Introduction to

UNIT 5 ORGANISING AND ANALYSING Microbes

WORK
When you finish this Unit, you should be able to comprehend:
the meaning of work;
different approaches to organizing and analyzing work;
methods to improve and measure the work process;
the Time and Motion study;
the concept of Ergonomics; and
impact of Information Technology on Work Design.

Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Meaning of Work
5.3 The Concept of Organizing and Analyzing Work
5.4 Different Approaches to Organizing and Analyzing Work
5.5 Work Improvement and Measurement
5.6 Time and Motion Study
5.7 Ergonomics
5.8 Workspace and Architectural Ergonomics
5.9 Impact of IT on Organizing Work
5.10 Summary
5.11 Self Assessment Questions
5.12 Further Readings

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Work is basic to our sense of social and personal identity. After a long
contemplation of the human condition, Sigmund Freud put forward work and
love as the two important constituents of a contented and well-adjusted
personality. Work is an important human venture because it has a potent
effect in binding a person to veracity. Through work, people become firmly
affixed to reality and resolutely bonded in human relationships. Work is also
the soul of an organization. It is one essential reason for which an organization
subsists.

The nature of work and its organization has interested managers, economists
and social scientists. Managers have largely been interested in maximizing
output from available resources. Economists and social scientists have raised
questions about the organization of work in relation to issues of the individual
and society in general.

5.2 MEANING OF WORK

Many authors have tried to portray exactly what work is. Work is any
productive activity undertaken to produce a given product or a service. It may
be defined as “the effort or activity of an individual that is undertaken for
the purpose of providing goods or services of value to others and that is
considered by the individual to be work”( Hall,1994).
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Approaches To Work Design The meaning of work differs from person to person and culture to culture. One
study found six patterns people follow in defining work, and these help explain
the cultural differences in people’s motivation to work. Pattern A people
define work as an activity in which value comes from performance and for
which a person is accountable. It is generally self-directed and lacking
negative affect. Pattern B people define work as an activity that provides a
person with positive personal affect and identity. Work contributes to society
and is not unpleasant. Pattern C people define work as an activity from
which profit accrues to others by its performance and that may be done in
various settings other than a working place. Work is usually physically
strenuous and somewhat compulsive. Pattern D people define work as
primarily a physical activity a person must do that is directed by others and
generally performed in a working place. Work is usually devoid of positive
affect and is unpleasantly connected to performance. Pattern E people
define work as a physically and mentally tiring activity. It is generally
unpleasant and devoid of positive affect. Pattern F people define work as an
activity constrained to specific time periods that does not bring positive affect
through its performance.

These six patterns were studied in six different countries: Belgium, the former
Federal Republic of Germany, Israel, Japan, the Netherlands, and the United

States. The findings of the study show that a small percentage of workers in
all six countries used either Pattern E or Pattern F to define work.
Furthermore, there are major difference among countries in how work is
defined. In the Netherlands, work is defined most positively and with the most
balanced personal and collective reasons for doing it . Work is defined least
positively and with the most collective reason for doing it in Germany and
Japan. Belgium, Israel, and the United States represent a middle position
between two (England and Harpaz, 1990).

5.3 THE CONCEPT OF ORGANIZING AND

ANALYZING WORK
The goal accomplishment of an organization requires work to be done in many
different areas, and highly specialized knowledge and experience. Hence the
work is divided among people, work units such as divisions, departments and
groups. Organizing work refers how to arrange matters so that people can
work in concert to get the work done, division of work between people
and groups, the work done by managers at different levels, and co-
coordinating the work of people and groups to make possible to realize
the goal of the organization .

It includes issues like:

Organization Charts : Organization chart is a form of line diagram . It
indicates the arrangement of work units, the delegation of work (that is the
delegation of responsibility) and work units in relation to each other.
Division of Work : The work is divided among people and work units such
as divisions, departments or groups. The Head of each work unit is in
charge for the work done by his unit as well as for the work he does
himself.
Organising the work done (responsibility carried) at different levels .
Maintaining relationships between people at different levels .
Coordinating work between people etc.
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 Organising and
5.4 DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO ORGANIZING Analysing Work
AND ANALYZING WORK
I. The Ancient Approach
The concept of organizing work was there even in ancient times. For instance,
the ancient Egyptians built their pyramids, the ancient Chinese built the Great
Wall of Chine, the Mesopotamians used to irrigate their land and wall their
cities, and the Romans built their roads, aqueducts and Hadrian’s Wall. All
these man-made construction required large amounts of human effort and
therefore organizing i.e. planning, control and coordination.

The Chinese philosopher Mencius (372-289BC) wrote about the concept and
the advantages of the division of labor. Records reveal that the ancient Greeks
understood the advantages of, and practiced uniform work methods. They also
employed work songs to develop a rhythm in order to achieve a smooth, less
fatiguing tempo and to improve productivity.

