57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2

Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013

1

Chapter 2: Pressure and Fluid Statics

Pressure

For a static fluid, the only stress is the normal stress since
by definition a fluid subjected to a shear stress must deform
and undergo motion. Normal stresses are referred to as
pressure p.

For the general case, the stress on a fluid element or at a

point is a tensor
ij = stress tensor*
= xx xy xz
yx yy yz
zx zy zz
i = face
j = direction
*Tensor: A mathematical object
analogus to but more general than a
vector, represented by an array of
components that are functions of the
coordinates of a space (Oxford)

For a static fluid,

ij= 0 ij shear stresses = 0

ii= p = xx= yy= zz i = j normal stresses =-p

Also shows that p is isotropic, one value at a point which is

independent of direction, a scalar.
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Definition of Pressure:

F dF
p  lim  N/m2 = Pa (Pascal)
A 0 A dA
F = normal force acting over A Readd upto this pera

As already noted, p is a scalar, which can be easily

demonstrated by considering the equilibrium of forces on a
wedge-shaped fluid element

Geometry
A =  y
x =  cos
z =  sin

Fx = 0
pnA sin - pxA sin = 0 W = mg
pn = p x = Vg
= V
Fz = 0 V = ½ xzy
-pnA cos + pzA cos - W = 0

W  ( cos )( sin )y
2 x z

 pn y cos   pz y cos    2 cos  sin y  0
2
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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
 p n  p z  sin   0
2
pn  pz for   0
i.e., pn = px = py = pz

p is single valued at a point and independent of direction.

A body/surface in contact with a static fluid experiences a

force due to p

F p    pndA
SB

Note: if p = constant, Fp = 0 for a closed body.

Scalar form of Green's Theorem:

 f nds   fd
s 
f = constant f = 0
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Pressure Transmission

Pascal's law: in a closed system, a pressure change

produced at one point in the system is transmitted
throughout the entire system.

Absolute Pressure, Gage Pressure, and Vacuum Read this

pg > 0
pa = atmospheric
pA > pa pressure =
pg < 0 101.325 kPa

pA < pa
pA = 0 = absolute
zero

For pA>pa, pg = pA – pa = gage pressure

For pA<pa, pvac = -pg = pa – pA = vacuum pressure

57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Pressure Variation with Elevation

Basic Differential Equation

For a static fluid, pressure varies only with elevation within

the fluid. This can be shown by consideration of
equilibrium of forces on a fluid element

1st order Taylor series

estimate for pressure
variation over dz

Newton's law (momentum principle) applied to a static

fluid
F = ma = 0 for a static fluid
i.e., Fx = Fy = Fz = 0

Fz = 0
p
pdxdy  ( p  dz)dxdy  gdxdydz  0
z
p
 g   
z
Basic equation for pressure variation with elevation
 57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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 Fy  0  Fx  0
p p
pdxdz  (p  dy)dxdz  0 pdydz  (p  dx )dydz  0
y x
p p
0 0
y x

For a static fluid, the pressure only varies with elevation z

and is constant in horizontal xy planes.

The basic equation for pressure variation with elevation

can be integrated depending on whether  = constant or
= (z), i.e., whether the fluid is incompressible (liquid or
low-speed gas) or compressible (high-speed gas) since
g  constant

Pressure Variation for a Uniform-Density Fluid

p
 g     = constant for liquid
Z z
g p  z
p2  p1    z 2  z1 
p  z Alternate forms:
p1  z1  p2  z2  constant
p  z  constant piezometric pressure
p  z  0   0 gage
i.e., p  z increase linearly with depth
decrease linearly with height
p
 z  constant piezometric head

57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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p  z  cons tan t
p1  z1  p 2  z 2
p 2  p1    z1  z 2 
p1  p atm  0
7.06 p 2   oil z  .8  9810  .9  7.06kPa
p3  p 2   water  z 2  z3 
 7060  9810  2.1
27.7  27.7kPa
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Pressure Variation for Compressible Fluids:

Basic equation for pressure variation with elevation

dp
    ( p, z )    g
dz
Pressure variation equation can be integrated for (p,z)
known. For example, here we solve for the pressure in the
atmosphere assuming (p,T) given from ideal gas law, T(z)
known, and g  g(z).

