/λ not much greater than 1.

******************************************************************
Reversible Transducers

Ex. speakers ⇒ intercom

ultrasonic transducers

Transmit and receiving patterns are the same.

H(θ,φ) receive = H( θ,φ)transmit

(f) Rough Estimates of Radiation Patterns

Extent of Near Field

The extent of the near field for a source is defined by the two distances rmin (the distance from the
field point to the closest element of the source) and rmax (the distance from the field point to the
furthest element of the source).
When the field point is moved towards the source such that r max – rmin ≈ λ 2 then the axial
pressure is sufficiently shifted from the far field axial response to alter the far field axial pressure
amplitude. The above relation can be shown through geometry to imply the extent of the near field
response is quantified by
2
L
rmin 1 L L2  2 
≅ or rmin = =
L 4λ 4λ λ

where L is the greatest extent of the source.

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 7 pg 37
For a rectangular source:

L1 L2 > L1

L2 L 22
rmin =
4λ

First angular null

λ
sin θ1 ≅
L θ
L
λ
θ1 decreases with L 2

decreases with frequency λ

phase cancellation
(ON Transmit and ON Receive)

Estimate of Directivity

4π
D≈ ∴ determine solid angle for main lobe–for side lobes low
Ω effective

Text pressure down 0.5 (–6 dB) as a good estimate

Piston like source

1 2
D≅ k L1L2 L2
4
increases with dimensions and
L1
frequency

Oelze ECE/TAM 373 Notes - Chapter 7 pg 38