CVE 471

WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

RESERVOIRS

Assist. Prof. Dr. Bertuğ Akıntuğ

Civil Engineering Program
Middle East Technical University
Northern Cyprus Campus

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 2. RESERVOIRS

Overview
„ Introduction
„ Characteristics of Reservoirs
„ Determination of Reservoir Capacity
„ Mass Curve Analysis
„ Determination of reservoir capacity for a known yield
„ Determination of yield from a known reservoir capacity
„ Sequent Peak Analysis
„ Operation Study
„ Other Approaches in Capacity Determination
„ Reservoir Sedimentation

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 2. RESERVOIRS

Introduction

„ Reservoirs are structures that store water.

„ In general, we observe high flow in winter and low flow in
summer, and very high values in spring months or
snowmelt seasons in Northern Hemisphere.
„ On the other hand, the water demand is high in summer
and low in winter.
„ Therefore, the regulation of the streamflow is required to
meet the demands.
„ This regulation is possible by constructing reservoirs in
the stream.

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 2. RESERVOIRS

Introduction
(continued)
• When the total supply of water (ΣS) is sufficient to meet the total
demand (ΣD) during a specified period of time, the water storage is
required when S<D.
Required Storage
S, D

S
Storage reservoir
S<D D1
S>D

D2 Storage reservoir
S>D or
Diversion weir

t
Variation of Supply and Demand

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 2. RESERVOIRS

Introduction
(continued)

„ There are number of purposes of constructing reservoirs

„ Irrigation,
„ Sediment accumulation,
„ Transportation,
„ Electricity generation,
„ Water supply (municipal and industrial)
„ Flood control, and
„ Recreational.
„ They are also used to supply emergency water like fire
fighting or stabilize pressures in the network.

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 2. RESERVOIRS

Introduction
(continued)

„ Reservoirs can be divided into two main categories

according to their storage capacities:
„ Storage (conservation) reservoirs
„ Distribution (service) reservoirs

„ Formation of a big reservoir behind a dam may have

various environmental aspects.
„ For example:
„ For the construction of Keban Dam in Turkey,
„ ≈30,000 people were dislodged, and
„ 300 km road,
„ 48 km railway, and
„ A large area were expropriated.
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 2. RESERVOIRS

Overview
„ Introduction
„ Characteristics of Reservoirs
„ Determination of Reservoir Capacity
„ Mass Curve Analysis
„ Determination of reservoir capacity for a known yield
„ Determination of yield from a known reservoir capacity
„ Sequent Peak Analysis
„ Operation Study
„ Other Approaches in Capacity Determination
„ Reservoir Sedimentation

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 2. RESERVOIRS

Characteristics of Reservoirs

Potential for a Hydropower Reservoir

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 2. RESERVOIRS

Characteristics of Reservoirs(continued)

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 2. RESERVOIRS

Characteristics of Reservoirs(continued)

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 2. RESERVOIRS

Characteristics of Reservoirs(continued)
„ The capacity of the reservoir is very important since the
main function of the reservoir is the storage of the water.

„ The desired yield, which is the amount of water delivered

from a reservoir to meet downstream requirements, must
be available most of the time.

„ For an ideal reservoir site:

„ Sufficient impervious and sound formation (bed and side)
„ Deep and narrow valley (less evaporation, low cost of
expropriation)

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Characteristics of Reservoirs(continued)
„ After the determination of location of a reservoir, a
special topographic map (1:5000 scaled) of the
reservoir area is obtained with suitable contour intervals
and
„ Elevation - Area Curve, and
„ Elevation – Storage Curve are obtained.

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 2. RESERVOIRS

Characteristics of Reservoirs(continued)

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 2. RESERVOIRS

Characteristics of Reservoirs(continued)

Elevation – Area – Volume Curves for a reservoir

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Characteristics of Reservoirs(continued)

Storage characteristics of a reservoir

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 2. RESERVOIRS

Characteristics of Reservoirs(continued)

Hydropower Reservoir
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 2. RESERVOIRS

Overview
„ Introduction
„ Characteristics of Reservoirs
„ Determination of Reservoir Capacity
„ Mass Curve Analysis
„ Determination of reservoir capacity for a known yield
„ Determination of yield from a known reservoir capacity
„ Sequent Peak Analysis
„ Operation Study
„ Other Approaches in Capacity Determination
„ Reservoir Sedimentation

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 2. RESERVOIRS

Determination of Reservoirs
Capacity
„ The yield of a reservoir is defined as the quantity of
water, which is supplied for a certain duration.
„ The duration may change with the purpose of the
reservoir.
„ A few years Æ Large reservoirs
„ Week
„ Day
„ Hour
„ The yield is a function of
„ the inflow, and
„ the capacity of the reservoir.