p = RT R = gas constant = 287 J/kg K dry air

p,T in absolute scale

dp pg

dz RT

dp  g dz
 which can be integrated for T(z) known
p R T(z)
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Pressure Variation in the Troposphere

T = To  (z – zo) linear decrease

To = T(zo) where p = po(zo) known

 = lapse rate = 6.5 K/km

dp g dz z'  To  (z  z o )

p R [To  (z  z o )] dz'  dz

g
ln p  ln[ To  (z  z o )]  constant
R

use reference condition zo = earth surface

=0

g po = 101.3 kPa
ln p o  ln To  constant
R
T = 15C

solve for constant  = 6.5 K/km

p g T  (z  z o )
ln  ln o
p o R To

g R
p  To  (z  z o ) 

p o  To 


i.e., p decreases for increasing z

57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Pressure Variation in the Stratosphere

T = Ts = 55C

dp g dz

p R Ts
g
ln p   z  constant
RTs

use reference condition to find constant

p
 e ( zz0 ) g / RTs
po

p  p o exp[ (z  z o )g / RTs ]

i.e., p decreases exponentially for increasing z.

57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Pressure Measurements Read this

Pressure is an important variable in fluid mechanics and

many instruments have been devised for its measurement.
Many devices are based on hydrostatics such as barometers
and manometers, i.e., determine pressure through
measurement of a column (or columns) of a liquid using
the pressure variation with elevation equation for an
incompressible fluid.

Differential
manometer

More modern devices include Bourdon-Tube Gage

(mechanical device based on deflection of a spring) and
pressure transducers (based on deflection of a flexible
diaphragm/membrane). The deflection can be monitored
by a strain gage such that voltage output is  p across
diaphragm, which enables electronic data acquisition with
computers.

Bourdon-Tube
Gage

In this course we will use both manometers and pressure

transducers in EFD labs 2 and 3.
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Manometry

1. Barometer

pv + Hgh = patm Hg = 13.6 kN/m3

patm = Hgh pv  0 i.e., vapor pressure Hg

nearly zero at normal T
h  76 cm
 patm  101 kPa (or 14.6 psia)

Note: patm is relative to absolute zero, i.e., absolute

pressure. patm = patm(location, weather)

Consider why water barometer is impractical

 Hg h Hg   H2O h H2O H2O = 9.80 kN/m3

 Hg
hH O  hHg  S Hg hHg  13.6  77 1047.2 cm  34 ft.
2
H O2
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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2. Piezometer patm

patm + h = ppipe = p absolute

p = h gage

Simple but impractical for large p and vacuum pressures

(i.e., pabs < patm). Also for small p and small d, due to large
surface tension effects, which could be corrected using
h  4 d , but accuracy may be problem if p/  h.

3. U-tube or differential manometer



patm

p1 + mh  l = p4 p1 = patm
p4 = mh  l gage
= w[Smh  S l]
for gases S << Sm and can be neglected, i.e., can neglect p
in gas compared to p in liquid in determining p4 = ppipe.
 57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Example:
Air at 20 C is in pipe with a water manometer. For given
conditions compute gage pressure in pipe.
air
l = 140 cm
h = 70 cm

p4 = ?
gage (i.e., p1 = 0)
Pressure same at 2&3 since
same elevation & Pascal’s
p1 + h = p3 step-by-step method law: in closed system
p3 - airl = p4 pressure change produce at
h one part transmitted
throughout entire system
p1 + h - airl = p4 complete circuit method
h - airl = p4 gage

water(20C) = 9790 N/m3  p3 = h = 6853 Pa [N/m2]

air = g
pabs
p p  p atm  6853  101300
  3   1.286 kg / m 3
RT R C  273 287(20  273)
K
air = 1.286  9.81m/s = 12.62 N/m3
2

note air << water

p4 = p3 - airl = 6853 – 12.62  1.4 = 6835 Pa
17.668
if neglect effect of air column p4 = 6853 Pa
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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A differential manometer determines the difference in
pressures at two points ①and ② when the actual pressure
at any point in the system cannot be determined.

p   mh  ( h)  p
1 f 1 f 2 2
p  p   (  )  (m  )h
1 2 f 2 1 f

 p1  p   
   1    2   2    m  1h
 f   f   f 

difference in piezometric head

if fluid is a gas f << m : p1 – p2 = mh

if fluid is liquid & pipe horizontal 1

= 2
:
p1 – p2 = (m - f) h
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces

For a static fluid, the shear stress is zero and the only stress
is the normal stress, i.e., pressure p. Recall that p is a
scalar, which when in contact with a solid surface exerts a
normal force towards the surface.

