Samuel C.
Certo
Modern Management, 12th Edition
16
chapter
Leadership
Student Learning Objectives
From studying this chapter, I will attempt to acquire:
A working definition of leadership.
An understanding of the relationship between
leading and managing.
An appreciation for the trait and situational
approaches to leadership.
Insights about using leadership theories that
emphasize decision-making situations.
Student Learning Objectives
From studying this chapter, I will attempt to acquire:
Insights about using leadership theories that
emphasize more general organizational situations.
An understanding of alternatives to leader flexibility.
An appreciation of emerging leader styles and
leadership issues of today.
Leadership
Leadership is the process of directing the
behavior of others toward the accomplishment
of objectives.
Leader Versus Manager
Leading is not the same as managing.
Leadership is a subset of management.
Managing is broader in scope than leading
and focuses on behavioral as well as non-
behavioral issues.
Leading emphasizes mainly behavioral
issues.
The Most Effective Managers Over
the Long Term are also Leaders
Managers Leaders
Managers Who
Are Also Leaders
Managers Leaders
Who Are Not Who Are Not
Leaders Managers
THE TRAIT APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP
The trait approach to leadership, based on
early leadership research, assumed that a
good leader is born and not made.
No trait or combination of traits guarantees
that a leader will be successful.
THE SITUATIONAL APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP:
A FOCUS ON LEADER BEHAVIOR
The situational approach is based on the
assumption that all instances of successful
leadership are somewhat different and
require a unique combination of leaders,
followers, and leadership situations.
SL=f(L,F,S)
Leadership Situations and Decisions
The Tannenbaum-Schmidt Leadership
Continuum
The Vroom-Yetton-Jago Model
The Tannenbaum-Schmidt Leadership
Continuum
The Tannenbaum-Schmidt Leadership
Continuum emphasizes decision making
ranging from autocratic to democratic
leadership.
Continum of leadership behavior
Different types of leadership behavior
involve in this model are:
The manager makes the decision and announce it.
The manager sells the decision.
The manager present ideas and invites questions.
The manager presents a tentative decision that is
subject to change.
The manager presents the problem, gets
suggestions, and then makes the decision.
The manager defines the limits and asks the group
to make a decision.
The manager permits the group to make decisions
within prescribed limits.
Determining How to Make Decisions as a Leader
Forces in the Manager
These include a manager's values, level of confidence in
subordinates, personal leadership strengths, and tolerance for
ambiguity.
Forces in Subordinates
Managers should be aware of forces within subordinates that
influence the manager's determination of how to make
decisions as a leader.
Forces in the Situation
The first situational force involves the type of organization in
which the leader works.
Another force is the effectiveness of group members working
together.
The problem to be solved is another force.
The final force is the decision time available.
Determining How to Make
Decisions as Leader: An Update
According to Tannenbaum and Schmidt, the
relationship among forces is becoming more
complex and more interrelated than ever. This
increased complexity makes it more difficult for
the leader to determine how to lead.
The update also stresses both societal and
organizational envioronments as more modern
forces to consider in determining how to lead.
The Vroom-Yetton-Jago Model
Focuses on how much participation to allow subordinates
in the decision making process. The VYJ model is built on
two premises:
Organizational decisions should be high quality
Subordinates should accept and be committed to
organizational decisions that are made.
Decision Styles
The VYJ model suggests a continuum of five different decision
styles managers can use, ranging from autocratic to group-
focused.
Using the Model
The VYJ model is a method for determining when a leader
should use which decision style.
The Five Decision Styles Available to a Leader According
to the Broom-Yetton-Jago Model
DECISION STYLE DEFINITION
AI Manager makes the decision alone.
A II Manager asks for information from subordinates but
makes the decision alone. Subordinates may or may
not be informed about what the situation is.
CI Manager shares the situation with individual subordinates
and asks for information and evaluation. Subordinates
do not meet as a group, and the manager alone makes
the decision.
C II Manager and subordinates meet as a group to discuss the
situation, but the manager makes the decision.
G III Manager and subordinates meet as a group to discuss the
situation, and the group makes the decision.
A= autocratic; C= consultative; G= group
Leadership Behaviors
The OSU Studies:
Structure behavior
Consideration behavior
Leadership Style
Structure behavior
Structure behavior is leadership activity that
(1) delineates the relationship between the
leader and the leader's followers or
(2) establishes well-defined procedures that
the followers should adhere to in
performing their jobs.
Consideration behavior
Consideration behavior is leadership
behavior reflecting friendship, mutual trust,
respect, and warmth in the relationship
between the leader and the followers.
Recent Research Suggests
Consulting firm Lore International Institute reveals that,
to succeed in the workplace, it’s important for leaders to
demonstrate trustworthiness, honesty, and an ability
to collaborate.
According to the findings, leaders can “kill” trust
between themselves and workers by being (1) credit
hogs who take credit for the good ideas of others, (2)
lone rangers who work mostly by themselves and not
closely with other workers, (3) egomaniacs who believe
that success will only come through the efforts of
management as opposed to workers, or (4) mules who
are stubborn and inflexible.
