Leading/Directing
S O U R C E : M A N A G E ME N T - A G L O B AL
P E R S P E C T IV E
B Y W E I H R I CH A N D K O O N T Z 1 1 TH E D I T I O N
Leading/Directing
It is defined as the process of influencing people
so that they will contribute to organizational and
group goals.
Managing requires the creation and
maintenance of an environment in which
individuals work together in groups toward
the accomplishment of common objectives.
The manager’s job is not to manipulate people
but, rather, to recognize what motivates
people.
Motivation
A general term
applying to the entire
class of drives,
desires, needs,
wishes, and similar
forces.
Motivation Models/Theories
1. Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Two sets of assumptions about the nature of
people.
Theory X is pessimistic, static, and rigid.
Control is primarily external, imposed on the
subordinate by the superior.
In contrast, Theory Y is optimistic, dynamic,
and flexible, with an emphasis on self-direction
and the integration of individual needs with
organizational demands.
Motivation Models/Theories
2. Maslow’s
Maslow’s hierarchy of
Hierarchy of needs
Needs Theory Need
For
Self-Actualization
When one set of Esteem Needs
needs is satisfied, Affiliation or Acceptance Needs
this kind of need
ceases to be a Security or Safety Needs
motivator. Physiological Needs
Motivation Models/Theories
3. Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory
People are motivated by existence needs,
relatedness needs, and growth.
Existence - concerned mainly with providing basic
material existence.
Relatedness - individuals need to maintain
interpersonal relationship with other members in the
group.
Growth - the intrinsic desire to grow and develop
personally.
Motivation Models/Theories
4. Frederick Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene
Theory
Satisfiers are motivators and are related to job content
while dissatisfiers, also called maintenance,
hygiene, or job-context factors, are not motivators.
He states that presence of certain factors in the
organization is natural and the presence of the same
does not lead to motivation. However, their nonpresence
leads to demotivation.
In similar manner there are certain factors, the absence
of which causes no dissatisfaction, but their presence
has motivational impact.
Motivation Models/Theories
Comparison of Maslow’s
and Herzberg’s theories of
Maslow’s motivation Herzberg’s
Needs Hierarchy Two-factor theory
Challenging work
Achievement
Motivators
Self-actualization Growth in the job
Responsibility
Advancement
Recognition
Esteem or status
Affiliation or
acceptance
Maintenance factors
Status
Interpersonal relations
Quality of supervision
Security or safety Company policy and administration
Job security
Salary
Physiological needs
Motivation Models/Theories
5. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
People will be motivated to do things to reach
a goal if they believe in the worth of the goal
and if they can see that what they do will help
them in achieving it.
An employee can be motivated to perform better
when there is a belief that the better performance
will lead to good performance appraisal and that
this shall result into realization of personal goal in
form of some reward
Motivation Models/Theories
6. Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler
Model
Suggests that levels of motivation are based more on the
value that individuals place on the reward.
The components that effect motivation then, are called
valence (what's important to you) and expectancy (can you
do it).
Porter and Lawler suggest that perceived inequality in this
model plays a pivotal role in job satisfaction. Motivation or
effort leads to performance. This performance is followed
by intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. The perceived equity of
those rewards leads to satisfaction.
Motivation Models/Theories
7. Stacey Adam’s Equity Theory
Motivation is influenced by an individual’s
subjective judgment about the fairness of the
reward he or she gets, relative to the inputs,
compared with the rewards of others.
Reduced output
Inequitable Dissatisfaction
reward Departure from
organization
Balance or Continuation
Equitable
imbalance at same level
reward
of rewards of output
More than Harder work
Equitable Higher output
reward
Motivation Models/Theories
8. Goal Setting
Theory of Edwin
Locke
States that when the
goals to be achieved are
set at a higher standard,
employees are motivated
to perform better and
put in maximum effort.
Motivation Models/Theories
9. B. F. Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory
Individuals can be motivated by proper
design of their work environment and
by praise for their performance, while
punishment for poor performance
produces negative results.
Hence, the only way to motivate is to keep on
making positive changes in the external
environment of the organization.
