UNIT II ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

“Man's brain may be compared to an electric battery...a group of electric batteries will
provide more energy than a single battery. “ __Napoleon Hill .
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Batteries are the storehouses of electrical energy. They provide well contained
energy conversion devices which greatly contributed to the needs of mankind. Zero
emission vehicles of the future will be battery powered only. Many non-polluting energy
conversion devices such as photovoltaic systems require the concomitant use of
rechargeable batteries for energy stoAArage.
In 1799, Alessandro Volta developed the first electrical battery. This battery,
known as the Voltaic Cell, consisted of two plates of different metals immersed in a
chemical solution. Faraday was the first to use the word “electrode” as a general term for
a pole of a battery, ‘anode’ = negative electrode and ‘cathode’ = positive electrode of a
battery.
2.1.1 BASIC COMPONENTS OF A BATTERY
Anode
Anode is the electrode where oxidation takes place. Here electrons are released to
the external circuit. It is marked negative as it is relatively more negative when compared
to the other electrode. During recharging, this acts as cathode. Anode material should
undergo oxidation easily. Lithium, zinc, cadmium, lead, etc. are widely used as anode.
Cathode
Cathode accepts the electrons produced at anode and the active pieces gets
reduced. It is the positive terminal of the cell. During recharging, this acts as the anode.
Cathode material should be stable and must facilitate reduction reaction. Graphite, lead,
nickel etc. are widely used as cathode materials.
Electrolyte
Electrolyte is an ionic conductor that provides connectivity between anode and
cathode of the battery. The electrolytes used are acids, bases or salts having high ionic
conductivity. Sometimes, solids are also used as electrolytes. It allows electronic
movement between the electrodes during charging and discharging.
Separator
Direct contact of anode and cathode produces internal short circuit. These are
insulating membrane that prevents or isolates anode and cathode electrically to prevent
short circuit. Rubber, cellulose, vinyl polymers etc are widely used as seperators.
A battery is an electrochemical cell or many electrochemical cells connected in
series, to be used as a source of direct electric current at a constant voltage”. A battery is a
device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy through various chemical
reactions.
A cell consists of an anode, cathode and an electrolyte. A battery consists of
number of anodes, cathodes and electrolytes or a combination of two or more cells.
 Fig 5.1 Electro chemical cell
Requirements of a battery
 It should have more storage capacity.
 It should be light and compact.
 It should provide power for longer time period.
 It should be capable of recharged.
 It should give constant voltage
 It should be resistance to self-discharge.
 It should be cheaper.
2.1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF BATTERY
1. Voltage
2. Current
3. Capacity
4. Energy Efficiency
5. Power Density
6. Discharge& Discharge Rate
6. Cycle Life
7. Self Life
1. Voltage (Cell Potential)
Voltage of a battery is an electromotive force or difference of potential between any
two electrodes and it is denoted by (VC -VA).
The theoretical standard cell voltage can be determined using E⁰ values:
E⁰cell = E⁰ cathode – E⁰ anode
The theoretical cell voltage is modified by the Nernst equation,
Ecell = E⁰cell + (2.303RT)/nF log[P/R]
(where, P=product, R=reactant)
If the difference in the standard electrode potential is more, higher is the emf of the
cell.
2. Current
Current is a measure of how many electrons are flowing through a conductor.
Current is usually measured in amperes (A) and is the amount of charge flowing per
second.
 Current(I) = q/t, with units of A=Cs-1
Current flow over time is defined as ampere-hours (amp-hours or Ah), a product of
the average current and the amount of time it flowed.
3. Capacity
The energy stored in a battery, is called the battery capacity. It is a measure of the
charge stored by a battery, determined by the amount of electrical energy the battery can
deliver over certain period and is measured in Ampere-hour (Ah), capable of being
provided by a battery during discharge.
Its value depends upon the size of the battery and is given by Faraday’s relation,
wnF
C
M
Where, W = mass of active material and M = molar mass of the active material
It is the number of moles of the electro active material associated with the
complete discharge of the cell.
4. Energy Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of useful energy output to the total energy input.
Energy released during discharge
% Energy efficiency  100
Energy required during discharge
Energy efficiency is using less energy to provide the same service. There are other
definitions is a good operational one.