The division of labor was also recognized by Plato (427-347BC). He wrote in

The Republic, ‘A man whose work is confined to such limited task must
necessarily excel at it’. However, work itself was viewed by the ancient
Greeks and the Romans, as demeaning / humiliating. Those who could afford to
do so were treated as employed slaves.

With the fall of the Roman Empire, development was reduced; slavery being
replaced by feudalism. In pre-Reformation Christian Europe work was also
seen as a burden. In this period, the mechanical clock was invented by
Heinrich Von Wych in Paris in 1370, and Guttenberg’s printing press was set
up. The former permitted accurate work measurement and the latter the ability
to communicate by the printed word. Indeed Guttenberg’s inspired creative
thinking can be viewed as an early example of method study. However, with
the Reformation the Protestant ‘work ethic’ emerged based on Luther’s
glorification of work theory. Calvinism brought further consolidation to this
principle and with it the virtues of frugality and the honorable acquisition of
wealth. Work was viewed in society as respectable and idleness as awful.

II. The Approach during the Industrial Revolution Period

The momentum for industrial revolution was initiated in the seventeenth
century. Agricultural methods had improved in Europe. Technical advances
were also being made, most notably in textile manufacturing, in the eighteenth
century with the invention of Hargreaves’s spinning jenny, Arkwright’s water
frame and Compton’s mule. The steam engine first developed in 1698 by
Thomas savory, was harnessed by James Watt. These factors, technological
developments, expanding trade/markets, growing populations created
opportunities for merchants and entrepreneurs to invest in new factories. This
was the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. All these necessitated the
improvement in work methods, quality, and productivity of workers.

With the emergence of the factory system, Adam Smith, the Father of
Economics advocated making work efficient by means of specialization in the
eighteenth century. He advocated dividing the work down into simple tasks.
He provided three advantages of the division of labour:
the development of skills;
the saving of time; and
the possibility of using specialized tools

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Approaches To Work Design After the War of Independence there was a shortage of musket parts in the
United States. Eli Whitney proposed the manufacturing of muskets by means
of using interchangeable parts. Records form the Soho Bell Foundry in Chelsea,
around the same time as Whitney, evince the use of production standards, cost
control, work study and incentives during the period..

In 1832, Charles Babbage, an engineer, philosopher and researcher, examined

the division of labor in his book On the Economy of Machinery and
Manufacturers. Babbage proposed, as an advantage of the division of labor,
that the amount of skill needed to take on a specialized task was only the skill
necessary to complete that task. He illustrated this concept by breaking down
the manufacture of a pin, into seven elements. The important inference for
employers was that they need to pay for the amount of skill necessary to
complete each individual task. He advocated breaking down jobs into elements
and costing each element.

In this manner, these developments foreshadow the machine age, replacing

traditional manual labor and improving productivity. Machines were located near
sources of power, first water later coal for steam. Large concentration of
machines were gathered in one place under one roof in the factories. Huge
numbers of people came together to operate these machines and in the delivery
of the outputs from the factories. As a result, the management functions of
control, planning and coordination were required with greater strength..

At the turn of the century, the problem of layout and method were studied by
Robert Owen. Owen through experimentation at the New Lanark Mills was
successful in raising the living conditions of his workers whilst reorganizing his
mills on commercial principles. Robert Owen is endorsed with being the first to
identify fatigue and the work environment as factors affecting the performance
of factory workers.

III. The Scientific Management Approach

Frederick W. Taylor known as the father of scientific management and modern
industrial engineering. By experimenting with different designs of shovel for use
with different material (from ‘rice’ coal to ore) he was able to design shovels
that would permit the worker to shovel for the whole day. In so doing, he
reduced the number of people shoveling at the Bethlehem Steel Works from
500 to 140. This work, and his studies on the handling of pig iron, greatly
contributed to the analysis of work design and gave rise to method study.

In 1909, he published the book for which he is best known, Principles of

Scientific Management. Taylor’s impact has been so great because he
developed a concept of work design, work-measurement, production control and
other functions, that completely changed the nature of industry.

Objectives of Scientific Management

The four objectives of management under scientific management are as follows:
The development of a science for each element of a man’s work to replace
the older rule-of-thumb methods.
The scientific selection, training and development of workers instead of
allowing them to choose their own tasks and train themselves as best they
could.
The development of a spirit of hearty cooperation between workers and
management to ensure that work would be carried out in accordance with
scientifically devised procedures.
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 The division of work between workers and the management in almost equal Organising and
Analysing Work
shares, each group taking over the work for which it is best fitted instead of
the former condition in which responsibility largely placed with the workers.

His framework for organization was: clear delineation of authority, responsibility,

separation of planning from operation, incentive schemes for workers,
management by exception, and task specialization.

