Bridge Program in Science

UNIT II
MODULE 3
This is How We Do It

What this module is all about

When was the last time you had a problem? How did you go about solving it? Do
you always follow the same set of steps in solving a problem?

This module is about a logical set of steps that you can use solving in problems. It is
known as the scientific method. This method can be used not only in science but also in
problems that you encounter in your daily life.

As the title indicates, you will go about this module step by step. You will have a brief
review of the steps in the scientific method and how these apply to particular problems. You
will then be asked to do activities that will apply these steps. Then you will look at situations
in your daily life where you can apply the scientific method.

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What you are expected to learn

After going through this module, you should be able to:

1. Explain what happens at each step of the scientific method.

2. Perform activities that apply the scientific method.
3. Apply the scientific method to problems in daily life.

How to learn from this module

1. You will benefit most from this module if you perform the indicated activities and follow
the prescribed procedures.

2. While doing the activities, try to connect what you learn with things that happen in your
daily life. Remember that science is not limited to the four walls of your classroom.

What do you already know?

There are questions found on page 20. You have to answer these questions before
you start with the lessons. Write your answers on a separate sheet of pad paper and submit
to your teacher when you are through.

What you should learn

Lesson 3.1 Introduction

Are you ready to learn about the scientific method? One very important skill that you
must acquire is observation. This skill may seem simple but if it is not properly done, it can
have very disastrous results. Use your senses to observe things as they happen and record
them as accurately as possible.

Most people confuse observations with

inferences. An observation is simply a
statement of what happened while an inference
is an interpretation of what happened. It is
important that we record only direct

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Figure 3.1 Collision between two cars
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observations and refrain from giving inferences after all the observations have been made or
recorded.

Let us suppose that you pass by an accident involving two cars. Some of the
observations that you can make are:

 Skid marks made by the wheel of one car

 One car has a heavily damaged front end
 The rear end of the other car is damaged
 Long trail of a dark-colored liquid leading to one car.
 Smell of burnt rubber
 Flat tire on the rear end of one car
 Broken windshield on one car
 Both cars are facing each other
 Heavy traffic
 Policeman talking to one of the drivers

Q1. Make some inferences based on the observations listed above.

Our problem is that we do not know what really happened. We did not witness the
actual event but we have observations of the results of the event. Note that the statements
that we have given are based on direct observations of what happened. It is very important
that all the relevant observations are listed as accurately as possible. Are all the listed
observations relevant?

Perhaps you have noticed that the crime scene in a movie is immediately enclosed
and only authorized personnel are allowed to enter or leave the scene. This is done so that
observations and data gathered relate to the incident and not to some other event that
happened after the incident. This way, the inferences made from the observations are valid.

What are some of the inferences that you made? Based on the heavy damage on
both cars, we could infer that they were traveling at high speeds. Are we sure that they were
traveling at high speeds? No. This is just an inference based on the observation that there is
heavy damage on both cars. Common experience tells us that this happens if the cars move
at high speed before collision.

Based on the skid marks made by the wheels of one car, we could also infer that only
this car was moving at high speed and that the other car was stationary. The stationary car
must have been hit from behind since its rear end is damaged while the damage on the other
car is on its front end. Again, this is just an inference based on several observations.

Observations are very important because the inferences made are based on them. If
you make an inaccurate observation or if you miss some observations, your inferences will
be invalid.

There were some listed observations that may not be relevant like the heavy traffic
due to the accident or the smell of burnt rubber. However, we have no way of knowing which
observations are relevant and which are not. It is better to record all the observations and
then discard those that are irrelevant later.

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Do Activity 3.1 for some practice on making observations and inferences.

Did you find Activity 3.1 challenging? Although the activity takes only a few minutes, it
is not very easy to explain what keeps the water up after you let go of the cardboard.

Let us review your observations before we proceed with a follow-up activity. If you
used a soft plastic cup, you should have observed that the sides of the cup were a bit
indented as if something was pressing on the sides of the cup. Did you look closely at the
bottom of the cardboard? A careful observer would have seen that the surface of the
cardboard was slightly bent upward as if something is pushing it upward.