5. Power Density or Specific Power

Storage density of electricity: It is the amount of electricity in Ampere per unit mass,
which the storer can hold. In other words, it is the capacity per unit mass of the battery.
Energy density: It is the amount of energy stored in a given system or region of space per
unit volume.
Power density (W/Kg or W/lit) is the power of the battery per unit weight that represents
the speed at which the energy can be delivered to the load.
Power density = Energy density / Time
In energy transformers including batteries, fuel cells, motors etc., and also power
supply units or similar, power density refers to a volume. It is then also called volume
power density, which is expressed as W/m3.
6. Discharge
Discharge is the conversion of chemical energy stored within a cell to electrical
energy and subsequent withdrawal of this electrical energy into a load.
Discharge rate: An expression of the speed which a battery is being discharged, at a specific
point in time.
7. Capacity Retention / Stability / Cycle Life
Capacity retention is derived from the number of cycles that the cell undergoes
charge-discharge processes. Although factors like electrolyte stability, temperature, etc,
influence the capacity of degradation, phase stability of the electrode is the prime
component in determining the cycle life of a cell/ battery.
 The actual operating life of the battery is affected by the rate and depth of cycles
and by other conditions such as temperature and humidity. The higher the (Depth of
Discharge) DOD, the lower the cycle life.
8. Self-Life (Expiration Date)
Self-life is the period of time a battery can be stored without significant
deterioration. Aging is subject to storage temperature and state of charge. While primary
batteries have a self life up to 10 years, lithium-based batteries are good for 2 to 3 years,
nickel-based batteries are good for 5 years, etc.
2.2 TYPES OF BATTERIES
Batteries are classified into three categories depending upon the recharging
capacities:

1. Primary battery or Primary cells

These are cells in which the electrode reactions cannot be reversed by passing an external
current. The reactions are possible only once and the battery will be dead after use. Hence it
is non -rechargeable battery.
Eg: Daniel cell, Leclanche cell, Mercury cell.
2. Secondary battery or Secondary cells
These are cells in which the electrode reactions can be reversed by passing an external
current. Thus a secondary battery may be used through a large number of cycles of
charging and discharging. Hence it is a rechargeable battery.
Eg: Lead acid battery, Ni-Cd battery.
3. Fuel cell or flow battery
It is a device which converts chemical energy of the fuel directly into electrical
energy. The chemicals used are usually very simple ones such as H2 and O2.
Eg: H2-O2 fuel cell, Methanol fuel cell etc.
Table 5.1 Differences between Primary and Secondary batteries
Primary Batteries Secondary batteries
Primary batteries are used only Secondary batteries can be used for
once several cycles.
Irreversible battery Reversible battery
They are cheap. They are expensive.
Initial cost is low. Initial cost is very high.
Disposable. Periodic recharging and regular
maintenance is required.

2.3 PRIMARY BATTERIES

DRY CELL (Leclanche Cell)
  This is the most familiar type of dry cell. It consists of a zinc container as
anode, and graphite rod as cathode.

Fig 5.2 Dry Cell

 The electrodes are separated by electrolyte mixture i.e., graphitised manganese
dioxide and a paste of NH4Cl and ZnCl2.
 The MnO2 is mixed with graphite powder to increase the conductivity.
 Starch is added to the electrolyte (NH4Cl, ZnCl2 and MnO2) to make it into a
thick paste.
 To reduce leakage the cell is enclosed in polypropylene cylinder.
 The cell can be represented as:
Zn/Zn2+, NH4+ / MnO2/C
 The cell reactions are:
At Anode: Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
At Cathode: 2MnO2(s) + H2O + 2e- Mn2O3(s) +2OH-(aq)
 However, an acid base reaction between OH- and NH4+ (derived from NH4Cl
evolves NH3(g) which disrupts the current flow.
NH4+(aq)+OH-(aq) NH3(g)+H2O(l)
 This is prevented by a reaction of NH3(g) with Zn2+ (from ZnCl2) to form the
complex ion [Zn (NH3)2]Cl (s). Hence the reactions at two electrodes are:
2MnO2(s)+2NH4+(aq)+ 2e- [Zn(NH3)2]Cl2(s)
+ -
Zn(s)+2NH4 (aq)+2Cl (aq)+ 2MnO2(s) Mn2O3(s) + [Zn(NH3)2]Cl2(s)+2H2O
 Thus, the reduction reaction occurs within the moist paste comprised of NH4Cl
and MnO2. The NH3 which is liberated reacts with Zn2+ from ZnCl2 to form
the complex [Zn (NH3)2]Cl (s).
 The dry cell ‘couple’ produces about 1.5 volts.
Disadvantages
 When current is drawn rapidly from it, products build up on the electrodes
thereby causing drop in voltage.
 Acidic NH4Cl slowly corrodes the zinc container of the dry cell, even when the
cell is not in use. Hence, dry cell becomes dead after a long time, even it is not
used.
Uses
 Dry cell finds applications in flash-lights, transistor radios, calculators, etc.