Assumptions of Scientific Management

Two basic assumptions dominated Taylor’s approach to the design of jobs.
First Assumption (Management): Management is assumed to be more
effective than labor at devising methods for executing the work and then at
planning and organizing. By breaking the work down into simple elements:
the training of workers is clearly simplified
workers are more easily substituted, one for another
supervision is made easier as it is apparent when workers are doing
something that is not part of the specified task.

Second Assumption (Workers): Human beings are rational economic beings.

The prime goal is assumed to be monetary and consequently reward systems
which relate pay levels to output are seen as likely to result in maximum
output. As such, humans will examine a situation and identify a course of
action likely to maximize their self interest and act accordingly. All that is
required to maximize output, from the organizations perspective, is to hire the
right people, train them properly and construct an appropriate reward system.
If the work can be paced, a worker can develop a natural rhythm and
momentum.

Principles of Scientific Management

Three primary principles of scientific management directly or indirectly relating
to work design are:
i. Taylor assumed that it is possible to “gather all of the traditional knowledge
which in the past the been possessed by the workman and then classifying,
tabulating, and reducing this knowledge to rules, laws, and formulae which
are immensely helpful to the workmen in doing their daily work”. In this
way the industrial engineer (and the manager) learns the best way for a job
to be performed.
ii. The work of every individual employee “is fully planned out by the
management at least one day in advance… describing in detail the task
which he is to accomplish as well as the means to be used in doing the
work” (p.39). If management understands the process by which the work is
done, it should be possible to plan out the work in the smallest detail before
the employee even show up. In this way the manager and engineer know
exactly how the work will be accomplished.
iii. “The science which underlies each workman’s act is so great and amounts
to so much that the workman who is best suited to actually do the work is
incapable (either through lack of education or through insufficient mental
capacity) of understanding this science” (p.41). If management understands
the best, most efficient way for a job to be accomplished, and if this is
planned out in advance, no mental contribution is necessary from the worker.

The scientific management approach was exceedingly successful in the first

half on the 20th century.

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Approaches To Work Design Constraints of Scientific Management
Although scientific management was unquestionably effective for more than
50 years, gradually it is losing ground because of the following reasons.

First, production and/or service jobs are no longer simple. Creating

uncomplicated jobs was easy at the beginning of the 20th century because the
products and the manufacturing processes were elementary . However this is
not the case today. Even unskilled factory jobs today require reading computer
screens, working with numerical tools, or using and/or making custom products
and services.

Second, allied with this increase in job complexity, the technology employed in
both manufacturing and the service sector has also increased in complexity.
The jobs of today also are changing more rapidly than in the past and so also
the technology. If the technology is changing daily, so are those rules. By the
time management understands the technology and how it should best be used,
the technology has changed.

Finally, products and services are changing at an ever more rapid rate. If we
want to compete in the global marketplace, speed has become a necessity
(Dumaine, 1989).

IV. Fordism
In the early 20th Century , Henry Ford dramatically established the concept of
relative surplus value by doing what at the time was considered impossible. He
paid workers 4 or 5 times the ‘going rate’ (actually the bare minimum that
could be screwed from the bosses), yet still made a huge profit. By vastly
increasing the production of relative surplus value through the use of the
assembly line, coupled with FW Taylor’s ‘Scientific Management’ of the work
process, he was able to vastly improve the productivity of his plants.

Ford brought into existence the concept of ‘mass worker’. Whereas before the
capitalist had relied largely on skilled workers to manage the production
process, the mass worker was a new type.

V. The Human Relations Approach

The human relations approach arose almost as a direct result of the harshness
imposed by supervisors who excessively used scientific management principles.
An outgrowth of the famous Hawthorne Studies conducted during 1924-33, the
human relations approach de-emphasized the technical components of a job and
concerned itself with the impact of employee social and psychological needs on
productivity.

Originally, the goals of the Hawthorne investigators were to identify elements of

the work environment which fostered productivity. Surprisingly, the investigators
discovered that the greatest impact on productivity was that of the social
interaction patterns of the workers rather than environmental conditions like
lighting. The significance of the findings to management are that:
workers thought and acted not as individuals but as a group;
workers would sacrifice their self-interest in the fact of group pressure;
money is not the sole motivator. (This prompted Mayo to comment: “Factory
managers are going to someday realize that workers are not governed
primarily by economic motives.”)
supervisors have significant influence on output.
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Mayo’s recommendations reflected these findings and were that: Organising and
Analysing Work
managers must not ignore the informal organization but ensure its norms are
in harmony with organizational goals;
man is basically motivated by social needs, not economic ones;
in order to influence the behavior of individuals managers must focus on the
work group rather than individuals; and
effective supervisors are those who satisfy subordinates’ social needs.

These recommendations led to principles advocating the design of jobs which

facilitate social need gratification by the workers, including the use of non-
authoritarian leadership styles by supervisors and the fostering of effective work
groups.