Motivation Models/Theories
10. David McClelland’s Needs Theory
a theory on three types of motivating needs
which are
o Need for Power
o Need for Affiliation
o Need for Achievement
Motivation Models/Theories
People for high need for
power are inclined
towards influence and
control, like to be at the
center and are good
orators, demanding in
nature, forceful in
manners and ambitious
in life.
They can be motivated to
perform if they are given
key positions or power
positions.
Motivation Models/Theories
People who are social in
nature try to affiliate
themselves with individuals
and groups, are driven by
love and faith, and like to
build a friendly
environment around
themselves.
Social recognition and
affiliation with others
provides them motivation.
Motivation Models/Theories
People with the need of
achievement are driven by the
challenge of success and the
fear of failure.
They set for themselves
moderately difficult tasks, are
analytical in nature and take
calculated risks.
Such people are motivated to
perform when they see atleast
some chances of success.
Leadership
Leadership isthe art or process of
influencing people so that they will strive
willingly and
enthusiastically
toward the
achievement of
group goals.
Leadership
Good leaders are made not born. If you have the
desire and willpower, you can become an effective
leader. Good leaders develop through a never
ending process of self-study, education, training,
and experience.
- Jago, 1982
Approaches to Leadership
(1) Trait Approach
(2) Transformational
(3) Transactional Leadership
(4) Charismatic Leadership
(5) Fiedler’s Contingency Approach
(6) Path-Goal Approach
(1) Trait Approaches to Leadership
Ralph M. Stogdill found that various researchers had
identified specific traits related to leadership
ability such as:
5 physical traits
energy, appearance, physique, height, and charisma
Example: Saddam Hussein, Adolf Hitler, Abraham Lincoln
4 intelligence and ability traits
intelligence, good judgment, fluent in speaking and good
decision making skills
Example: George Washington, Ferdinand Marcos, Bill
Gates, Steve Jobs
(1) Trait Approaches to Leadership
Ralph M. Stogdill found that various researchers had
identified specific traits related to leadership
ability such as:
16 personality traits
adaptable, aggressive, enthusiastic, self-confident,
responsible, assertive, dependable, dominant, persistent,
tolerant of stress, creative, diplomatic, organized,
understanding, ambitious and trustworthy
6 task-related characteristics (such as
achievement drive, persistence, and initiative)
Achievement-driven, persistent, has initiative, creative,
conceptually skilled and task competent
(1) Trait Approaches to Leadership
Ralph M. Stogdill found that various researchers had
identified specific traits related to leadership
ability such as:
9 social characteristics
Cooperative, interpersonal skills, administrative ability,
sociable, knowledgeable about the group, motivator, and flexible
(2) Transformational Leadership Approach
The transformational leadership style
occur when one or more persons engage in
such a way that leaders and followers raise
one another to higher levels of motivation and
morality.
(2) Transformational Leadership Approach
Mahatma Ghandi
Benigno Aquino, Sr. Mother Teresa of Calcutta
Martin Luther King Evita Peron Pope John Paul II
(3) Transactional Leadership Approach
The transactional leadership theory,
developed by Weber and Bass, is based on the
hypothesis that followers are motivated
through a system of rewards and punishment.
(4) Charismatic Leadership Approach
Charismatic leadership is based on the
leader's ability to communicate and behave in
ways that reach followers on a basic,
emotional way, to inspire and motivate.
(4) Charismatic Leadership Approach
Corazon Aquino Princess Diana
John F. Kennedy Joseph Estrada
(5) Fiedler’s Contingency Approach to
Leadership
People become leaders not only because of their
personality attributes but also because of various
situational factors and the interactions between
leaders and group members.
Based on leadership style --- task-motivated and
relationship-motivated
(6 ) Path-goal Approach to Leadership
This was developed to describe the way that leaders
encourage and support their followers in achieving
the goals they have been set by making the path that
they should take clear and easy.
In particular, leaders:
Clarify the path so subordinates know which way to go.
Remove roadblocks that are stopping them going there.