AHA! There must be a force that pushes along the side of cup and upward on the
cardboard. It must be this force that is keeping the water from falling! But what is exerting this
force?

We could make the inference that the surrounding air pushes on the cup. Let us test if
this is really the case.

Do Activity 3.2 as a follow-up on Activity 3.1

This follow-up activity should have allowed you to check if your inferences are correct.
By allowing air to enter the cup, the surrounding air no longer pushes on the cup and is thus
unable to support the water. Our inference seems correct. The force exerted by the
surrounding air supports the water in the cup. We shall refine this concept further when we
discuss pressure in the modules on the atmosphere. Let us now proceed to the main topic of
this module, the scientific method.

Lesson 3.2 The Scientific Method

There are different ways of solving a problem. Why then do we have to stick to only
one method? Are we sure that this method always works?

Even scientists do not always follow the scientific method. The steps that we are
about to discuss need not always be in that order. As students of science it is important to be
inquisitive and to keep an open mind. The scientific method is a guideline for doing
investigations. It will help you think logically and critically. As with most things in science, it is
not absolute. It will have to do for now until someone finds a better method.

Perhaps you have heard of the phrase “jumping to conclusions”. This is something
that we should avoid because in most cases, the hasty conclusions that we make are
incorrect. What then should we do before making any conclusion? The logical set of steps
that we must go through before we are able to make a conclusion comprise the scientific
method. Let us discuss these steps in detail.

Identify the Problem

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To be able to solve any problem, we first have to be very clear about what the
problem is. This is a very important step. When your father takes his car to the mechanic, the
very first thing that the mechanic does is talk to your father to find out exactly what the
problem is. When you go to a doctor for a checkup, the doctor spends several minutes
asking questions to find out what your problem is. The problem must be stated clearly and in
specific terms. You must know how to ask the right questions.

Perform the Activity 3.3 to help develop your skill in asking questions.

What questions did you ask in the different scenarios in Activity 3.3? The right questions can
make a big difference.

Let us consider Scenario 1 and some of the possible questions that you can ask. Of course
you can ask why your electric bill is higher but this would not be specific enough and would
not be a good guide in helping you solve the problem. Instead, you could ask if the bill
reading for the current month is accurate. Is there an increase in the use of certain
appliances in the house? Are there old appliances in your house that could possibly have
ground faults?

These are just some of the questions that you can ask that will lead you to a possible
solution.

Do Exercise 3.2 on pages 17. Return to this page when you are through
with the exercise.

Gather Enough Information

When the problem is clear, what you have to do next is to gather as much information
that will help you solve the problem. You have already had some exercise in gathering
information in Activity 3.1. Accurate and relevant observations are very important in the
scientific method.

Try Activity 3.4 to see how good an observer you are.

How many different observations did you take note of in Activity 3.4? Were your
observations according to what you expected?

You should have seen that the candle flame was extinguished when it was covered
with the glass. Did you also see that some of the water in the saucer went up the glass? Let
us see if you were a good observer. Answer the following questions.

 Was the flame extinguished instantly or slowly?

 Did the water rise inside the glass while the candle was burning or after the flame
was extinguished?

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 Did you observe bubbles inside the glass? Did they form while the candle was
burning or after it was put off?
 Did the bubbles form before the water rose inside the glass or after?

Do you notice all those details? It is not enough that you record what you see. You
should also take note of the sequence of events. Which happened first? What happened
after? How did the events happen? If you failed to observe some of these details, feel free to
repeat the activity. Accurate and detailed observations are crucial to any investigation.

We have a clear understanding of the problem and we have sufficient information.

What do we do next?

Make a Hypothesis

Do you know what a hypothesis is? It is basically a guess or an inference based on

some relevant information. What do you think made water inside the glass rise in Activity
3.4? You are making a hypothesis by answering that question.

The hypothesis will set the direction for further study. It must be stated so that it can
be proved or disproved. In Activity 3.4, we could hypothesize that water rose because of the
absence of air inside the glass. Or it could be that it was due to the heating of air inside the
glass. Or was it due to the escape of air from the glass as indicated by the bubbles.

Q2. Refer to Scenario 3 in Activity 3.3. What hypothesis can you come up with?