VI. The Socio Technical Systems Approach

The socio technical systems approach to work redesigns tasks in a manner that
jointly optimizes the social and technical efficiency of work. Beginning with
studies on the introduction of new coal-mining technologies in 1949, the socio
technical systems approach to work design focused on small, self-regulating
work groups. Later it was found that such work arrangements could operate
effectively only in an environment in which bureaucracy was limited. Today’s
trends towards lean and flat organizations, work teams, and an empowered
workforce are logical extensions of the sociotechnical philosophy of work
design.

VII. Modern Approaches

Modern concepts, are not entirely disparate to scientific management and
classical organization theory, but are evolved from earlier views and represent
modifications based on research and experience.

In order to counter the weaknesses of the earlier approaches discussed above

that the behavioral science approach was adopted. Industrial psychologists ,
although at first arrived at similar conclusions to the human relations movement,
based on their research concentrated on motivation of individuals .And
industrial sociologists looked at the behavior of formal and informal groups at
work.

In the period between 1951 and 1971, managers moderated their ‘logical’
approach to such things as job design and considered such alternatives as
participation, job-redesign, job enlargement and job enrichment. By the mid-
1960s and 70s in Britain there was much puzzlement as to which theory to
follow and much conflicting evidence from researchers. Goldthorpe (1969), for
example, was to find that some employees, although they disliked the work
which involved repetitive tasks in their Coventry car assembly plant, would put
up with them for the money rather than move to more interesting jobs and
lower wages in plants nearby. Experiments at Philips at Eindhoven
demonstrated that although output initially mounted after enlarging the jobs in
radio assembly, workers were unhappy with their new jobs and responsibilities
and many left. White (1973) also found that the motivation of managers to
work depended very much on two factors: the type of job that was being
performed and the age of the jobholder. These findings show the boundaries of
approaches such as those proposed by Herzberg and others that advocate a
single ‘best way’ and draw attention to the danger of viewing behavioral
science as a provider of packaged solutions.

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Approaches To Work Design In nutshell, advocates of each approach point the finger at the incompetence of
the application of other approaches. Accordingly, it becomes clear that no single
panacea exists for work organization. As advocated by the contingency
theorists, it depends upon several ‘contingent variables’ .

5.5 WORK IMPROVEMENT AND MEASUREMENT

Work Improvement
The term ‘work improvement’ is very wide and includes the study of work and
simplification and standardization of methods, equipment and working condition.
It is otherwise known as ‘method study’ or method engineering’. Work
improvement may be defined as scientific techniques of studying and
analyzing the conditions influencing the quantity and quality of work done
by the workers According to W.W. Haynes and J.D. Massie, “All of the
physical aspects of operations can be considered as a part of the work
improvement study, layout of work-place, materials handling, design of
equipment, working conditions including lighting, color, air-conditioning, power
and so forth”.

Work improvement not only improves work efficiency, but also improves human
comfort and satisfaction. This is also known as ‘human engineering’ or
‘ERGONOMICS’.

Work Measurement
Work measurement deals with assessing the time content of a job performed
by an operator to determine the proper time to be allowed and the efforts
required for the efficient performance of a job. R.M. Curie has defined work
measurement as ‘application of techniques designed to establish the time
for a qualified worker to carry out a specified job at a defined level of
performance’. Work measurement is popularly known as ‘time study’ which
is a major constituent of the work study. Its advantages are as follows:
Work measurement determines the normal time for a job and thereby serves
as a basis of a sound wage incentive system.
The standard time determined by work measurement helps in labor cost
control.
Work measurement provides the relevant data for efficient work planning
and control.
Work measurement facilitates effective manning of plant and equipment.
Work measurement technique can be useful in reducing the time and cost
involved in the proposed production orders.

Work Measurement vs. Work Improvement

Work measurement is the study and analysis of time taken in the performance
of a specific task. Work improvement denotes the study of methods and
techniques of production for increasing efficiency. These two concepts are
interlinked with each other because both of these aim to increasing productivity.
Efficient work improvement is a precondition of work measurement. Work
improvement uses the techniques of motion study, process analysis, plant layout
and materials handling whereas work measurement involves time study, work
sampling and synthetic standards. Work improvement is done to suggest the
best method of doing the job whereas work measurement helps in fixing fair
day’s work, laying down wage incentive plans, and production planning and
control.

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 Organising and
5.6 TIME AND MOTION STUDY Analysing Work

Work study is an important tool in the hands of management for achieving

greater productivity in the organization. It is a methodical study of the use of
workers, materials and equipment in order to enhance existing methods and
work performance by elimination of every type of waste. Taylor recommended
the technique of time study for work measurement and determination of time
standards. Gilbreths devised the technique of motion study to carry out work
study. Thus, work study covers both time study and motion study for work
measurement and work improvement.