2.4 SECONDARY STORAGE BATTERIES

2.4.1 Lead-Acid Battery
 A lead-acid battery is a storage battery which can operate both as a voltaic cell
and as an electrolytic cell. When it act as voltaic cell it supplies electrical energy,
on recharging, it acts as an electrolytic cell.
 It consists of lead (Pb) as the anode , lead dioxide (PbO2) as the cathode and
sulphuric acid of density 1.30gm/ml acts as electrolyte.
 Six lead-acid electrochemical cells connected in series are placed in
polypropylene container.
 The cell may be represented as: Pb/PbSO4 // H2SO4 (aq) / PbO2 / Pb

Fig 5.3 Lead acid battery

Working
Discharging
When the lead-acid storage battery operates, the following reaction occurs.
At anode: Lead is oxidized to Pb2+ ions, which further combines with SO42- forming
insoluble PbSO4.

At cathode: PbO2 is reduced to Pb2+ ions, which further combines with SO42- forming
insoluble PbSO4.

________________________________________
PbO(s) + 4H+ + SO42- + 2e- PbSO4(s) + 2H2O

Overall cell reaction

discharging
Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O + Energy
 charging
From the above cell reactions, it is clear that PbSO4 is precipitated at both the
electrodes and H2SO4 is used up. As a result, the concentration of H2SO4 decreases and
hence the density of H2SO4 falls below 1.2 gm/mol. Therefore, the battery needs
recharging.
Charging
The cell can be charged by applying electric current across the electrodes that is
slightly higher than the cell current in the opposite direction. The electrode reaction gets
reversed. As a result, Pb is deposited on anode and PbO2 on the cathode. The density of
H2SO4 also increases.
The net reaction during charging is :

Advantages
 It produces very high current.
 It is made easily
 Six cells can make a car battery.
 Internal resistance is low.
 It is expected to function effectively for 300-350 cycles.
Disadvantages of lead-acid batteries
 Very large in size and heavy weight.
 Possibility of leakage as electrolyte is liquid.
 The self-discharging rate is low when compared to other rechargeable batteries.
 The performance of the battery at low temperatures is poor as sulphuric acid
becomes viscous, therefore flow of current gets reduced.
 Recycling of the battery causes environmental hazards.
 Mechanical strain and normal bumping reduces battery capacity.
 The lead acid battery has the lowest energy density, making it unsuitable for
handheld devices that demand compact size.
Uses
 Lead storage cell is mainly used in automobiles like cars, buses and trucks.
 It is used in gas engine ignition, telephone exchanges, hospitals and power stations.
 It is also used in Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS), as a power system which
provides current constantly without a break.
2.4.2 Nickel-Cadmium (NICAD) battery
 A Nickel-Cadmium battery is a type of alkaline storage battery. It is a portable
rechargeable cell and its cell voltage is fairly constant about 1.4 volt.
 In a Ni-Cd cell, the anode is cadmium and the cathode is nickel oxide (NiO2).
The electrolyte is a solution of KOH. The electrode and electrolytes are enclosed
in a sealed container.
It is represented as: Cd / Cd(OH)2 // KOH / NiO2 / Ni
Working
Discharging
The NICAD battery operates when cadmium is oxidised to Cd2+ ions and insoluble
Cd (OH)2 is formed. Ni2+ ions then combine with OH- ions to form Ni (OH)2.