Fp    pndA
A

For a plane surface n = constant such that we can

separately consider the magnitude and line of action of Fp.

F p  F   pdA
A

Line of action is towards and normal to A through the

center of pressure (xcp, ycp).
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Unless otherwise stated, throughout the chapter assume patm
acts at liquid surface. Also, we will use gage pressure so
that p = 0 at the liquid surface.

Horizontal Surfaces

horizontal surface with area A

p = constant

F   pdA  pA

Line of action is through centroid of A,

i.e., (xcp, ycp) = x, y 
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Inclined Surfaces
g z

(x,y) = centroid of A x
(xcp,ycp) = center of pressure

y
dp
 
dz
p  z
p – p0 = -(z – z0) where p0 = 0 & z0 = 0
p = -z and ysin = -z
p = ysin

dF = pdA = y sin  dA
 and sin  are constants
p
F   pdA   sin   ydA y
1
A A  ydA
A
yA
1st moment of area
F   sin  y A
p = pressure at centroid of A
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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F  pA

Magnitude of resultant hydrostatic force on plane surface is

product of pressure at centroid of area and area of surface.

Center of Pressure

Center of pressure is in general below centroid since

pressure increases with depth. Center of pressure is
determined by equating the moments of the resultant and
distributed forces about any arbitrary axis.

Determine ycp by taking moments about horizontal axis 0-0

ycpF =  y dF
A
 y pdA
A
 y( y sin )dA
A
=  sin   y 2 dA
A

Io = 2nd moment of area about 0-0

= moment of inertia
2
transfer equation: Io  y A  I

I= moment of inertia with respect to horizontal

centroidal axis
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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2
y cp F   sin  ( y A  I)

2
y cp (pA )   sin  ( y A  I)

2
y cp  sin  yA   sin  ( y A  I)

2
y cp yA  y A  I
I
ycp  y 
yA
ycp is below centroid by I / yA

ycp  y for large y

For po  0, y must be measured from an equivalent free

surface located po/ above y .
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Determine xcp by taking moment about y axis

xcpF =  xdF
A
 xpdA
A

x cp (  y sin A)   x ( y sin )dA

A

x cp yA   xydA
A

Ixy = product of inertia

= I xy  x yA transfer equation

x cp yA  I xy  x yA

I xy
x cp  x
yA

For plane surfaces with symmetry about an axis normal to

0-0, I xy  0 and xcp = x .
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces

Free surface

p = h

F    pndA h = distance below

A
free surface

Horizontal Components (x and y components)

Fx  F  î    pn  îdA
A
dAx = projection of ndA onto
   pdA x vertical plane to x-direction
Ax

Fy  F  ĵ    pdA y dA y  n  ĵdA
Ay

= projection ndA
onto vertical plane to
y-direction

Therefore, the horizontal components can be determined by

some methods developed for submerged plane surfaces.
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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The horizontal component of force acting on a curved
surface is equal to the force acting on a vertical projection
of that surface including both magnitude and line of action.
Vertical Components

Fz  F  k̂    pn  k̂dA
A
=   pdA z p = h
Az
h=distance
below free
surface

=   hdA z  V
Az
= weight of
fluid above
surface A

The vertical component of force acting on a curved surface

is equal to the net weight of the column of fluid above the
curved surface with line of action through the centroid of
that fluid volume.
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Example: Drum Gate

Pressure Diagram
p = h = R(1-cos)
n   sin  î  cos  k̂
dA = Rd : Area p acts over (Note: Rd = arc length)

F    R (1  cos )( sin  î  cos  k̂ )Rd
0
p n dA

F  î  Fx     R  (1  cos ) sin d
2

0

2 1
=   R  cos   cos 2  2R 2
 4 0
= (R)(2R )  same force as that on projection of
p A area onto vertical plane