Objectives of Work Study

The objectives of work study are as follows:
Effective use of manpower
Effective use of methods, machines and equipment.
Effective layout of plant.
Elimination of unnecessary human motion.
Simplification and standardization of operations.
Measurement of time required to perform an operation and establishment of
standard level of performance for each worker.

Motion Study
Frank B. Gilbreth, an intrusive Industrial engineer, had pioneered the technique
of Motion study in association with his wife Lillian Mollar Gilbreth during
1902-12. Prior to use of Gilbreth’s standard method, 120 bricks laid per worker
were considered to be normal. Gilbreth’s development of standard method using
motion study resulted in an average production rate of 350 bricks per worker
per hour. This increase was not achieved by making bricklayers work faster
but through most effective way of doing it. For example, Gilbreth reduced the
number of motions from 18 to 5 in laying the bricks. Traditionally, a bricklayer
would bend over and pick up a brick from a pile of bricks on a relatively
unadjustable scaffold, rotate the brick to find the best side, and then lay the
brick by tapping with mortar of often poor consistency. Gilbreth suggested a
different pattern. Gilbreth wanted bricklayers to be able to pick up a brick
most efficiently. Therefore, he had minimum-cost laborers arranging the bricks
on a pallet for ease of pick up by the master bricklayer. He then provided
adjustable scaffolds, the proper location of bricks and mortar, and mortar of
proper consistency. The result was a vast improvement in productivity with
less fatigue.

From various studies Gilbreth developed the law of human motion from which
evolved the principle of motion economy. The motion study is a process of
analyzing a job to find the easiest, most effective, and most economical way of
doing it with the help of a close scrutiny of the motions made by a worker or
a machine. Motion study can be divided into three components, namely :
(i) analysis of therbligs, (ii) micromotion study; and (iii) principles of motion
economy.

Therblig Analysis
Gilbreth classified the basic motions into what he called therbligs (which is
gilbreths spelled back), such as search, find, transport empty, preposition, grasp,
and so forth A therblig is a small part of a job. Gilbreths gave a list of 17
basic motions of a worker. The list is as follows : 1) Search (Sh) 2) Select.
(St.) 3) Grasp (G) 4) Transport empty (TE) 5) Transport loaded. (TL) 6) Hold
(H) 7) Release load (RL) 8) Position (P) 9) Preposition (PP) 10) Inspect. (I) 9
Approaches To Work Design 11) Assemble (A) 12) Disassemble (DA) 13) Use (U) 14) Unavoidable delay
(UD) 15) Avoidable delay (AD) 16) Plan (Pn) 17) Rest for overcoming fatigue (R).

Micromotion Study
Micromotion study is a study of the fundamental elements of an operation with
the help of a high speed movie camera in order to eliminate the unnecessary
motions involved in the operation and balancing the necessary motions. The
speed of the camera should be 1,000 frames per minute. Finding out the
numbers of films that elapse in doing a particular element of motion and
knowing the speed of the camera, one can know the exact time value that
could be assigned to a particular element. This value can be indicated on the
frame scale or time scale drawn on the simo chart (simultaneous motion cycle
chart). The study is known as memo motion study if it is done with the help
of a slow speed camera.

Principles of Motion Economy

The principle of motion economy developed by Gilbreths envisage the correct
application of theories behind motion elements to achieve harmonization of
human body movements, best layout of work places and the optimal design of
equipment and tools. There are five basic principles of motion economy which
are listed below
Principles of minimum movement.
Principles of simultaneous and symmetrical movement.
Principles of rhythmic movement.
Principles of natural movement.
Principles of habitual movement.

The study of the above principles is a lengthy one, usually coming under work
physiology. However, a few rules of effective motions are mentioned below:
1. Successive movement should be so related that one movement passes easily
into that which follows.
2. The order of movements should be so arranged that the mind can attend to
the final aim.
3. The sequence of movements is to be so framed that an easy rhythm can be
established.
4. The continuous movements are preferable to angular movements involving
sudden changes in the direction of movements.
5. The number of movements should be reduced as far as possible.
6. Simultaneous use of both hands should be encouraged.
7. Fixed positions should be provided for tools, materials, etc.

Time Study
Time study is an essential way of work measurement. It is the art of
recording and analyzing methodically the time required to perform a motion or a
series of motions. This divulges that time study is to be conducted after a
motion study has been undertaken.

Probably the first attempt at formally timing work was done in 1760 when Jean
Radolphe Perronet studied the manufacturing of pins and attempts to establish
standard times for various operations. Documents have been found relating to
the Old Derby China Works for the year 1792 in which Mr. Thomas Mason
pledged himself to undertake time studies in the factory. But the term Time
Study was coined by F.W. Taylor. Unlike the early activities of Perronet and
10 others, Taylor started to break the timing down into elements.
Objectives Organising and
Analysing Work
The need for time study arises whenever a better method of doing a work is
introduced in a plant. Time study endeavors to:
Determine a standard day’s work by finding the amount of time needed by
workers to perform the various operations and
Provide production data.

