Introduction to State Space
• The transition from simple approximate models, which are
easy to work with, to more realistic models produces two
effects.
– First, a large number of variables must be included in the models.
– Second, a more realistic model is more likely to contain nonlinearities
and time-varying parameters.
– Previously ignored aspects of the system, such as interactions with
feedback through the environment, are more likely to be included.
1
Introduction
• Most classical control techniques were developed for linear
constant coefficient systems with one input and one output
(perhaps a few inputs and outputs).
• The language of classical techniques is the Laplace or Z-transform
and transfer functions.
• When nonlinearities and time variations are present, the very basis
for these classical techniques is removed.
• Some successful techniques such as phase-plane methods,
describing functions, and other methods, have been developed to
alleviate this shortcoming.
2
Introduction
• The state variable approach of modern control theory provides a uniform
and powerful methods of representing systems of arbitrary order, linear
or nonlinear, with time-varying or constant coefficients.
• It provides an ideal formulation for computer implementation and is
responsible for much of the progress in optimization theory.
• The advantages of using matrices when dealing with simultaneous
equations of various kinds have long been appreciated in applied
mathematics.
• The field of linear algebra also contributes heavily to modern control
theory.
3
Introduction
• Conventional control theory is based on the input–output
relationship, or transfer function approach.
• Modern control theory is based on the description of system
equations in terms of n first-order differential equations, which may
be combined into a first-order vector-matrix differential equation.
• The use of vector-matrix notation greatly simplifies the a
mathematical representation of systems of equations.
• The increase in the number of state variables, the number of inputs,
or the number of outputs does not increase the complexity of the
equations.
4
Definitions
• State Variable: The state variables of a dynamic system are
the smallest set of variables that determine the state of the
dynamic system.
• State Vector: If n variables are needed to completely
describe the behaviour of the dynamic system then n
variables can be considered as n components of a vector x,
such a vector is called state vector.
• State Space: The state space is defined as the n-
dimensional space in which the components of the state
vector represents its coordinate axes.
5
Definitions
• Let x1 and x2 are two states variables that define the state
of the system completely .
dx
x2 dt
Velocity State (t=t1)
State (t=t1)
State
Vector
x1 Position
x
Two Dimensional State space State space of a Vehicle
6
State Space Representation
• An electrical network is given in following figure,
find a state-space representation if the output is
the current through the resistor.
7
State Space Representation
• Step-1: Select the state variables.
v c
iL
Step-2: Apply network theory, such as Kirchhoff's voltage and current
laws, to obtain ic and vL in terms of the state variables, vc and iL.
Applying KCL at Node-1 i L = i R + iC
iC = −i R + i L
dvC vC
C =− + iL (1) 8
dt R
State Space Representation
Step-2: Apply network theory, such as Kirchhoff's voltage and current
laws, to obtain ic and vL in terms of the state variables, vc and iL.
Applying KVL at input loop
di L
v(t ) = L + vR
dt
di L
L = −vC + v(t ) (2)
dt
Step-3: Write equation (1) & (2) in standard form.
dvC 1 1
=− vC + i L
dt RC C
State Equations
di L 1 1
= − vC + v(t )
dt L L 9
State Space Representation
dvC 1 1 di L 1 1
=− vC + i L = − vC + v(t )
dt RC C dt L L
1 1
d vc RC v 0
C c + 1 v(t )
= 1
dt i L − 0 i L L
L
1 1
vc RC v 0
C c + 1 v(t )
= 1
iL − 0 i L L
L
10
State Space Representation
Step-4: The output is current through the resistor therefore, the
output equation is
1
i R = vC
R
1 v c
iR = 0
R iL
11
State Space Representation
1 1
vc RC v 0
C c + 1 v(t )
= 1
iL − 0 i L L
L
Where,
x(t) --------------- State Vector
x(t ) = Ax(t ) + Bu(t ) A (nxn) ------------ State (System) Matrix
B (nxp) ----------------- Input Matrix
u(t) --------------- Input Vector
1 v c
iR = 0 Where,
R iL y(t) -------------- Output Vector
C (qxn) ---------------- Output Matrix
D ----------------- Feed forward (Direct
y(t ) = Cx(t ) + Du(t ) transmission) Matrix
12
Example-2
• Consider the following system
K
x(t)
M
f(t)
B
Differential equation of the system is:
d 2 x(t ) dx(t )
M +B + Kx(t ) = f (t )
dt 2 dt
13
Example-2
• As we know
dx d 2x dv
=v =
dt dt 2 dt
• Choosing x and v as state variables
dx d 2 x(t ) dx(t )
=v M +B + Kx(t ) = f (t )
dt dt 2 dt
dv B K 1
=− v− x+ f (t )
dt M M M
x 0 1 x 0
= − K B + 1 f (t )
v M − v
M M
14
Example-2
x 0 1 x 0
= − K B + 1 f (t )
v M − v
M M
• If velocity v is the out of the system then output equation is given as
x
y (t ) = [0 1]
v
15
Example-3
• Find the state equations of following mechanical translational
system.
• System equations are:
d 2 x1 dx1 d 2 x2
M1 2
+D + Kx1 − Kx 2 = 0 f (t ) = M 2 2
+ Kx 2 − Kx1
dt dt dt
16
Example-3
• Now dx1 d 2 x1 dv1
= v1 =
dt dt 2 dt
dx2 d 2
x2 dv2
= v2 =
dt dt 2 dt
• Choosing x1, v1, x2, v2 as state variables
dx1
= v1
dt
dv1
M1 + Dv1 + Kx1 − Kx 2 = 0
dt
dx2
= v2
dt
dv2
f (t ) = M 2 + Kx 2 − Kx1
dt 17
Example-3
• In Standard form
dx1
= v1
dt
dv1 D K K
=− v1 − x1 + x2
dt M1 M1 M1
dx2
= v2
dt
dv2 K K 1
=− x2 + x1 + f (t )
dt M2 M2 M2
18
Example-3
dx1 dv1 D K K dx2
= v1 =− v1 − x1 + x2 = v2
dt dt M1 M1 M1 dt
dv2 K K 1
=− x2 + x1 + f (t )
dt M2 M2 M2
• In Vector-Matrix form
0 1 0 0 0
x1 K D K 1 x
− − 0 0
v1 = M 1 M1 M1
v1
+ 0 f (t )
x 2 0 0 0 1 x2
K K 1
v2 M 0 − 0 v2
2 M2 M2
19
Example-3
0 1 0 0 0
x1 K D K 1 x
− − 0 0
v1 = M 1 M1 M1
v1
+ 0 f (t )
x 2 0 0 0 1 x2
K K 1
v2 M 0 − 0 v2
M2 M
2
2
• If x1 and v2 are the outputs of the system then
x1
1 0 0 0 v
1
y (t ) =
0 0 0 1
x2
v2
20