Fig 5.4 NICAD Battery

At anode : Cd is oxidized to Cd2+ and combines with OH- to form Cd(OH)2
Cd(s) + 2OH- Cd(OH)2(s) + 2e-
At cathode: NiO2 gains electrons (Ni undergoes reduction from +4 to +2) Ni2+ then
combines with OH- to form Ni(OH)2.
NiO2(s)+2H2O(l) +2e- Ni(OH)2(s) + 2OH-
Overall Reaction
discharging
Cd(s) + NiO2 + 2H2O Cd(OH)2(s) + Ni(OH)2(s) + Energy
charging
Charging
The cell can be recharged by passing an excess current in the opposite direction to
that of the cell current, the electrode reactions get reversed. During charging Cd gets
deposited on the anode and NiO2 on the cathode.
The net reaction during discharging and recharging is:
charging
Cd(OH)2(s) + Ni(OH)2(s )
discharging
From the above reactions, it is clear that
 No gaseous products are formed
 Cd(OH)2 and Ni(OH)2 formed adhere well to the surfaces, which can be
removed by recharging the cell.
Advantages
 It has longer life than lead storage cell.
  Available in a wide range of sizes, high number of charge/discharge cycles.
 Possess good load performance and allows recharging even at low
temperatures.
 It is compact and lighter and used in high current applications.
 It is smaller and lighter.
 Like a dry cell, it can be packed and sealed.
 It is the lowest cost battery in terms of cost per cycle.
Disadvantages
 It is very expensive.
 Cadmium is highly toxic.
 Relatively low energy density, low capacity when compared to other
rechargeable syatems.
 Has relatively high self-discharge and need to be recharged after storage.
Uses
 It is used in emergency power applications and communication equipments.
 It is used in electronic calculators, electronic flash units, transistors and other
battery powered small tools.
 Due to low temperature performance it is widely used in aircraft and space
satellites.
2.4.3 Lithium Battery
Lithium is the lightest among all metals and it can float on H2O. The
electrochemical properties of lithium are excellent and it is a highly reactive material.
These properties gives lithium the potential to achieve very high energy and power
densities in high density battery applications such as automotive and standby power.
Lithium battery is a solid state battery because instead of liquid or a paste
electrolyte, solid electrolyte is used.
Construction
 The Lithium battery consists of a lithium anode and a TiS2 cathode.
 A solid electrolyte allows the passage of ions but not electrons.

Fig 5.5 Solid state lithium battery

Working
Discharging
When the anode is connected to cathode Li+ ions move from anode to cathode. The
cathode receives Li+ ions and electrons.
Charging
The Lithium battery is recharged by suppling an external current which drives the
+
Li ions back to the anode. The net reaction is:

Hence the cell is rechargeable. It gives high voltage 3.0 volts

Advantages of Li battery
 It generates a high voltage upto 3.0volt.
 Since Li is a light-weight metal, only 7g of lithium produces 1 mole of
electrons.
 Since Li has the most negative E0 value, it generates a higher voltage than the
other types of cells.
 It can be made in different shapes and sizes.
 There is no risk of leakage from the battery, since all its constituents are solid.
 It posses high energy density.

Disadvantage
Li battery is more expensive than other batteries.
Uses
 Button sized Li batteries are used in calculators, electronic flash units,
transistors,
 Head phones and cordless appliances.
2.4.4 Lithium ion Battery (or) LIB
A Lithium ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery in which lithium ions move
from the negative electrode (anode) to the positive electrode (cathode) during discharge
and back when charging.

Fig 5.6 Lithium Ion Battery

Construction:
  A positive electrode is made with lithium cobalt oxide LiCoO2 or Lithium
manganese oxide LiMn2O4 has a current collector made of thin aluminium foil.
 A negative electrode made with special carbon usually graphite (C6) has a current
collector of thin copper foil.
 A separator is a fine porous polymer film.
 An electrolyte is made with lithium salt in an organic solvent.
 Eg. LiPF6, LiBF4 or LiClO4 in ether.

Working
 The traditional batteries are based on galvanic action but Lithium ion secondary
battery depends on an intercalation mechanism.
 Intercalation is the reversible inclusion or insertion of a molecule into materials
with layered structure.
 During discharge Li ions are dissociated from the anode and migrate across the
electrolyte and are inserted into the crystal structure of the host compound of
cathode.
 Electrons also flow from the negative electrode to the positive electrode through
the external circuit.
Discharging
At Anode: LixC6 xLi+ + xe- + 6C
At Cathode: xLi++ xe- +LiCoO2 Li1+xCoO2
Advantages
 A typical Li ion battery can store 150 watt-hours electricity in 1 kilogram of
battery as compared to lead acid batteries which can store only 25 watt-hours of
electricity in one kilogram.
 All rechargeable batteries suffer from self-discharge when stored or not in use.
 In LIB, there will be a three to five percent of self discharge for 30 days of storage.
 They have high energy density than other rechargeable batteries.
 They are less weight.
 They produce high voltage of about 4volt.
 They have improved safety i.e., more resistance to overcharge.
 Fast charge but slow discharge rate.
Disadvantages
 They are expensive.
 They are not available in standard cell types.
Applications
 LIB is used in cameras, calculators.
 They are used in cardiac pacemakers and other implantable device.
 They are used in telecommunications, equipments, instruments portable radios,
TVs and pages.
 They are used to operate laptop computers, mobile phones and aerospace
application.
 “Like a battery, the human mind and body must be fully discharged to stretch
their capacity.” ― Haresh Sippy.
2.5 FUEL CELL
A voltaic cell involves oxidation-reduction reaction. All ordinary combustion
reactions are redox reactions. However, when a fuel is burned, the electron exchange
takes place only when the atoms of the oxidizing agent (oxygen or air) come in direct
contact with the atoms of the substance being oxidized ( the fuel). The energy is released
principally as heat.
In a fuel cell, electric energy is obtained without combustion from oxygen and a
gas that can be oxidized. Hence, a fuel cell converts the chemical energy of the fuels
directly to electricity. The essential process in a fuel cell is:
Fuel + Oxygen Oxidation products + Electricity