Leadership Style
Leadership style is the behavioral
pattern a leader establishes while
guiding organization members in
appropriate directions.
Four Fundamental Leadership Styles Based on
Structure Behavior and Consideration Behavior
Low structure High structure
CONSIDERATION
High High consideration High consideration
Low Low structure High structure
Low consideration Low consideration
Low High
STRUCTURE
The Michigan Studies
These studies pinpointed two basic types of leader
behavior: job-centered and employee-centered.
a. Job-centered Behavior
Job-centered behavior focuses primary attention on
the work a subordinate is doing.
b. Employee-centered Behavior
Employee-centered behavior focuses primary attention
on subordinates as people.
Effectiveness of Various Leadership Styles
One should be cautious about concluding
that any single leadership style is more
effective than any other.
A.K. Korman suggests that a worthwhile
contribution to leadership literature would
be a rationale for systematically linking
appropriate styles with various situations so
as to ensure effective leadership.
The Hersey-Blanchard Life Cycle Theory
of Leadership
The life cycle theory of leadership
hypothesizes that leadership styles
should reflect primarily the
maturity level of the followers.
Maturity:
Maturity, in the life cycle theory, is an
individual's ability to independently
perform the job, to assume additional
responsibility, and to desire success.
The Life Cycle Model:
The life cycle theory suggests that a
leadership style will be effective only if
it is appropriate for the maturity level
of the followers.
Exceptions to the Model:
If there is a short-term deadline to
meet, a leader might have to
accelerate production through
high-task/low-relationship style.
Life Cycle Theory of Leadership
Applying Life Cycle Theory:
This approach owes its acceptance to its
intuitive appeal. Across Industries -
Recruitment: Dan Caulfield Changes His
High Task Leadership Style. A manager
discovers that a management style which
worked very well in a weapons testing
program at the Department of Defense did
not work as well at a civilian recruiting
organization.
Fiedler's Contingency Theory
Leader flexibility is the ability of leaders to change their
leadership styles as they encounter different situations.
One strategy proposed is changing the organizational
situation to fit the leader's style, rather than changing the
leader's style to fit the organizational situation.
Fiedler's contingency theory of leadership hypothesizes
that, in any given leadership situation, success is
determined primarily by:
The degree to which the task being performed by the
followers is structured
The degree of position power possessed by the leader
The type of relationship that exists between the leader and
the followers
Path-Goal Theory of Leadership
Path-goal theory of leadership is a theory of
leadership that suggests that the primary
activities of a leader are to make desirable and
achievable rewards available to organization
members who attain organizational goals and
to clarify the kinds of behavior that must be
performed to earn those rewards.
Leadership Behavior
Leaders perform four primary behavior
types:
Directive behavior
Supportive behavior
Participative behavior
Achievement behavior
Adapting Behavior to Situation
The path-goal theory suggests that
managers can be successful by
appropriately matching these four
behavior types to situations they face.
LEADERSHIP TODAY
Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is leadership that
inspires organizational success by profoundly
affecting followers' beliefs in what an organization
should be, as well as followers' values like justice
and integrity.
Transformational leadership creates a sense of
duty, encourages new ways of handling problems,
and promotes learning for all organization
members.
Coaching
Coaching is leadership that instructs followers on
how to meet organizational challenges.
A successful coach is characterized by the
following:
Listens closely
Gives emotional support
Shows by example what constitutes appropriate
behavior
Super leadership
Super-leadership is leading by
showing others how to lead.
Entrepreneurial Leadership
Entrepreneurial leadership is based on
the attitude that the leader is self-
employed
Characteristics of the Emerging Leader Versus
Characteristics of the Manager
LEADER MANAGER
SOUL MIND
Visionary Rational
Passionate Consulting
Creative Persistent
Flexible Problem-solving
Inspiring Tough-minded
Innovative Analytical
Courageous Structured
Imaginative Deliberate
Experimental Authoritative
Independent Stabilizing
CURRENT TOPICS IN LEADERSHIP
Substitutes for Leadership
Times when leaders do not lead—or for one reason or
another—cannot lead
Subordinates do not need or even want leadership
because they are strong subordinates possessing
knowledge of the task and organizational constraints
Subordinate leadership theory identifies situations in
which the input of leader behavior is made less
significant by the subordinate.
Women as Leaders
Only three of every one-hundred top jobs in the largest
U.S. companies are held by women, about the same as
a decade ago.
A Labor Department study showed that prejudices
(glass ceiling) keep many women from moving up into
leadership positions.
The glass ceiling means that women can see their way
to the top and there seem to be no barriers to
promotion, but in reality subtle barriers exist and
prevent promotion to top-level leadership jobs.
Ways Women Lead
Women often describe their leadership styles as
transformational—getting subordinates to transform
their individual self-interests into group consensus
This leadership style attributes power to personal
characteristics like charisma, personal contacts and
intrapersonal skills.