In the course of finding the solution to a problem, it may be necessary to form several
hypotheses. Experiments have to be done several times to prove or disprove a hypothesis. It
is usually necessary that the experiments be done independently by different people in order
to minimize human error.

Test the Hypothesis

When was the last time you performed an experiment in class? An experiment is the
most common way of testing a hypothesis. But in some cases, your teacher already knows
what the results of the experiment will be. You are asked to perform the experiments in order
to develop the necessary thinking skills.

In the real world, the results of an experiment are not known beforehand. The
experiment is meant to prove or disprove the hypothesis. In most experiments, there are
usually factors that we want to control in order to study their effect on another factor.

Let us suppose that our hypothesis is that the amount of sunlight increases the rate of
germination of seeds. How do we test this hypothesis? What factors do we control? What
factors do we vary?

We do not know how many factors affect the rate of germination of a seed. The rate
could be affected by the amount of moisture, type of soil, kind of seed, air temperature,
humidity, air pressure and many other factors. All these factors are known as variables. Is
the rate of germination of seeds also a variable? Yes it is! It is known as the dependent

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variable because it depends on another variable, the independent variable. A change in

the independent variable will cause a corresponding change in the dependent variable.

The hypothesis usually states the relationship between dependent and independent
variables. In our example, the independent variable is the amount of sunlight and the
dependent variable is the rate of germination of seeds. We believe that increasing the
amount of sunlight (independent variable) increases the rate of germination (dependent
variable). Is this true? We don’t know yet. We need to perform an experiment.

First, we prepare several

setups, say 4, and make sure that all
the other factors such as temperature
are the same for all setups. We will
vary only the amount of sunlight
because we want to study its effect on
the rate of germination. By keeping all
other variables constant and varying
only the independent variable, we are
sure the changes are due only to the
independent variable. Figure 3.2 Setups for studying the effect of
sunlight on germination rate of seeds
We prepare four pots with the
same type of soil, same type and number of seeds, same amount of water. We expose one
pot to two hours of sunlight per day, the other to four hours per day and the third pot to six
hours of sunlight per day. If sunlight does have an effect on the rate of germination, there
should be some differences in the rate of germination in these three setups.

What do we do with the fourth pot? We put this pot in the shade at all times. This is
our control setup. Notice that this setup does not include our independent variable. It is
never exposed to sunlight. We will use this as the reference and compare all the other setups
with it.

Q3. What is the importance of having a control setup?

Because of the degree of control required, most experiments are done in

laboratories where conditions can be precisely controlled. However, we can also perform
experiments outdoors. After all, the real world is outdoors and not within your classroom.
Just remember to be a keen observer and record all observations accurately. Now it is time
for you to do some real investigation.

Your mother is fond of taking a bath with warm water especially during the cold
months of January and February. She heats water in a large kettle and later on mixes it with
tap water to achieve the desired temperature. But there are times when she has to finish
certain chores before she can take a bath. By the time that she is through, the water that she
has boiled has already gone cold and she has to reheat it. She comes to you for advice.

If she has to wait for about ten minutes before she can take a bath, would it be better
for her to:

 Leave the hot water in the kettle for 10 minutes and then mix it with a fixed
amount of tap water in a pail when she is ready or
 Mix the hot water immediately with tap water and then use it 10 minutes later.

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In which case will the water in the pail be warmer?

Perform Activity 3.5 to help you give the proper advice to your mother.

Now you know what advice to give your mother or to anybody who has the
same problem.

Q4. What hypothesis did we test in Activity 3.5?

Q5. Suppose you want to find out which has a greater effect on cooling rate: the initial
temperature of the liquid or the temperature difference between the liquid and its
surroundings. Formulate a hypothesis and outline the steps that you would undertake
to test it.

Do Exercise 3.3 on pages 18. Return to this page when you are through
with the exercise.

Make a Conclusion
After going through your experiment, making careful observations and analyzing data
your next task is to come up with a conclusion. The conclusion basically provides an answer
to the hypothesis. Is it valid or not? Are the proposed relationships between the dependent
and independent variables correct? If you have enough data, you can make a generalization
about your experiment.