2.5.1 Characteristics of fuel cell

 They do not store chemical energy
 Reactants are to be supplied constantly while products are removed constantly. In
this respect, a fuel cell resembles an engine more than does a battery.
 The efficiency of a fuel cell is about twice that of a conventional power plant.
 Fuel cell generators are free of noise, vibration, heat transfer, thermal pollution.
 They do not run down like batteries as the reactions take place under nearly
reversible conditions and the efficiency is higher in producing more useful work.

Classification of Fuel cells

These are classified into three types as follows.

1] Low temp fuel cells: Which operates at the temp range about
75o C and contains water base electrolytes.

2] Moderate temp fuel cells: Which operates at the temp range

about 600o C and contains salt electrolyte.

3) High temp fuel cells: Which operates at the temp range about 1000o C and
contains ceramics as electrolyte.

2.6 TYPES OF FUEL CELL

Fuel cells are distinguished on the basis of the type of electrolyte.
1. Hydrogen-Oxygen or Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC)
2. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)
3. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC)
4. Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)
5. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC)
6. Bio Fuel Cells (BFC)
7. Methanol Oxygen Fuel Cells (MOFC)
2.6.1 Hydrogen Oxygen fuel cell (or) Alkaline Fuel Cell
Construction
 One of the simplest and most successful fuel cell is hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell.
 The alkaline fuel cell or hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell was designed and first
demonstrated publicly by Francis Thomas Bacon in 1959.
 It consists of porous carbon electrodes impregnated with suitable catalyst like
finely divided platinum, or a 75/25 alloy of palladium and silver or nickel.
 Concentrated KOH or NaOH solution is placed between the electrodes to act as
electrolyte. For low-temperature operating fuel battery (-54 ⁰C to 72 ⁰C),
potassium thiocyanate dissolved in liquid ammonia is employed.
 The electrodes used here must be: (i) good conductors, (ii) good electron – sources
or sinks and (iii) not be consumed or deteriorated by the electrolyte heat or
electrode reactions.
Working
 Hydrogen and oxygen gases are bubbled through the anode and cathode
compartment respectively.
 H2 get oxidised in presence of Pt (electro catalyst) to form H+. The electrons from
anode is absorbed by O2 at cathode which reacts with water from electrolyte to
form OH– ions. The two ions (H+ and OH–) combine in the electrolyte medium to
form H2O.

The standard emf of the cell, E0 = E0 ox + E0 red = 0.83 V + 0.40 V = 1.23 V. In actual
practice, the emf of cell is 0.8 to 1.0V.
 It may be noted that the only product discharged by the cell is water.
 A large number of these cells are stacked together in series to make a battery,
called fuel cell battery or fuel battery.