Increasing the rewards along the route.
Leadership
Leadership Styles Based on Use of Authority
1. Autocratic Leader
He commands and expects compliance, is
dogmatic and positive, and leads by the ability
to withhold or give rewards and punishment.
2. Democratic or Participative Leader
He consults with subordinates and encourages
their participation.
3. Free-rein Leader
He uses power very little, if at all, giving
subordinates a high degree of independence.
Leadership Styles Based on Use of Authority
T h e f l o w o f i n f l u e n c e w i t h t h r e e l e a d e r s h i p
s t y l e s
A u to c r a tic
L e a d e r
F o l l o w e r F o l l o w e r F o l l o w e r
D e m o c r a t i c o r
P a r t i c i p a t i v e
L e a d e r
F o l l o w e r F o l l o w e r F o l l o w e r
F r e e - r e in
L e a d e r
F o l l o w e r F o l l o w e r F o l l o w e r
Communication
The transfer of information from a
sender to a receiver, with the
information being understood by the
receiver.
The Communication Process
A Communication Process Model
Feedback
Transmission Understandin
Thought Encoding Reception Decoding
of message g
Sender Receiver
Noise
The Purpose of Communication
1. To establish and disseminate the goals of an
enterprise.
2. To develop plans for their achievement.
3. To organize human and other resources in the
most effective and efficient way.
4. To select, develop, and appraise members of an
organization.
5. To lead, direct, motivate, and create a climate
in which people want to contribute.
6. To control performance.
The Communication Process
The Purpose and Function of Communication
Planning Organizing Staffing Leading Controlling
Communications
External environment:
Customers
Suppliers
Stockholders
Go v e r nm e nts
Co m m uni ty
Others
T h e M a n a g e m e n t Process
Communication in an Organization
1. Downward Communication
It flow from people at higher levels to those at lower
levels in the organizational hierarchy.
2. Upward Communication
Travels from subordinates to superiors and continues
up the organizational hierarchy.
3. Crosswise Communication
It includes the horizontal flow of information (among
people on the same or similar organizational levels)
and the diagonal flow of information (among people
at different levels who have no direct reporting
relationships with one another).
Communication in an Organization
Information Flow in an
Organization
Horizontal
Upward
Diagonal
Downward
Forms of Communication
1. Written Communication
Communication in written form
Includes pictograms or visuals, letters,
memorandums, reports, text messages,
electronic messages (e-mail).
Forms of Communication
2. Oral or verbal Communication
Primarily refers to spoken verbal
communication
Includes discussion, speeches, presentations,
interpersonal communication and many
other varieties.
The body language and voice tonality plays
a significant role and may have a greater
impact on the listener than the intended
content of the spoken words.
Forms of Communication
3. Nonverbal Communication
Describes the process of conveying meaning in
the form of non-word messages through e.g.
gestures, body language, or posture; facial
expression and eye contact, object
communication such as clothing, hairstyles,
architectures, symbols, and infographics, as well
as through an aggregate of the above.
Non-verbal communication is also called silent
language and plays a key role in human day to
day life.
Communication Methods
Primitive or conventional method
regular mail (“snail mail”), morse code
Use of information technology
wired and wireless telephone, fax machine, voice
mail, internet (for e-mail, chatting, etc),
teleconference , and videoconference
Tips for Improving Written
Communication
Use simple words and phrases.
Use short and familiar words.
Use personal pronouns (such as “you”) whenever appropriate.
Give illustrations and examples; use charts.
Use short sentences and paragraphs.
Use active verbs, such as “The manager plans…”
Avoid unnecessary words.
Tips for Improving Oral Communication
Communicate with a large audience as you would do in a one-to-one
conversation.
Tell a story, an anecdote, and give examples.
Pause—do not rush. In a discussion, a pause shows that you are
listening.
Use visual aids such as diagrams, charts, overhead slides, and
computer graphic presentations.
Communicate confidence and create trust. This can be done by strong
and clear voice, good posture, and a smile.
Use a colorful, specific language and show through your body
language that you are confident and are in command of the situation.