In Activity 3.5 for example, our hypothesis could be that a higher initial temperature
results in a greater change in temperature. If our experiment shows that the cup with a higher
initial temperature has a greater change in temperature, we could come to the conclusion
that a higher initial temperature results in a greater temperature change. We can do this even
if we only considered two cases because there is no reason to believe that the cases
between those that we have considered would behave any differently. But to be more
authoritative, the generalizations that we make should be based on as many cases as
possible.

Verify Your Conclusion

How sure are you that your conclusion is valid? What it if the results were just due to
some error that you unknowingly made or to a fault in the measuring instrument? Such
questions make it necessary to repeat the experiment using exactly the same design, the
same set of procedures and under the same set of conditions. We can change the location of
the experiment, who is doing the experiment, the equipment used, the time that it is

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performed. If we consistently get similar results, then we are assured of the validity of our
conclusion.

You are now familiar with the steps of the scientific method. Remember that the steps
given here are just guidelines and do not always need to be in that order. All these steps are
important. You should not skip or omit steps to speed up your investigation. Consider every
angle, pay attention to the smallest detail in very observation, think logically, record only what
you observe and not what you think should happen. You will find use for these skills in many
of the modules that you will be reading. Are you ready to do some real investigative work?

Were you able to do the investigations? Do not worry if it seems difficult at first.
Hopefully, this will become easier as you gain more experience in doing investigations. Try to
work independently but feel free to seek help when you need it.

Summary of concepts

1. The scientific method is series of steps that serve as a guide in doing investigations.

2. In making observations, record what you see and not what you think should happen.
Inaccurate observations can lead you to invalid conclusions.

3. A hypothesis is s tentative solution to the problem statement. A properly stated

hypothesis includes a statement of the relationship between the dependent and
independent variable.

4. When conducting an experiment, vary only the variable under investigation and keep all
the other variables constant.

5. The control setup should not be affected by the variable under investigation. It is used as
a reference against which all the other setups will be compared.

6. The conclusion provides a resolution to the hypothesis and provides a generalization of

the results to the other cases that were not considered.

7. To validate the conclusion, it is necessary to repeat the experiment using the same
design and following the same procedures.

Activity 3.1
What Holds the Water Up?

Materials

Clear plastic cup

water

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cardboard
basin

Procedure

1. Fill the cup with water up to the brim.

2. Cover the cup with cardboard.

3. Press the board lightly then slowly invert the cup. Hold the bottom
end of the cup only and avoid squeezing the cup. Maintain pressure on the board to prevent
the water from spilling.

4. Holding the cup over the basin, slowly move your hand away from
the cardboard.

a. Does the water spill out of the cup?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

b. List all observations that you think are relevant.

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

c. What do you think is holding the water up? Base your answers on the
observations.
____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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Activity 3.2
What Holds the Water Up (Part 2)?

Materials

Clear plastic cup

water
cardboard
basin

Procedure

1. Make a small hole at the bottom of the cup just big enough so that you can
cover it with your forefinger.

2. Cover the hole with your finger and fill the cup with water.

3. Place the cardboard on top of the cup as before and then slowly invert the cup. Do this over the
basin to catch any water that spills out.

4. Move your hand away from the cardboard.

a. Does the water spill out of the cup?

_______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

5. Lift your finger to uncover the hole.

b. What happens to the water in the cup?

_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

c. Does this show that the surrounding air is preventing the water in the cup from falling
down? Explain.
_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

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Activity 3.3
Asking the Right Questions

Procedure

1. Given here are some scenarios.

2. Give clear and specific questions that will help identify the problem.

Scenario 1:

Your mother always tells you to turn off lights when not in use in order to lower your electric bills.
Your electric bill for the current month shows that your consumption is almost double that of the
previous month.

Scenario 2:

You water your favorite indoor plant every day to make sure that it grows well. One day, you find out
that the plant is starting to wilt even if you keep watering it every day.

Scenario 3:

You buy an air pump for your aquarium at home. The store attendant tells you that you must never
turn it off or your fish will die. After a month of operation, you notice that the air pump has not been
working for several days but your fish are still alive and well.

Use the following as guidelines in formulating your questions.

a. Do your questions lead you to a way of finding out the answer to the questions?

b. Would your method have been affected by the type of question you asked?