Fig 5.7 Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cell

Advantages
  It has high efficiency.
 It is portable and easy to maintain.
 It does not produce any harmful exhaust.
 It is fuel-efficient.
 Water produced from hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells can be used for drinking purpose.
 It can be used as a source in space flights.
 No noise and thermal pollution.
Disadvantages
 The corrosiveness of the electrolytes used.
 It needs to be stored in high tanks.
 It is difficult to predict the life time of fuel cells accurately.
 High cost of pure hydrogen and the catalyst needed for the electrode reactions (Ex.
Pt, Pd, Ag etc.,)
 Problem of handling gaseous fuels at low temperature or high pressure.
Applications
 Fuel cells are ideal for power generation.
 They are used for powering buses, boats and trains.
 Hospitals use fuel cells to provide electricity.
 All major auto makers are working to commercialise a fuel cell car.
 Fuel cells are used in smart phones, laptops and tablets.
 Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells are uses as auxiliary energy source in space vehicles,
submarines or other military-vehicles.
 The product water proved to be a valuable source of fresh water by the astronauts.
2.6.2 SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL (SOFC)
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are best suited for large-scale stationary power generators
that are able to provide electricity for factories and towns. SOFC use a hard non porous
ceramic compound as electrolyte (calcium oxide or zirconium oxide),which operates
extremely at high temperature 1000oC.
SOFC differ in many respects from other fuel cell technologies.
 The anode, cathode and electrolyte are all made of ceramic substance
 Because of the ceramic make up the cells can operate at temperature as high as
1000 ⁰ C.
 The cells can be configured either as rolled tubes or as flat plates and manufactured
using many of the technique now employed by the electronics industry.
 Fig 5.11 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
Construction
 It consist of two porous electrodes separated by a dense oxygen ion conducting
electrolyte (solid ceramic oxides)
 The anode used is highly porous, electronically conducting Ni/ yettria-stabilised
zirconia cermets (Ni/YSZ)
 The cathode is based on a mixed conducting pervoskite lanthanum manganite
(LnMnO3)
 Yettria-stabilised zirconia is used as the oxygen conducting electrolyte. To improve
the conductivity of electrolyte, Scandium-doped zirconium oxide can be used
instead of YSZ but high cost of scandium limits the use of latter.
 SOFC use a hard non porous ceramic compound as electrolyte (calcium oxide or
zirconium oxide), which operates extremely at high temperature 1000 oC
 The fuels used may be gas (natural gas, biogas, hydrogen) or liquid( methanol,
diesel and gasoline).
Requirements of electrolyte
 Ions conductive –oxygen ion transport
 Chemically stable (at high temperatures as well as in reducing and oxidizing
environments)
 Gas tight/free of porosity
 Uniformly thin layer.
Working
 It consists of two porous electrodes separated by a dense, oxide ion conducting
electrolyte.
 Oxygen supplied at the cathode (air electrode) reacts with incoming electrons from the
external circuit to form oxide ions.
 These ions migrate to the anode (fuel electrode) through the oxide ion conducting
electrolyte.
 At the anode, oxide ions combine with hydrogen (and/or carbon monoxide) in the
fuel to form water (and/or carbon dioxide), liberating electrons.
  Electrons (electricity) flow from the anode through the external circuit to the cathode,
where oxygen in gas phase reduced to oxide ion.
When hydrogen is the fuel the reactions are:

When carbon monoxide is the fuel the reactions are:

Advantages
 They can run on a wide Variety of fuels (gas or liquid).
 Precious metal (Pt) catalyst is not required.
 Long-term stability.
 They operate at high temperature (1000⁰ C)
 They are not sensitive to CO poisoning.
 They have a relatively low cost.
 They have a relatively high efficiency about 50-60%
 Waste heat can be recycled to make additional electricity, which improves
efficiency (upto 85%).
 They have a fast start up.
 The electrolyte has a relatively high resistance.
 The compact size and cleanliness of SOFCs make them especially attractive for
urban area.
Disadvantages
 High operating temperature which results in mechanical and chemical
compatibility issues.
Uses
 Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are best suited for large-scale stationary power
generators that are able to provide electricity for factories and towns.

2.6.3 METHANOL-OXYGEN FUEL CELL (DMFC)

The Direct Methanol Fuel Cell is relatively new technology. Like, PEM fuel cell
the DMFC uses polymer electrolyte. But DMFC used liquid methanol or alcohol as fuel
instead of reformed hydrogen fuel.
Construction
 The fuel cell consists of two electrodes
 The anode consists of porous nickel electrode impregnated with a Pt/Pd catalyst.
 The cathode is nickel electrode coated with silver catalyst (oxygen electrode).
 The electrolyte KOH is placed in between the two electrodes.

Fig 5.10 Methanol Oxygen Fuel Cell

Working
 Air is allowed to bubble on the catalyst surface.
 35 ml methanol of water is added at the anode.
 During chemical reactions the negative electrode draws hydrogen by dissolving
liquid methanol (CH3OH) in water in order to eliminate the need of external
reformer.
 At the positive electrode the recombination of the positive ions and negative ions
takes place to produce water as a by product.

 The protons produced migrate through the polymer electrolyte to the cathode where
they react with oxygen to produce water.
 During the cell operation CO2 and water vapour are liberated around the electrodes.
 Normally a single DMFC can supply only 0.3-0.5V under loaded conditions.
Advantages
 Easy transportation and handling.
 Readily available, relatively lesser cost.
 Stable at all atmospheric conditions.
 Negative electrode catalyst draws the hydrogen from the methanol and reduces overall
cost due to the absence of reformer.
Disadvantages
 Methanol is very toxic and highly flammable.
 Methanol is made from non-renewable fossil fuels.
  It’s of low efficiency because methanol can pass through the available membrane
materials.
Applications
 All kinds of portable, automotive and mobile applications like powering laptop,
computers, cellular phones, digital cameras.
 Fuel cell vehicles.
 Space craft applications.

