University Of Technology

Petroleum Technology
Department

Drilling fluid report

Chemical additives
Third stage/Evening study

Prepared by: Falah Salah Hashim

Supervised by: [Link]. Dena Mahmood

Date: 25/6/2020
Introduction 1

Drilling mud is one of the most important elements of

any drilling operation. The mud has a number of
functions which must all be optimized to ensure safety
and minimum hole problems. Failure of the mud to meet
its design functions can prove extremely costly in terms
of materials and time, and can also jeopardize the
successful completion of the well and may even result in
major problems such as stuck pipe, kicks or blowouts.
There are basically two types of drilling mud: water-
based and oil-based, depending on whether the
continuous phase is water or oil. Then there are a
multitude of additives which are added to either change
the mud density or change its chemical properties.

Mud is basically a fluid (water or oil) circulated to bring

cuttings out of the wellbore. Two important qualities of
the fluid are needed for mud to achieve all its tasks:
Viscosity. Water and oil has a viscosity of around 1 cP
(centi Poise), which is far too little to transport the
cuttings out. A component is needed to increase the
viscosity. The main viscosifyers are clay and polymer,
presented in Chapter 3. Density: Water and oil have a
density of around 1 kg / l, which in most cases is too
little to counter high pore pressure. It may in fact
become necessary to increase it to twice the pressure of a
water column. The main density giver is Barite (Baso), a
mineral often found as evaporates (with a specific
density of 4.2 kg / t), or, soluble salts (brines).
1.1 Circulation system of drilling fluid

Fig (1.1) circulation system

2 Chemical additives
There are many drilling fluid additives which are used to
develop the key properties of the mud. The variety of
fluid additives reflect the complexity of mud systems
currently in use. The complexity is also increasing daily
as more difficult and challenging drilling conditions are
encountered.
We shall limit ourselves to the most common types of
additives used in water-based and oil based muds. These
are:

1. Weighting Materials
2. Viscosities
3. Filtration Control Materials
4. Rheology Control Materials
5. Alkalinity and pH Control Materials
6. Lost Circulation Control Materials
7. Lubricating Materials
8. Shale Stabilizing Materials
9. Hydraulic friction reducer
2.1 Weighting Materials
There are two basic ways of increasing the density of
water or oil; by adding weight material or salt. Calcium
carbonate: Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is widely applied
as weighting agents in non - damaging drilling fluids. Its
main advantage comes from its ability to react and
dissolve in hydrochloric acid. Hence any filter cake
formed in productive zones can be easily removed and
enhancing production It has a specific gravity of 2.60–
2.80 which limits the maximum density of the mud to
about 12.0 ppg Calcium carbonate is readily available as
ground limestone, marble or oyster shells .

Table 2.1 gives a list of the most common used weight

material

Table (2.1)

*Take Barite for example

Barite (or barytes) is barium sulphate, BaSO4 and it is
the most commonly used weighting material in the
drilling industry. Barium sulphate has a specific gravity
in the range of 4.20 - 4.60. The specific gravity of Most
commercial barite contain impurities including quartz,
chert, calcite, anhydrite, and various silicates which
slower its specific gravity. It is normally supplied to a
specification where the specific gravity is about 4.2.
Barite is preferred to other weighting materials because
of its low cost and high purity. Barite is normally used
when mud weights in excess of 10 ppg are required.
Barite can be used to achieve densities up to 22.0 ppg in
both water- based and oil -based muds. However, at very
high muds weights (22.0 ppg), the rheological properties
of the fluid become extremely difficult to control due to
the increased solids content.

2.2 Viscosities

The ability of drilling mud to suspend drill cuttings and

weighting materials depends entirely on its viscosity.
Without viscosity, all the weighting material and drill
cuttings would settle to the bottom of the hole as soon as
circulation is stopped. One can think of viscosity as a
Structure built within the water or oil phase which
suspends solid material. In practice, there are many
solids which can be used to increase the viscosity of
water or oil. The effects of increased viscosity can be felt
by the increased resistance to fluid flow; in drilling this
would manifest itself by increased pressure losses in the
circulating system.