Procedure of Time Study

The procedure to time study involved the following steps:
Selection of work to be studied.
Establishing standardized methods, equipments and working conditions.
Selecting the average worker who is to be studied while performing the
work. Necessary confidence in the worker should be created so as to
obtain his cooperation.
Division of work into elements suitable for time study.
Studying the operator doing the job. For the validity of the time study
results, it is necessary that the analyst should take readings not once but a
number of times. The number of times for which time study should be
repeated, (i.e., number of cycles) will depend upon the level of confidence
needed.
Recording time with the help of stop watch on the time study board of the
required number of work cycles.
After the time values for each element for a sufficient number of cycles
have been recorded, the mode value is selected. The mode value represents
the most frequently appearing time value for an element of the job. Mode
values of different elements will be added to get the normal time for doing a
job. Normal time is the time required by an average worker working under
normal conditions to perform a job.
Adding allowance to normal time to get the standard time. Relaxation
allowances include personal allowance, fatigue allowance, delay allowance,
etc.

In the above mentioned procedure, it is recommended that an average worker

should be preferred for the purpose of time study. If an average worker is not
chosen, performance rating factor will have to be assessed to determine the
normal time for each category of worker. For instance, workers are divided
into three categories : (i) Poor workers (75 points); (ii) Normal or average
workers (100 points); and (iii) Good Workers (125 points). If a good worker is
studied, the time taken by him to perform the job will be multiplied by 125/100
to get the normal time taken by an average worker

Benefits of Time Study

The advantages of time study are as follows:
Time study helps in determining the ideal workload of different categories of
workers.
The standards of performance evolved as a result of time study may be
used for evaluating the performance of employees.
Time study helps in designing a suitable incentive wage plan to motivate the
workers to increase their productivity.
Cost standards are very accurate if they are based on the results of time
study.
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Approaches To Work Design Limitations of Time study
Time study is not limitless. Some of the perceptible limitations of time study
are like so:
There are variations of the standard time determined by different observers.
Even the same observer sets different standard time each time he is asked
to conduct the time study.
Time study involves an element of subjectivity of the observer. Sufficient
judgment has to be used by the observer in the choice of a measure of
central tendency, deciding the degree of personal allowance and so on.
The standard time determined by time study may not be accurate because
of incorrect performance rating of the operator under study.
Time study usually has an adverse effect on the workers. They may not
show the normal behavior pattern when they are being observed. Even the
trade unions may resist stop watch time studies.

Difference between Time Study and Motion Study

The difference between the Time and Motion study is specified in Table 1.

Table 1: Difference between Time Study and Motion Study

Basis Time Study Motion Study

1. Purpose Concerned with the determination of Concerned with the

time taken by the workers in performing motions or movements of
each operation on the job. workers.

2. Scope Covers both workers and machines. Covers only workers.

3. Procedure Conducted with the help of a Conducted by

stop watch. photographic procedures.

5.7 ERGONOMICS
Ergonomics is the scientific, interdisciplinary study of individuals and their
physical relationship to the work environment It is closely associated with
industrial and experimental psychology. Beginning in 1940, the term ‘human
engineering’ was associated with equipment design. By mid 1950s, several
aircraft companies began to utilize human engineering in machine design and
training programmes.

Ergonomics is also called the science of human engineering. Human engineering

may be described as an approach by which an engineer set about the problem
of designing machine and equipment to be used by human beings. The human
engineer applies scientific knowledge and research methodology to study human
areas as they pertain to the operation of the machine systems and concepts.
Human engineering groups generally include engineers, psychologists,
physiologists, mathematicians, anthropologists, physicians and specialists from
other fields.

The human and machine systems possess different characteristics as shown in

Table 2. Ergonomics advocates using these characteristics in complimentary
manner while designing and implementing any production and mechanical
operations.
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 Table 2: Man Vs Machines Organising and
Analysing Work
Man excels in Machines excels in
1. Detection of certain forms of very 1. Monitoring (both men & machines)
low energy levels.
2. Sensitivity to an extremely wide 2. Performing routine, repetitive, or very
variety of stimuli precise operations.
3. Perceiving patterns and making 3. Responding very quickly to control
generalizations about them. signals
4. Detecting signals in high noise levels 4. Exerting great force, smoothly and
with precision
5. Ability to store large amounts of 5. Storing and recalling large amounts of
information for long periods and information in short time period
recalling relevant facts of appropriate
moments.
6. Ability to exercise judgment where 6. Performing complex and rapid
events cannot be completely defined computation with high accuracy
7. Improvising and adopting flexible 7. Doing many different things at one
procedures time
8. Ability to react to unexpected 8. Deductive processes
low-probability events
9. Applying originality in solving 9. Insensitivity to extraneous factors
problems: i.e. alternate solutions
10. Ability to profit from experience 10. Ability to repeat operations very
and later course of action. rapidly, continuously, and precisely
the same way over a long period
11. Ability to perform fine manipulation, 11. Operating in environments, which are
especially where misalignment hostile to man or beyond human
appears unexpectedly tolerance
12. Ability to continue to perform even
when over loaded.
13. Ability to reason inductively

Source: Woodson, Wesley E. and Donald W. Conover (1964), Human Engineering

Guide for Equipment Designers, University of California Press, Berkeley.

