Scientific method and psychological research

Definition and general remark

Theodoson and Teodoson in their modern dictionary of sociology (N.Y, 1969) defined research
as ‘any honest attempt to study a problem systematically or to add to man’s knowledge of a
problem.’

The methods used by psychologists in their investigations are similar to the methods used in
other scientific fields. A feature of scientific method is that data are collected in an unbiased,
objective way.

There are three main ways in which objectivity can be maximized: this can be through,
1. operational definition,
2. replication and
3. control.

Operational definition is defining exactly what particular terms mean in that particular
investigation. This enables to measure and quantify the variables under study and avoid
ambiguity.

One way to check the objectivity of findings is to see if they can be replicated. If similar results
are yielded with the same or different participants and in different contexts objectivity of
findings is maintained. This helps to construct a body of knowledge or theory.

Psychologists use theories to organize different observations and relate them in a coherent
manner. In laboratory experiment, the experimenter manipulates an independent variable and
measures its effect on a dependent variable and holds the influence of all other unwanted
variables. For example, a test of the effect of alcohol on driving ability would need to control
other extraneous variables like previous experience or drinking history.

No one best method is available for studying all aspects of human behavior and thought. Each
has advantages and limitations. In general, psychological investigations attempts to:

i. Describe mental and physical behavior;

Regardless of the problem type the general methods employed in psychological research are:

a. Identifying and clearly stating the problem;

Data gathering is influenced by factors involved in the research and the nature of the population
to be studied. When gathering data psychologists focus on variables, factors or events.

A variable is something that undergoes changes. If the variable in the research is, for example,
intensity of a tone, intensity is the variable; if difficulty of a test is the variable in a study, the
study variable is difficulty.

There are two major types of variables.

These are:
1. Independent variable: any factor whose change is expected to affect the event that is being
studied.
2. Dependent variable: the event that is expected to change when the independent variable is
altered.

Suppose an epidemiologist wants to investigate the effect on tooth decay of the addition of
fluoride to drinking water. The independent variable in this research design is addition of
fluoride. Tooth decay is the dependent variable. Collecting all possible data is not practical.
Hence, there is a need to sample from the target population. But the sample must be: a. Large
enough to reflect the universe (population) b. Randomly selected i.e., every member of the
population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. In a random sampling, some
members are not favored over others. It is called representativeness.

Representativeness goes beyond the choice of subjects. The specific items in which people in a
study respond should be an adequate sample of possible items. Once the problem is identified,
we can use any of the following five methods. Psychology as a scientific study of human
behavior and mental processes, it involves collecting data systematically and objectively. To
accomplish this, a variety of research methods are used by researchers.

Each method has its own advantages and limitations. The following section gives a brief
description about the methods in psychology.
1. Naturalistic Observation
Psychologists and researchers use naturalistic observation to study human behavior in natural
settings. It is essentially a way of perceiving behavior as it is. This method helps to infer mental
processes of others through the observation of their external behavior. Since there is minimal
interference from the researcher, the behavior observed is more likely to be accurate,
spontaneous and varied than behavior studied in a laboratory.

Advantages
a. It is a natural and flexible procedure, and hence economical.
 b. It is reliable and more accurate.
c. It is verifiable by other researchers.
d. Very useful in developmental psychologies.
e. Very useful for clinical psychologists to gather data required for understanding abnormal
behavior.

Disadvantages
a. Can be used for observing overt behaviors only.
b. It is very difficult to apply in adults as they can easily manipulate or hide their behavior.
c. Subjectivity of interpretations on the part of the observer will affect the results.
d. The success of the method depends on the ability to establish cause and effect in a proper
manner.
e. The behavior being observed is dependent on time, place and individual or groups involved.

2. Case studies

Researchers conducting a case study investigate the behavior of one person or a few persons in
depth. The concept of clinical method is included in the concept of clinical psychology which is
the art and technology of dealing with the adjustment problems of individuals for achieving
optimum social adjustment and welfare. It is a method used for studying the behavioral
problems of maladjusted or deviant personalities which is often considered as a case. Case study
is characterized by detailed and realistic description of a case. Data pertaining to the past and
present are collected and analyzed to locate causes of maladjustment or deviation in order to
find remedies to it. The clinical set up or environment is associated with health care and
treatment of individuals who undergo treatment of physical and mental disorders. This method
can yield a great deal of detailed, descriptive information useful for forming hypotheses.

Advantages
a. It can be used for studying specific behavior of an individual or a group.
b. It studies the problems in-depth, and hence it is intensive yielding better results.
c. It is an efficient and useful method.
d. It helps in finding out the problems and its related causes, and suggests remedies to it.

Disadvantages
a. The success of this method depends on the efficiency of the researcher.
b. The area covered or the scope of the problem is often limited.
c. It focuses only on individual cases.
d. The findings of case studies cannot be generalized.

3. Surveys
Under this method data pertaining to a particular phenomenon are gathered and studied to
reach at generalizable results. For this, the phenomena under study is thoroughly analyzed in to
relevant aspects. Questions are formed and pooled so that the maximum relevant data relating
to the phenomenon can be generated for studying. Survey research generates large amount of
 data quickly and inexpensively by asking a set of questions from a large number of people. The
data thus gathered are analyzed by using techniques that are appropriate for the study.

Advantages
a. Data pertaining to phenomenon can be studied on a fairly large sample or population.
b. Data can be collected from large number of people using questionnaires.
c. Fairly large detailing of data can be done by including more questions in the questionnaires.
d. Large amount of data can be collected quickly that is economical.
e. The results can be generalized.

Disadvantage
a. The quality of questions determines the accuracy of data collected. Hence, if the questions
are not prepared carefully, it may show wrong results.
b. If the sample is not a representative of population, then it may affect the results and will
give a wrong picture when generalized to the population.
c. The analysis of large amount of data is often a tedious work.
d. The response of respondents is very crucial, if they wrongly represent their responses, it
may affect the study.

4. Correlational Research
Correlational research is used to investigate the relation, correlation, between two or more
variables. Correlational research is useful for clarifying relationships between pre-existing
variables that cannot be examined by other means.
5. Experimental Research
In the experimental method one variable (independent variable) is systematically manipulated
and the effects on another variable (dependent variable) are studied, usually using both an
experimental group of subjects (participants) and a control group for comparison purposes. By
holding all other variables constant, the researcher can draw conclusions about cause and
effect. Often a neutral person is used to record data and results, so that experimenter bias does
not exist.

Advantages
a. It is scientific method of inquiry.
b. It follows an objective method of research.
c. It helps in establishing the cause and effect relationship.
d. It helps to identify the problems for remediation.

Disadvantages
a. It is conducted under controlled situations.
b. Specific situation demands specific experiments to understand the problem under study.
c. Specialized knowledge is required to conduct experiments.
d. The skill and efficiency of the researcher is very important in conducting experimental
research.
e. The researcher must have the ability to design appropriate experiments for conducting
research.