2.6.4 PROTON EXCHANGE MEMBRANE FUEL CELL (PEMFC)

A polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell is one of the best candidates as a
portable power source for commercial applications primarily because of its light weight,
high energy high power, non emission and low temperature operation. It offers an order of
magnitude higher power density than any other fuel cell system, which can operate on
reformed hydrocarbon fuels with pre treatment and air.
Construction
 Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) also known as Polymer electrolyte
membrane (PEM) fuel cells are consisted of a proton conducting electrolyte in solid
polymer form.
 Electrodes (anode & cathode) are made of porous carbon containing a platinum or
ruthenium catalyst
 The electrolyte is a polymer membrane, which is an electronic insulator, but an
excellent conductor of hydrogen ions.
 The most commonly used membranes are based on per fluorosulfonic acid (PFSA) and
Nafion (Tetrafluorethylene copolymer containing sulphonic acid group) the proton of
which are free to migrate through the membrane.
 The electrolyte membrane is sandwiched between the anode and cathode to produce a
single “membrane electrode assembly” (MEA),which is less than millimeter thickness.

Fig 5.8 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell

The essential requirements of polymer electrolyte membranes include
 High proton conductivity
 Low electronic conductivity
 Impermeability to fuel gas or liquid
 Good mechanical toughness in both the dry and hydrated states
 High oxidative and hydrolytic stability
 Chemical and thermal stability,
 Low water drag and low methanol crossover

Working
 Pressurized hydrogen gas (H2) enters cell on anode side, which is forced through
catalyst. When H2 molecule contacts platinum catalyst, it splits into H+ ions and
electrons.
 Electrons from anode are conducted through the external circuit and return to the
cathode side of the fuel cell.

Fig 5.9 Membrane Electrode Assembly

 On the cathode side, oxygen gas (O2) is forced through the catalyst forms oxide ion.
 The oxide ion attracts the H+ ions through the membrane to form a water molecule
(H2O).

Advantages
 Use of solid polymer electrolytes eliminates the corrosion and safety concerns
associated with liquid electrolyte fuel cells.
 Its low operating temperature 175oC provides instant start up and requires no
thermal shielding to protect personnel.
 Has high power density.
 It offers an order of magnitude higher power density than any other fuel cell system,
which can operate on reformed hydrocarbon fuels with pre treatment and air.
 Offers the advantage of low weight and volume.
Disadvantages
 High cost,
 High methanol permeability.
 Environmental incompatibility with other materials.
 Expected life of PEMFC is very short and not suitable for DG (distributed
generation).
 The most commonly used catalyst (Pt) is very expensive.
 Sensitive to fuel impurities (CO poisoning diminishes the efficiency of the cell).
 Hydrogen generation and storage is a significant problem.

“It is my conclusion that the human mind and body is essentially a single cell
rechargeable battery that is charged from the atmospheric DC voltage and the Earth.”
― Steven Magee, Health Forensics.
 QUESTION BANK
Part A
1. What are fuel cells?

Fuel cell is a voltaic cell, which converts the chemical energy of the gaseous fuels directly
into electricity without combustion.

Fuels + Oxygen ----

2. Define the term cell and battery.

Cell is a single arrangement of two electrodes and electrolytic solution capable of yielding
electricity due to chemical reaction with in the cell or producing chemical reaction by passing
electricity.

Battery is an arrangement of electrochemical cells connected in series or parallel, that can be

used as a source of direct electric current at constant voltage.

[Link] are primary cells? Give an example.

In primary cells,the electrode reactions cannot be reversed by passing external electrical

energy. The cell reaction occurs only once and after use they become dead. Therefore ,they
are not rechargeable.

Ex. Dry cell and mercury cell.

4. What are secondary cells?

The electrodes reaction can be reversed by passing an external electrical energy. Ex Pb acid
,Ni-cd Therefore they can be recharged by passing electric current and used again and again.
These are also called storage cells or accumulators.

5. What are the advantages of alkaline battery over dry cell?

(1)Zinc does not dissolve readily in a basic medium.

(2)The shelf life of alkaline battery is longer than dry battery.

(3)It gives constant voltage when the current is drawn from it.

6. What are the applications of lead acid storage cell?

(1) Lead storage cell is used to supply current to start in automobiles such as cars,
buses, trucks etc.