Table 2.2 Materials used as viscosities

Table (2.2)
*Take Bentonite for example
Bentonite This is the most widely used additive in the oil
industry. The name, bentonite, is a commercial name
used to market a clay product found in the Ford Benton
shale in Rock Creek, Wyoming, USA.
Bentonite is defined as consisting of fine-grained clays
that contain not less than 85% Montmorillonite which
belongs to the class of clay minerals known as smectites.
Bentonite is classified as sodium bentonite or calcium
bentonite, depending on the dominant exchangeable
cation. In fresh water, sodium bentonite is more reactive
than calcium bentonite and hence, in terms of
performance, bentonite is classed as "high yield"
(Sodium Bentonite) or "low yield" (Calcium Bentonite).

Fig (2.1)flocculants and deflocculated material

*Atomic structure of smectite clays

Fig(2.2) Atomic structure of smectite clays
2.3 FILTRATION CONTROL MATERIALS

Filtration control materials are compounds which reduce

the amount of fluid that will be lost from the drilling
fluid into a subsurface formation caused by the
differential pressure between the hydrostatic pressure of
the fluid and the formation pressure. Bentonite,
polymers, starches and thinners or deflocculants all
function as filtration control agents. Bentonite imparts
viscosity and suspension as well as filtration control. The
flat, "plate like" structure of bentonite packs tightly
together under pressure and forms a firm compressible
filter cake, preventing fluid from entering the formation
Polymers such as Polyanionic cellulose (PAC) and
Sodium Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) reduce filtrate
mainly when the hydrated polymer chains absorb onto
the clay solids and plug the pore spaces of the filter cake
preventing fluid seeping through the filter cake and
formation. Filtration is also reduced as the polymer
viscosifies the mud thereby creating a viscosified
structure to the filtrate making it difficult for the filtrate
to seep through. Starches function in a similar way to
polymers. The free water is absorbed by the sponge like
material which aids in the reduction of fluid loss.
Starches form very compressible particles that plug the
small openings in the filter cake. Thinners and
deflocculants function as filtrate reducers by separating
the clay flock’s or groups enabling them to pack tightly
to form a thin, flat filter cake.
 Fig (2.3) filtration rate

Starch: Cannot be used in muds exposed to high

temperatures above 200°F because of thermal
degradation. Also it is subject to bacterial action.
Sodium carboxymethyicellulose (CMC): can be used at
temperatures up to approximately 300 °F but is less
effective at salt concentrations above 50,000ppm.

Sodium polyacryiate: even more temperaturethan CMC

but is extremelv sensitive to calcium.

2.4 RHEOLOGY CONTROL MATERIALS

When efficient control of viscosity and gel development
cannot be achieved by control of viscosifier
concentration, materials called "thinners", "dispersants",
and/or "deflocculants" are added. These materials cause a
change in the physical and chemical interactions between
solids and/or dissolved salts such that the viscous and
structure forming properties of the drilling fluid are
reduced.
Thinners are also used to reduce filtration and cake
thickness, to counteract the effects of salts, to minimize
the effect of water on the formations drilled, to emulsify
oil in water, and to stabilize mud properties at elevated
temperatures. Materials commonly used as thinners in
clay- based drilling fluids are classified as: (1) plant
tannins, (2) lignitic materials, (3) lignosulfonates, and (4)
low molecular weight, synthetic, water soluble polymers.

2.5 ALKALINITY AND PH CONTROL

MATERIALS
The pH affects several mud properties including:

• detection and treatment of contaminants such as cement

and soluble carbonates
• solubility of many thinners and divalent metal ions such
as calcium and magnesium.

Alkalinity and pH control additives include: NaOH,

KOH, Ca(OH)2, NaHCO3 and Mg(OH)2. These are
compounds used to attain a specific pH and to maintain
optimum pH and alkalinity in water base fluids.

2.6 LOST CIRCULATION CONTROL

MATERIALS

Lost circulation material is added to a mud to control loss

of mud into highly permeable sandstones, natural
fractures, cavernous formations, and induced fractures.
Before a mud filter cake can be deposited, lost
circulation additives must bridge across the large
openings and provide a base upon which the mud cake
can be built.
Note that the largest fracture or opening that may be
sealed is 0.25 in. Larger openings must be sealed using
special techniques.