Fz     R  (1  cos ) cos d
2

0

  sin 2
=    R 2 sin   
 2 4 0
2   R 2 
= R      V

2  2 
 net weight of water above surface
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Another approach:

 1 
F1     R 2  R 2 
 4 
 
  R 2 1  
 4

R 2
F2     F1
2

F  F2  F1
 R 2

2
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Buoyancy

Archimedes Principle

FB = Fv2 – Fv1

= fluid weight above Surface 2 (ABC)

– fluid weight above Surface 1 (ADC)

= fluid weight equivalent to body volume V

FB = gV V = submerged volume

Line of action is through centroid of V = center of

buoyancy

Net Horizontal forces are zero since

FBAD = FBCD
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Hydrometry

A hydrometer uses the buoyancy principle to determine

specific weights of liquids.

Stem

Bulb

FB = wV o
W = mg = fV = SwV = Sw(Vo  V) = Sw(Vo  ah)
f V
a = cross section area stem
FB = W at equilibrium: h = stem height above waterline
wV o = Sw(Vo  ah)
Vo/S = Vo  ah
ah = Vo – Vo/S

 1
Vo
h =  1   =h(S); Calibrate scale using fluids of
 S
a
known S
Vo
S= = S(h); Convert scale to directly read S
V0  ah
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Example (apparent weight)

King Hiero ordered a new crown to be made from pure

gold. When he received the crown he suspected that other
metals had been used in its construction. Archimedes
discovered that the crown required a force of 4.7# to
suspend it when immersed in water, and that it displaced
18.9 in3 of water. He concluded that the crown was not
pure gold. Do you agree?

Fvert = 0 = Wa + Fb – W = 0  Wa = W – Fb = (c - w)V

W=cV, Fb = wV
W W  wV
or c = a   w  a
V V

4.7  62.4 18.9 / 1728

c   492.1   c g
18.9 / 1728

 c = 15.3 slugs/ft3

 steel and since gold is heavier than steel the crown

can not be pure gold
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies

Here we’ll consider transverse stability. In actual

applications both transverse and longitudinal stability are
important.

Immersed Bodies

Stable Neutral Unstable

Static equilibrium requires:  Fv  0 and  M  0

M = 0 requires that the centers of gravity and buoyancy

coincide, i.e., C = G and body is neutrally stable

If C is above G, then the body is stable (righting moment

when heeled)

If G is above C, then the body is unstable (heeling moment

when heeled)
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Floating Bodies

For a floating body the situation is slightly more

complicated since the center of buoyancy will generally
shift when the body is rotated depending upon the shape of
the body and the position in which it is floating.

Positive GM Negative GM

The center of buoyancy (centroid of the displaced volume)

shifts laterally to the right for the case shown because part
of the original buoyant volume AOB is transferred to a new
buoyant volume EOD.

The point of intersection of the lines of action of the

buoyant force before and after heel is called the metacenter
M and the distance GM is called the metacentric height. If
GM is positive, that is, if M is above G, then the ship is
stable; however, if GM is negative, the ship is unstable.
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2013
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Floating Bodies

 = small heel angle

x  CC = lateral displacement
of C
C = center of buoyancy
i.e., centroid of displaced
volume V

Solve for GM: find x using

(1) basic definition for centroid of V; and
(2) trigonometry
Fig. 3.17

(1) Basic definition of centroid of volume V

xV   xd V   x i Vi moment about centerplane

xV = moment V before heel – moment of VAOB

+ moment of VEOD
= 0 due to symmetry of
original V about y axis
i.e., ship centerplane

xV    (x)dV   xdV tan  = y/x

AOB EOD
dV = ydA = x tan  dA
xV   x2 tan dA   x 2 tan dA
AOB EOD
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
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xV  tan   x 2 dA
ship waterplane area

moment of inertia of ship waterplane

about z axis O-O; i.e., IOO

IOO = moment of inertia of waterplane

area about centerplane axis

(2) Trigonometry
xV  tan I OO
tan I OO
CC  x   CM tan 
V

CM = IOO / V

GM = CM – CG

I OO
GM =  CG
V

GM > 0 Stable

GM < 0 Unstable
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Fluids in Rigid-Body Motion