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Determination of Reservoirs
Capacity (continued)

„ Safe Yield (Firm Yield): The amount of water that is

supplied for a critical period. It is a guarantied amount
during this critical period.
„ Critical Period: The duration of lowest flow observed in
the records of the stream.
„ Depending upon the length of the flow critical period may
change so the safe yield.
„ Yield is not calculated certainly. The probability must be
used.
„ During the periods of high flow there will be extra
available water, more than the safe yield which is called
secondary yield.
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Determination of Reservoirs
Capacity (continued)

„ Average Yield: The arithmetic average of the safe and

secondary yields over a long period.
„ There is a risk involved for a reservoir.
„ The amount of risk depends on the purpose of the
reservoir.
„ Target Yield: The yield determined based on the
estimated demands for a reservoir.

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 2. RESERVOIRS

Determination of Reservoirs
Capacity (continued)

„ For the determination of reservoir capacity, the critical

period must be determined first.

„ A long period of observed flow is required.

„ When short period of observed flows or no observations

area available stochastic methods are used to generate
synthetic flows that has the same statistical properties
such as mean, variance, correlations etc.

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 2. RESERVOIRS

Determination of Reservoirs
Capacity (continued)

„ There are four different methods to determine the

capacity if a reservoir.
„ Mass Curve (Ripple diagram) Method,
„ Sequent Peak Algorithm,
„ Operation Study, and
„ Other Approaches (Stochastic Methods and Optimization
Analysis etc…).

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 2. RESERVOIRS

Determination of Reservoirs
Capacity (continued)

1. Mass Curve Analysis

(Ripple Diagram ΣS,ΣD
Method, 1883)
„ One of the most widely

used methods.
ΣD
„ Assumptions:
ΣS

VOLUME
„ Demand is constant,
and,
„ the year repeats itself
continuously.

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Determination of Reservoirs
Capacity (continued)

1. Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple Diagram Method, 1883)

If the flow is the daily or
monthly discharge then
the area under the curve
up to a certain time will
be the volume of runoff
for that period.

The slope of the mass

curve at a certain time
gives the discharge at
that time on the
hydrograph

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Determination of Reservoirs
Capacity (continued)
1. Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple Diagram Method, 1883)
Critical Period
Required storage capacity of
the reservoir is the vertical
difference a+b

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Determination of Reservoirs
Capacity (continued)
1. Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple Diagram Method, 1883)
a. Determination of capacity for a known yield
1. The tangents, which are
parallel to the demand line,
are plotted at the high points
(D and E).

2. The maximum departures

from the tangents to the
following low points of the
mass curve ( F and G)
determine the necessary
storage amounts V1 and V2.

3. The largest one of the

The reservoir would be full at points D, D’, E, and E’.
volumes will give the
The reservoir would be empty at points F and G. required capacity of the
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Determination of Reservoirs
Capacity (continued)
1. Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple Diagram Method, 1883)
b. Determination of yield for a known capacity
1. The value V of known
reservoir capacity is placed
vertically in all the low points in
the mass curve and tangents
are drawn to the previous high
points.

2. The slope of these tangents

(D1 and D2) indicate the yields
that can be supplied for those
critical periods with this given
capacity.
The plotted tangents must cut the mass curve when
extended forward, as it is the case here with points 3. The smallest one of the yields
C’ and E’. Otherwise, the reservoir will not refill. can be supplied all the time.
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 2. RESERVOIRS

Determination of Reservoirs
Capacity (continued)
„ The mass curve gives results if ΣD < ΣS during the period
of record.
„ The graphical approach is quite satisfactory if the
reservoir releases are constant during the period of
analysis.
„ When reservoir releases vary, the sequent-peak analysis
is recommended.

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Determination of Reservoirs
Capacity (continued)
2. Sequent Peak Analysis
Sequent Peak Analysis is more suitable when the data of long observation
periods or long generated data are used, or when the demand is not constant.
1. Differences between inflows (S) and
demands (D) are calculated and their
summations obtained.

2. Σ(S-D) values are plotted against

time as shown in the figure.

3. On this plot the first peak value and

next larger peak (sequent peak) are
determined.