(2)It is also used in gas engine ignition, as UPS in telephone exchanges, hospitals,
power stations etc.
7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of NICAD battery?

Advantages

(1)It is smaller and lighter

(2) It has longer cycle life than lead storage cell

(3) Like a dry cell, it can be packed in a sealed container.

Disadvantage

It is more expensive than lead storage battery. More toxic in nature.

8. How is NICAD battery constructed?

Nickel –cadmium cell consists of a cadmium anode and a metal grid containing a paste of
NiO 2acting as a cathode. The electrolyte in this cell is KOH.

9. What are the advantages of Li-S battery?

(1) Li-S battery has light weight unlike the lead acid battery.

(2) It posses a high energy density.

10. What are the advantages of lithium battery?

(1) Its cell voltage is high ,3 V

(2)This battery can be made in a variety of sizes and shapes.

(3)Since all the constituents of the battery are solids there is no risk of leakage from
the battery.

(4)Energy density of battery is high.

11. State the reaction when a lead storage battery is recharged?

The cell can be recharged by passing electric in the opposite direction .The electrode reaction
gets reversed .As a result, Pb is deposited on anode and PbO 2 on the cathode .The density of
H2SO4 also increases.

2PbSO4 + 2H2O+ energy ----- 2 + 2H2SO4

12. What are the applications of H2 -O2 fuel cell?

(1) H2 -O2 fuel cells are used as auxiliary energy sources in space vehicles,
submarines or other military –vehicles

(2) In case of H2 -O2 fuel cells, the products of water is proved to be a valuable
sources of fresh water by the astronauts
[Link] are the important requirements of a battery?
 It should have more storage capacity.
 It should be light and compact.
 It should provide power for longer time period.
 It should be capable of recharged.
 It should give constant voltage
 It should be resistance to self-discharge.
 It should be cheaper.

14. Mention the differences between primary battery and secondary battery.
Primary Batteries Secondary batteries
Primary batteries are used only Secondary batteries can be used for
once several cycles.
Irreversible battery Reversible battery
They are cheap. They are expensive.
Initial cost is low. Initial cost is very high.
Disposable. Periodic recharging and regular
maintenance is required.

15. State the reaction when a lead storage battery is recharged.

16. What are the applications of lead acid storage cell?

 Lead storage cell is mainly used in automobiles like cars, buses and trucks.
 It is used in gas engine ignition, telephone exchanges, hospitals and power stations.
 It is also used in Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS), as a power system which
provides current constantly without a break.

17. What are the characteristics of fuel cells?

 They do not store chemical energy
 Reactants are to be supplied constantly while products are removed constantly. In
this respect, a fuel cell resembles an engine more than does a battery.
 The efficiency of a fuel cell is about twice that of a conventional power plant.
 Fuel cell generators are free of noise, vibration, heat transfer, thermal pollution.
 They do not run down like batteries as the reactions take place under nearly
reversible conditions and the efficiency is higher in producing more useful work.

18. What are the different types of fuel cells available?

Fuel cells are distinguished on the basis of the type of electrolyte.
  Hydrogen-Oxygen or Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC)
 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)
 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC)
 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)
 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC)
 Bio Fuel Cells (BFC)
 Methanol Oxygen Fuel Cells (MOFC)

19. Write down the reactions occur in Methanol Oxygen fuel cell.

21. Write down the reactions of Solid Oxygen Fuel Cell.

 When hydrogen is the fuel the reactions are:

 When carbon monoxide is the fuel the reactions are:

22. What are the requirements for SOFC electrolyte?

 Ions conductive –oxygen ion transport
 Chemically stable (at high temperatures as well as in reducing and oxidizing
environments)
 Gas tight/free of porosity
 Uniformly thin layer.

23. Mention the applications of DMFC fuel cell.

 All kinds of portable, automotive and mobile applications like powering laptop,
computers, cellular phones, digital cameras.
 Fuel cell vehicles.
 Space craft applications.
 sPART B
1. Discuss the principles and working of Hydrogen Oxygen fuel cell.
2. Discuss the construction and working of methanol oxygen fuel cell.
3. What is SOFC? Explain its working. What are its advantages?
4. Describe the principles involved in Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell.
5. Construct and explain primary battery (Dry cell) with neat diagram.
6. Explain the principle, working of lead acid batteries.
7. Discuss the construction and working of NICAD batteries.
8. What are lithium batteries? Explain the construction and working of lithium ion
batteries. Mention its advantages over other types of batteries.
9. Write a note on Lithium battery.