Needs of Human Engineering

Human engineering is the study of people at work and of work methods. Its
purposes are to:
Design human-machine system involving the best combination of human and
machine elements.
Study equipments design, hours of work and physical conditions of work.
Design the machine for its users fitting it to their physiological requirements
to minimize fatigue and maximize output.
Reduce the types of injuries caused by poor design. Ergonomically designed
spaces, systems and environment that take into account both the
psychological and physical aspects of the people increases efficiency, health
and prevent injuries and musculoskeletal disorders
Assist in design and operation of man-machine environmental system which
will ensure physical and mental ease to the human beings.
Design the machines and equipments in such a manner that not only the
users but also those in the vicinity should be protected against dangers of
accidents.
Design the machinery, equipment and tools to suit the human operator and
not vice versa. It includes the following : 13
Approaches To Work Design Tools and materials should be arranged at the work-place in such a way
that the operator can reach them easily.
Machine control should be installed in the working area so that it is
within the reach of the machine operator.
There should be mechanization of materials handling on and between
processing points, particularly, for heavy and bulky items.
The machine operator should be permitted to sit while on the job unless
the nature of job requires him to stand. If he is required to stand for
long hours, he should be given rest pauses so as to relax himself There
should be proper arrangement to eliminate job safety hazards.
Good working conditions should be provided to the operators so as to
maintain their physical and mental health. There should be satisfactory
lighting and sanitary facilities. The operator should have easy access to
service facilities.

5.8 WORKSPACE AND ARCHITECTURAL

ERGONOMICS
The design of the workspace or Architectural Ergonomics has a direct
impact on the efficiency and productivity of the workers. Workspace is the
space within which one perform the tasks that add up to his job. Physical
design of a workspace includes working out how much space needed, and
positioning of furniture, tools, equipment and any other items needed to perform
the tasks, in respect of posture, access, clearance, reach and vision of the user.

A poorly designed workspace, or a bad arrangement of furniture or equipment,

may result in injuries and strains due to adoption of uncomfortable working
postures, less ‘spare’ capacity to deal with unexpected events or emergencies,
the increased possibility of errors or accidents, and inefficiency.

A ‘workspace envelope’ is a 3-dimensional space within which one carry out

physical work activities when he is at a fixed location. The limits of the
envelope are determined by ones functional arm reach which, in turn, is influenced
by the direction of reach and the nature of the task being performed.

Table 3: Guidelines For The Design Of Workspaces

Encourage a frequent change in posture

Avoid forward bending of head and trunk
Avoid causing the arms to be held in a raised position
Avoid twisted and asymmetrical positions
Avoid postures that require a joint to be used for long periods of time at the
limit of its range of motion
Provide adequate back support for all seats
Where muscular force must be exerted the limbs should be in a position of
greatest strength
Test your workspace layouts

Proper work place design helps to reduce or eliminate the risk of injury to a
worker, minimizes the required number of movements or steps, and optimizes
the flow of process or materials through the space. By designing for efficient
use of space, technology and architectural features, architectural ergonomics
enhances function and usability by promoting: work flow, process flow, traffic
flow, wayfinding, integration of technology, facility maintenance, and
14 accessibility. Guidelines for the design of workspaces is provided is Table 3.
Architectural Ergonomics can be incorporated into an organization by: Organising and
Analysing Work
Facilitating employees in Participative Design Processes
Design audits
Ergonomics training