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Activity 3.4
Burn, Candle, Burn

Materials

Small candle
Tall glass
Saucer
Water

Procedure

1. Pour some water in the saucer.

2. Light the candle and place it in the middle of the saucer.

Allow about 30 seconds for the flame of the candle to
burn fully.

3. Invert the tall glass and slowly lower it over the burning
candle. Make sure that the glass is immersed in the
water.

4. List all your observations as accurately as possible.

Observations
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

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Activity 3.5
Some Like it Hot

Materials

a cup of hot water (80 to 90 oC) two thermometers

a cup of warm water (40 to 50 oC) graphing paper

Procedure

1. Measure the room temperature.

2. Immerse a thermometer in each cup and take note of the initial reading

Initial temperature of hot water : ______ oC

Initial temperature of warm water : ______ oC

3. Take the temperature of the water every two minutes for about 20 minutes. Record your results
in the table below.

Temperature of both cups every two minutes

Time (min) Temperature (oC) Temperature (oC)
Cup with hot Cup with warm water
water
Initial
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20

4. Graph your data in the graphing paper provided. Plot the time on the x-axis and the temperature
on the y-axis.

a. Which variables did you keep constant in this experiment? Explain.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

b. Does the initial temperature affect the cooling rate?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

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c. Analyze the graph that you made. What generalization can you make regarding the
cooling rate and the intial temperature?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

d. What are other factors that might be affecting the cooling rate? What steps are you going
to make in order to minimize the effect of these factors?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 3.1
More on Observation and Inferences

Some situations are given below. Identify the observations and inferences in each situation.
Underline the observations and mark them with O and the inferences with I.

1. Glory and Ping are mixing some eggshells and vinegar in a clear bottle. Eggshells are
small pieces of white solid while vinegar is colorless liquid. Glory saw bubbles forming
around the eggshells. She said that bubbling is the result of escaping carbon dioxide.
Ping tested the gas by allowing it to bubble into a test tube containing clear limewater.
The limewater turns cloudy. A white gelatinous solid later settles at the bottom of the test
tube. Eggshells are made of a kind of material calcium carbonate. The cloudiness is due
to the formation of calcium acetate.

2. Mar and Pia are studying the changes in a candle. They lighted a white candle and let it
burn for about 10 minutes. The flame is yellow, and black and white smoke are coming
out near the tip of the flame. The black smoke is probably due to the carbon from the
burning candle. The white smoke contains some gases. Some liquid forms at the upper
part of the candle, which flows out and along one side of the candle. Pia touched the
liquid and she shouted. The liquid could be hot. The liquid turns to solid as it cools. The
solidified wax could be the same as the original wax. The wick becomes shorter as the
candle burns. Mar said this could be chemical change taking place.

3. Bong and Dick are taking a short walk around their school grounds. They are looking for
evidences of weathering. They stopped in front of a big tree around which a cemented
walk has been constructed. There are many cracks in the cement. Some roots of the tree
are coming out the cracks. The roots could have caused the cracks in the cement. Maybe
this is an example of physical weathering. They continued walking and stopped near an
area where they see holes on the ground. They looked closer at the soil and saw some
earthworms moving in the soil. A couple of worms were coming out of the soil. The soil
looked different from the soil in other areas without worms. The worms could have
caused the changes in the soil. The change maybe due to physical weathering by the
action of animals.

4. Fred and Jamby are finding out how some machines can help them do work. Fred got a
tin can. The can is hard. It is made up of iron and tin metals. He cannot open the tin can
with his bare hands. He thinks It will require great force, more force than he can exert.
He got a can opener and opened the can. The can opener may have increased his force.
Then Jamby got her bicycle. The bicycle has wheel and axle which are hard and shiny.
They are made up of metals. The bicycle has two tires which are soft yet elastic. Fred
walked while Jamby rode her bicycle. Jamby moved faster than Fred. The bicycle may
have multiplied the distance covered by Jamby.