4. The storage required between these two 5. This process is repeated for all the
points is the difference between the first peak peaks in the record period as shown in
and the lowest point in this period. the figure also. The maximum of the
storage values is the required capacity.
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Determination of Reservoirs
Capacity (continued)
2. Sequent Peak Analysis

„ If the record period or generated data sequence is very long, the graphical
solution may be time consuming.
„ In that case and analytical solution procedure may be applied for the
analysis and it can be solved easily using a computer.
„ In this way, the required storage Vt at the end of a period t can be expressed
as:
D − St + Vt −1 if positive
Vt =  t
0 otherwise

„ At the beginning of the analysis, initially Vt-1 is set to zero and calculations
continue to find Vt values for up to twice the length of the record period.
„ The maximum of all the calculated values of Vt is the required storage
capacity.
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 2. RESERVOIRS
Determination of Reservoirs
Capacity
(continued)

3. Operation Study
„ The reservoir storage is considered as adequate when the
reservoir can supply all types of demands under possible losses
like seepage and evaporation.
„ In order to increase the operational performance of a reservoir,
the evaporation and seepage must be controlled.
„ The operation of a storage reservoir is also governed by the
inflow.
„ Rule curves indicating temporal storage requirements according
to local conditions and project demands need to be used for
effective operation purposes.

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 2. RESERVOIRS
Determination of Reservoirs
Capacity
(continued)

3. Operation Study
„ Rules:
„ During normal periods of river flow, the reservoir will be

maintained at the normal pool level.

„ If extremely high flows are expected, the normal pool level

can be drawn to such an elevation that the maximum

expected flood flow will be sufficient to restore the active
storage to its maximum level.
„ In the case of higher flows induced by snowmelt, there is

often enough time to empty the full content of the active pool
prior to the arrival of the flood flows.

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 2. RESERVOIRS
Determination of Reservoirs
Capacity
(continued)

3. Operation Study
„ The operation study is based on the solution of the continuity
equation.

dV
= I −Q
dt

where dV: differential storage during time dt

I: instantaneous total inflow
Q: instantaneous total outflow

„ An operation study may be carried out only for a period of

extremely low flows (critical period) or entire period of record.

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 2. RESERVOIRS
Determination of Reservoirs
Capacity
(continued)

3. Operation Study
„ Since the information concerned the time variation of inflow and
outflow is normally limited, then long term (e.g. one month)
averaged quantities of inflow and outflow are considered in
practice:
∆V
= I −Q
∆t

where ∆V: the change in storage during time interval ∆t.

I : the average inflow (runoff, precipitation etc…) during ∆t
Q : the average outflow (evaporation, seepage, controlled
outflows, mandatory releases, uncontrolled spills etc…)
during ∆t.

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 2. RESERVOIRS

Overview
„ Introduction
„ Characteristics of Reservoirs
„ Determination of Reservoir Capacity
„ Mass Curve Analysis
„ Determination of reservoir capacity for a known yield
„ Determination of yield from a known reservoir capacity
„ Sequent Peak Analysis
„ Operation Study
„ Other Approaches in Capacity Determination
„ Reservoir Sedimentation

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Reservoir Sedimentation

„ River carry some suspended sediment and move the larger solids
along the stream bed (bed load).
„ Suspended sediment and bed load are deposited as a delta at the
head of the reservoir.
„ Reservoir sedimentation directly affects the lifetime of a dam.
„ However, mechanics of reservoir sedimentation is highly
complicated.
„ Therefore, in practice, sediment load measurement are carried out
in streams and calibration curve (stream discharge, Q – suspened
load, Qs) is developed.
„ The United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) recommends a
sampling period of at least 5 years.

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Reservoir Sedimentation
(continued)

„ By examining the basin data of 16 different dams in Turkey,

Göğüş and Yalçınkaya (1992) recommended the following best-
fit equation for the annual sediment yield having a correlation
coefficient of 0.89:

Y = 1906.26 Ad0.953

where Y: the mean annual sediment yield (m3).

Ad : the drainage area (km2).

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Reservoir Sedimentation
(continued)

„ Trap Efficiency: The percentage of the inflowing sediment which is

retained in a reservoir.

„ Trap efficiency is a function of the ratio of the reservoir capacity to

total inflow.

„ The trap efficiency of a reservoir decreases with age as the

reservoir capacity is reduced by sediment accumulation.

„ Actually, it is very difficult to predict the sediment accumulation

„ almost zero accumulation during low flows
„ extremely large accumulation during floods

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Reservoir Sedimentation
(continued)

„ In order to increase the lifetime of a reservoir, the rate and nature

of sediment inflow to a reservoir can be controlled to a certain
extend.

„ This may be accomplished by:

„ using upstream sedimentation basins,
„ providing vegetative screens,
„ soil conservation methods, such as terraces, strip cropping, etc.
„ use of upstream by-pass channels,
„ design sluice gates at various levels to discharge suspended sediment,

„ Irrespective of how well the above measures are taken, all

reservoirs are eventually filled with sediment. However, the filling
period may be extended.
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