PREVENTION OF LOST CIRCULATION

The following is a list of measures which must be
considered to prevent lost circulation:

• Volume of drillcuttings in the annulus

• Controlling viscosity and gel strength
• Controlling surge pressure

2.7 LUBRICATING MATERIALS

Lubricating materials are used mainly to reduce friction

between the wellbore and the drill string. This will in
turn reduce torque and drag which is essential in highly
deviated and horizontal wells. Lubricating materials
include: oil (diesel, mineral, animal, or vegetable oils),
surfactants, graphite, asphalt, gilsonite, polymer and
glass beads.

2.8 SHALE STABILIZING MATERIALS

There are many shale problems which may be
encountered while drilling sensitive highly hydra table
shale sections.
Essentially, shale stabilization is achieved by the
prevention of water contacting the open shale section.
This can occur when the additive encapsulates the shale
Or when a specific ion such as potassium actually enters
the exposed shale section and neutralizes the charge on
it.
Shale stabilizers include: high molecular weight
polymers, hydrocarbons, potassium and calcium salts
(e.g. KCl) and glycols. Field experience indicates that
complete shale stabilization cannot be obtained from
polymers only and that soluble salts must also be present
in the aqueous phase to stabilize hydratable shale.

2.9 Hydraulic friction reducer

Some special polymer suspensions provide much lower

friction than the base fluid's rheology predicts. This is
explained by a layer of base fluid being formed along the
pipe wall during flowing. When small molecules like
polymers are suspended in liquids, they will perform a
stochastic movement referred to as Brownian movement.
The suspended particles have 6 degrees of freedom, and
will normally diffuse equally in all directions. However,
close to the wall one freedom of movement is removed,
only diffusion away from or along the wall is possible.
An additional effect is caused by the shear stress field.
The shear stress in the fluid reaches a maximum at the
wall, leading to stretching effects of the polymers. The
resulting viscosity near the wall will approach the base
fluid's viscosity under certain conditions, Figure 3-14
illustrates the phenomenon, while Table 3.5 summarizes
the features and friction effects of these special polymer
solution.
3. Summary of additives

In addition to viscosifyers and to rheology control

agents, there are several more groups of additive. We
refer to the classification of additives published by World
Oil once a year as presented below. They also publish
the name and characteristics of more than 3000 additives.

Alkalinity, pH control: Lime, caustic soda and

bicarbonate of soda, control the degree of acidity of a
fluid.

Bactericides: Para formaldehyde, caustic soda, lime and

starch preservatives are commonly used to reduce
bacteria count.

Calcium removers: Caustic soda, soda ash, bicarbonate

of soda and certain polyphosphates make up the majority
of chemicals designed to prevent and overcome the
contaminating effects of anhydrite, gypsum and calcium
sulphates.

Corrosion inhibitors: Hydrated lime and amine salts are

often added to check corrosion.

Defoamers: Products designed to reduce foaming action,

particularly in brackish and saturated saltwater mud.

Emulsifiers: Surface active agents create a

heterogeneous mixture of two liquids.
 Filtrate reducers: Filtrate, or fluid loss reducers - such as
Bentonite clays, CMC (sodium carboxyl methyl
cellulose) and pre gelatinized starch - reduces the
tendency of theliquid phase of the drilling fluid to pass
into the formation.
Flocculants: Salt, hydrated lime, gypsum and sodium
tetra phosphates are used to cause colloidal particles in
suspension to group into bunches, or "flocks”, causing
solids to settle out.

Foaming agents: surfactant (foamers) permit air or gas

drilling through water bearing formation.

References

1- Drilling Fluid Engineering 6th edition © 2015 Pål

Skalle & [Link] ISBN 978- 87-403-1139-6
MPC BE 86

2- Rabia H. (2000) “Drilling Optimisation” Report on

North Drilling Practices to various
Companies

3- Rabia H. (1997) “Risk assessment in cost estimation”

various internal reports for BG
International

4- Schreuder J and Sharpe P“(1999) “Drilling the limit- a

key to reduce well costs”
SPE 57258, SPE Asia Pacific Improved Oil Recovery
Conference, Kuala Lumpur, 25-26th
October
5- Rabia H. (2001) “Drilling cost estimation” Entrac
Seminars

6-Drilling fluid engineering manual, Magcobar Division

of Dresser Industries Inc. , Houston (1982).

7- Drilling service companies:

Geosevices - [Link]
Halliburton [Link]
M - I Swaco [Link] - Drilling
Fluid Manual
Schlumberger - http: //[Link]/