Digital Human Simulation and Ergonomics

A new method for determining the workspace of human motion has been
established in recent years at the University of Iowa Center for Computer
Aided Design (CCAD) . This method addresses the problems of interest in
human motion analysis in terms of ergonomic design, workspace visualization,
posture prediction, layout design, and placement. It brings in the exact boundary
of the workspace in closed-form which makes it possible to :
Demarcate the exact reach envelope (boundary of the workspace) of human
limbs while taking into consideration the ranges of motion.
Visualize the exact workspace of human limbs.
Define and plan trajectories in the workspace.
Design ergonomic workplaces subject to specified cost functions.
Facilitate the design of layouts and packaging.
Verify measured data and validate human models.
Predict realistic postures, and
Optimize designs based on specified cost functions. Cost functions
representing dexterity, reach ability, energy, force, and others have been
developed and integrated with optimization code to address ergonomics
design problems.
Activity A
Suppose you are designing an internet café. How can you use ergonomics.
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Activity B
Your neighbour has started a new school for kids. He is interested in applying
ergonomics in the school. He has bought some colored and mobile furniture for
classrooms, so the kids can move and organize it in several ways. Could you
please help him with some ideas regarding this problem? He would also like to
use ergonomics to stimulate kids imagination and to facilitate the process of
learning.
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Approaches To Work Design
5.9 IMPACT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ON
ORGANISING WORK
Over the past ten to fifteen years the emergence of Information Technology
(IT) as a strategic resource has evolved new types of working and working
relationships. It has not only affected the structure of organizations but has
made it possible to invent new ways of working. IT has been used as a
facilitator as well as an enabler of new work. As a consequence it has enabled
many companies to reduce their fixed asset costs, mainly office space and
buildings.

A few example of new forms of IT enabled work design are:

Satellite Location is an attempt to reduce the office space. Satellite Locations

are networked together to form a cohesive structure. Expensive large corporate
centers have been reduced in size and only a token ‘image’ presence is kept in
prestige locations.

Hot Desking And Hoteling is another attempt to reduce office space and
hence the cost of fixed assets. Employees simply plug in to office space with
docking facilities for laptop computers and other support.

Telecentres and Telecottages: Telecentres are specific regional centres that

support many organisations’ employees providing all the electronic
communications infrastructure needed for effective working. Telecottages are a
variation on these theme to support workers in rural or thinly populated
locations.

Teleworking and Telecommuting: Teleworking could be described as home

working with electronic communication support whereas telecommuting could be
described as the mobile office in a car, hotel or anywhere, supported by the
mobile phone and the laptop computer. (According to a new AT&T survey
conducted by the Economist Intelligence Unit , business will see a major
growth in teleworking over the next two years.17% of AT&T managers now
work full time from home in Virtual Offices, while the operational benefit of
telework to AT&T exceeds $150 million annually).

Telematics (Field Systems): A closely related concept to telecommuting but

the equipment is more specialized usually fixed in vehicles. Used to
communicate information between control centres and mobile workers. It is
used by the utilities, service companies and the Police etc.

Computer Supported Co-Operative Working (CSCW): It is gaining

appreciation as a technology that can support and enhance a truly enterprise
wide working environment.

The Virtual Organisation: Many sole traders use agencies that provide a
virtual presence for their clients using CIT (computer integrated telephony) and
by providing office space and electronic facilities when needed. Teleworkers
can be networked together to form their own organisations, although their
clients may never see them or need to visit them. Their virtual offices may be
contained in a website.

Online business and E-commerce: The success and growth of the Internet
has made on-line business a cost effective and available technology for many
small and medium sized businesses to market their products. Amazon is a
virtual bookstore, now the largest bookstore in the world.
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Activity C Organising and
Analysing Work
On the basis of your experience, explain how IT can enabled new ways of
working at the work place.
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Activity D
Carefully go through the narrative on impact of IT on organizing work and
construct definitions and examples of the following terms.

Hotdesking and Hotelling:

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Telecottages and Telecentres:

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CSCW:
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Virtual Organizations:
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Teleworking and Telecommuting:

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E-commerce:
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Telematics:
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5.10 SUMMARY
Work is any productive activity undertaken to generate a given product or a
service. Organizing work refers to arrangement of matters so that people can
work in concert to get the work done. There are different ways of organizing
and analyzing work as recommended by different management thinkers.

17
Approaches To Work Design Work measurement is the study and analysis of time taken in the performance
of a specific task. Work improvement denotes the study of methods and
techniques of production for increasing efficiency. Work study covers both time
study and motion study for work measurement and work improvement. While
Time study is concerned with the determination of time taken by the workers in
performing each operation on the job, Motion study is concerned with the
motions or movements of workers.

Ergonomics is the scientific study of individuals and their physical relationship to

the work environment. Computer Aided Design method addresses the problems
of interest in human motion analysis in terms of ergonomic design, workspace
visualization, posture prediction, layout design, and placement. The use of IT
has evolved many new forms of work design in recent years.

5.11 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What are the different approaches to organising and analysing work?
2. Explain the concept of “ergonomics.”
3. Write down the impact of IT in organising work with suitable examples.

5.12 FURTHER READINGS

England, G.W. and Harpaz, I.(1990), “How Working is Defined: National
Contexts and Demographic and Organizational Role Influences”, Journal Of
Organizational Behavior, 11.

Hall, Richard H.(1994), Sociology of Work, Perspectives, Analyses, and

Issues, Pine Forge Press, p.5.

Singh, B.P. and Chhabra, T.N. (2002), Organization Theory and Behavior,
Dhanpat Rai & Co. (P) Ltd., Delhi (2002).

http//:work organization [Link]

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