5. Jess and Bobby were trying to illustrate potential and kinetic energy. Jess got a piece of
rock. It is large and hard. He lifted it about a meter above the ground. Jess thinks that he
was able to lift the rock because of the energy stored in his muscles. The rock has
probably acquired potential energy as a result of this change in position. Jess released
the rock. The rock fell down straight on to the ground. Bobby thinks that the potential
energy is changed to kinetic energy. There is a large indentation on the soil. It is the
kinetic energy of the rock that forms the indentation.

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Exercise 3.2
Asking More Questions

Procedure

1. Given here are some scenarios

2. Give clear and specific questions that will help identify and probably solve the
problem.

Scenario 1

On a hot day after playing basketball, you want to drink very cold orange juice or cold by
adding ice cubes. You could not place the bottle of juice or cola drink in the freezer for a
long time.

Scenario 2

Yeast is a microscopic living thing, which needs sugar to live. It uses sugar and makes a gas
called carbon dioxide. Bakers make use of the gas production in bread making. The gas
makes the dough rise so that the bread becomes light and spongy when it is baked. You
want to give some advice to the baker in the bakery near your house so that the bread that
you buy is light and spongy.

Scenario 3

You and your friends decide to go bathing in a beach one hot summer day. At 12:00 noon,
you could hardly walk on the sand because it was very hot and yet the water was not even
warm. You decide to conduct a short experiment about water and sand in the laboratory the
following day.

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Exercise 3.3
Temperature

Dominic wanted to know how heat affects the dissolving time of sugar cubes. He first
predicted that sugar cubes dissolve faster in hot water than in cold. Below are the results he
obtained from his experiment.

Temperature of water (oC) 30 45 50 65 70 85

Time to dissolve (seconds) 55 46 36 33 31 30

1. Based on the tabulated data,

a. describe the change in temperature;
b. describe the change in dissolving time;

2. Draw a point graph of Dominic’s results using axes shown below:

Time to
dissolve
(sec)

Temperature (oC)

a. describe the relationship between temperature and dissolving time of sugar

cubes.

3. Using the graph,

a. predict about how long the sugar cubes would have taken to dissolve at 80oC.
b. predict what the temperature of the water was when the sugar cubes were
dissolving after 50 seconds.
c. Describe at least two variables that Dominic kept fixed.

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Exercise 3.4
Let’s Investigate

Procedure

1. This is your chance to apply what you have learned about the scientific method. Carefully
consider the cases given here try find the solution using the scientific method.

Case 1

At daytime, clouds tend to provide a cooling effect since they shield us from direct sunlight. Is
this also true during the night? How will you find out?

Case 2

One brand of shampoo claims to give you softer, smoother hair in just a few weeks. Find out
if this claim is true. As a guide, devise a way of measuring the softness and smoothness of
your hair. Tough job?

Case 3

A rice cooker is so much easier to use because you can just leave it unattended while
cooking. Your father however prefers to use the stove because he claims that it is more
economical. Can you prove or disprove your father’s claim?

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What you have learned

1. Your brother wants to study the effect of plants on the growth of fish in an aquarium. He
prepares five setups. He puts varying amounts of the same type of plant in each of the four
aquariums. He places no plants in the fifth aquarium. In each of the five aquariums, he
places two fish of the same type and size. Which is the control setup?

a. the setup with the most amount of plants

b. the setup with no plants
c. the setup with only two fish
d. the setup with no fish

2. Which of the following describes a hypothesis?

a. It is a statement made after analyzing all the available data.

b. It is based on information gathered by using the senses.
c. It is an inference based on the observations.
d. It is an extension of the conclusion.

3. A farmer is conducting an investigation by applying different amounts of fertilizer to the five

different areas of his field that are planted with rice. Which is the independent variable?

a. The area of the rice field

b. The amount of fertilizer
c. The height of the rice plants
d. The quantity of plants in the rice field

4. It is common belief that placing a metal object while cooking will speed up the cooking of meat.
Carlo set up an experiment to find out if this is true. He prepared three kettles with different
amounts of meat and the same amount of water. He placed a spoon in one kettle, two
spoons in the second and no spoon on the third kettle. How can you improve Carlo’s design?

a. Use beef as the meat because it takes a longer time to cook.

b. Use stainless kettle because they conduct heat faster.
c. Place the same amount of meat in all kettles.
d. Use pork, beef and chicken instead of just one type of meat.

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