For fluids in motion, the pressure variation is no longer

hydrostatic and is determined from application of Newton’s
2nd Law to a fluid element.

ij = viscous stresses net surface force in X

direction
p = pressure
Ma = inertia force  p   yx  zx 
X net     xx   V
W = weight (body force)  x x y z 

Newton’s 2nd Law pressure viscous

Ma = F = FB + FS

per unit volume ( V) a = fb + fs

The acceleration of fluid particle

DV  V
a=   V  V
Dt t
fb = body force =  gk̂
fs = surface force = fp + fv
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fp = surface force due to p = p
fv = surface force due to viscous stresses ij
Neglected in this chapter and
a  f b  f p  f v included later in Chapter 6
when deriving complete
Navier-Stokes equations

 a    gkˆ  p

inertia force = body force due + surface force due to

to gravity pressure gradients

Where for general fluid motion, i.e. relative motion

between fluid particles:
DV V
a   V V
Dt t convective
substantial derivative
local acceleration
acceleration

Du p
x:  
Dt x
 u u u u  p
  u  v  w   
 t x y z  x

Dv p
y:  
Dt y
 v v v v  p
  u  v  w   
 t x y z  y
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Dw p 
   p  z 
Note: for V = 0
z:    g 
Dt z z p  gk̂
 w w w w   p p
  u v  w     p  z   0
 t x y z  z x y
p
 g   
But in this chapter rigid body motion, i.e., no z
relative motion between fluid particles

a = (p + z) Euler’s equation for inviscid flow

V = 0 Continuity equation for

incompressible flow (See Chapter 6)

4 equations in four unknowns V and p

For rigid body translation: a  axiˆ  az kˆ

For rigid body rotating: a  r eˆr
2

If a  0 , the motion equation reduces to hydrostatic

equation:
p p
 0
x y
p
 
z
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Examples of Pressure Variation From Acceleration

Uniform Linear Acceleration:

a  gk̂  p

p   a  gk̂  g  a  g  gk̂

p  a x î  g  a z k̂  a  a x î  a z k̂
p p
 a x  g  a z 
x z

p
   ax
x

1. ax  0 p increase in +x

2. ax  0 p decrease in +x

p
    g  az 
z

1. az  0 p decrease in +z

2. az  0 and az  g p decrease in +z but slower than g

3. az  0 and az  g p increase in +z
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ŝ = unit vector in direction of p
=p /p

 a x î  g  a z k̂ 
a 
=
 g  a z 2
2 1/ 2
x

n̂ = unit vector in direction of p = constant

= ŝ  ĵ ijkijk
 to p
 a x k̂  (g  a z )î by definition lines
=
a 
1/ 2 of constant p are
2
x  (g  a z ) 2 normal to p

 = tan-1 ax / (g + az) = angle between n̂ and x

dp
ds

 p  ŝ   a 2x  g  a z 2
1/ 2
> g 
G
p = Gs + constant  pgage = Gs
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Rigid Body Rotation:

Consider a cylindrical tank of liquid rotating at a constant

rate   k̂

a      ro 
centripetal acceleration

=  r 2 ê r
V2
= ê r
r
 1 
p  (g  a )   ê r  ê   ê z
r r  z
=  gk̂  r 2 ê r grad in cylindrical
coordinates

p p p
i.e.,  r 2  g 0
r z 
C (r) pressure distribution is hydrostatic in z direction

and p = r 2  2  f (z)  c
2 pz = -g
p = -gz + C(r) + c

 p V2
p = r 2  2  gz + constant z  constant
2  2g
V = r
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The constant is determined by specifying the pressure at
one point; say, p = po at (r, z) = (0, 0)

1 2 2
p = po  gz + r
2
Note: pressure is linear in z and parabolic in r

Curves of constant pressure are given by

p0  p r 2  2
z=   a  br 2
g 2g

which are paraboloids of revolution, concave upward, with

their minimum point on the axis of rotation

Free surface is found by requiring volume of liquid to be

constant (before and after rotation)

The unit vector in the direction of p is

 gk̂  r 2 ê r
ŝ 
 
1/ 2
g 2  r 2 2 
 

dz g
tan    2 slope of ŝ
dr r

 2z 
i.e., r = C1exp   
 equation of p surfaces
 g 
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2
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