Thinking While this is excellent for processing

How the brain processes thought. speed and storage, there are two major
What is “thinking”? drawbacks to this process of thinking.
For our purposes, we will define thinking as the Linear Thinking
way the brain processes, stores and uses Linear Thinking eliminates all but one possible
information. solution to a problem.
The way information is processed and used, in This creates a problem if that one solution
combination with interpretation and the use of becomes unusable for any reason.
emotions is called the “mind”.
How most people think... Linear Thinking tends to use the same neural
pathways over and over.
The brain “thinks” in two basic ways. This makes it difficult for a person to see
By creating “formulas”, or simplifications other possible solutions to the problem.
of what is really there. This allows you to
process information faster. 5
What are the drawbacks of this for The “5” problem.
an artist? On a clean sheet of paper do the following...
In the upper left hand corner, draw a circle.
By creating “patterns”. Patterns are In the upper right hand corner, draw a square.
shortcuts that allow the brain to skip over In the lower right hand corner, draw a rectangle.
certain pieces of information as they are In the lower left hand corner, draw a triangle.
filed away. This allows faster processing. In the center place five.
What are the drawbacks of this 5
system? How many of you drew the Roman numeral five?
The Brain Why?
To further complicate the thinking process, he Because it was the simplest formula and the easiest
human brain is divided into two separate pattern for the brain to pull out of your memory.
hemispheres. Take a look at the following examples.
These hemispheres are connected, but each is
responsible for different functions and different Aren’t each one of the following example
aspects of the “mind”. legitimate solutions to the problem?
The Left Hemisphere What is a neural pathway?
The neural “roadmap” of the brain...
The left brain is the “Rational” side of the brain. At birth, all the neural pathways are open.
This intellectual side handles logical thought, As a person ages and uses pathways less...
language skills, mathematics and computation, the unused pathways all disappear...
sequential (linear) thinking and musculoskeletal leaving fewer and fewer options open.
control. Until only very few remain.
But what happens if that one route no longer
This part of the brain is quiet, or at rest when the works?
brain is in its dream state (REM). Divergent Thinking vs.
The Right Hemisphere Convergent Thinking
The goal of divergent thinking is to generate
The right hemisphere is the “intuitive” part of the many different solutions to a problem in a short
brain, the animal or “gut feeling” part. period of time.
This side of the brain handles perception,
creativity, spatial relationships, emotions, visceral- Divergent thinking typically occurs in a
nervous control and “associative” thinking. spontaneous, free-flowing manner, such that the
ideas are generated in a random, unorganized
This part of the brain is awake and active during fashion.
the dream state (REM). Following divergent thinking, the ideas
This is a much more accurate representation of the and information will be organized using
lobes of the brain. convergent thinking, putting the various
Linear Thinking ideas back together in some organized,
Most educational systems teach what is known as structured way.
“linear thinking”. Divergent Thinking vs.
Linear Thinking is a method of thinking that takes Convergent Thinking
information and stores it, based on how it relates to The goal of convergent thinking is to eliminate
previously processed and stored information. all but one solution to a problem.
Convergent thinking is what you have been takes our heads out of the clouds , enlarging our
primarily taught through most of your educational views of ourselves, and our knowledge of the
process. world ,allowing us to break out of prejudices and
The problem with convergent thinking is harmful habits that we have held since we were to
the same as eliminating neural pathways. young or too naïve to know better
What if there is a flaw in that one solution,
or if you find a circumstance where that Philosophy puts our lives and our beliefs in
one solution is rendered unworkable? perspective , by enabling us to see afresh the ways
in which we view the world , to see what we
How does Linear Thinking work? assume , what we infer and what we know for
This is a real life example of how the linear certain .It allows us to appreciate other views of
method of processing and accessing information the world . It encourages us to see the
works (and doesn’t work). consequences of our views and sometimes their
What now? hopeless inconsistencies.
What is “Lateral Thinking”? Ethics
Lateral Thinking is a method of seeing the Ethics comes from a Latin word “ ethos “which
information different context, organizing it in a means customs ,habitual conduct ,usages and
way to allow the person to rearrange it so that it character
can be used to create a variety of solutions to any Ethics is related to morals ,moral systems and to
given problem. human conduct .As branch of philosophy , it
systematically examines and studies such concepts
What is “Analytical Thinking”? as right and wrong. Ethics deals with what we
Analytical Thinking is a method of Lateral should and should not do , what acts are good and
Thinking (a lateral thinking skill) that forces the wrong.
user to re-examine the context of a given piece of
information. It examines such concepts and constructs as
We will be using “forced analogies”. responsibility and rights . As the basis for ethics
An analogy is a connection ,morality is a set or system of rules ,principles or
between two things. values ( cultural ,professional ,religious ) that
A forced analogy is creating (or prescribe behavior and how we evaluate those
finding) a connection where none behaviors.
exists (or seems to exist). Ethics Presupposes:
What’s the connection between hands and the That people are :
ocean? -Free
The analogy can be intellectual… -They want to do what is right
Or visual… _ They can make conscious ,thoughtful and
Or both… reflective decisions
Critical Thinking is…
Types of Ethical Thinking
the process we use to reflect on assess and judge Descriptive – reports the “facts” does not get us
the assumption underlying our own and others too far in resolving ethical dilemmas
ideas and efforts. Normative – concerned with questions of good/
bad , right and wrong ,allows us to make moral
Critical Thinking Involves judgements
Recognizing underlying assumptions. Prescriptive – we make assertions based on
Scrutinizing arguments. consideration of morality ; concerned with what
Judging ideas. OUGHT to be the case; such system of rules and
Judging the rationality of these values ; prescriptive statements are generalizable.
justifications by comparing them to a Major Ethical Frameworks
range of varying interpretations and Deotological ( kant ) Do unto others what you
prospective. want to do unto you ; never treat others as means
Providing positive as well as negative to an end.
appraisal. Utilitarian ( Mill ) The greatest good for the
greatest number
Logic .Philosophy and Ethics Virtue Ethics ( Aristotle) Emphasizes the moral
character
Philosophy - What virtues ? Living well,being good person,
Need not as commonly as commonly believed , being happy and complete and [Link] on
put our heads in the clouds ,out of touch with what kind of person one should be
everyday reality. Quite to the contrary , philosophy Ethical Theories
Rights Based [Link] shall not commit adultery
-Natural Rights : Life , Liberty , pursuit of [Link] shall not steal
happines [Link] shall not take the name of the Lord your
-Legal Rights God in vain
- Positive versus negative rights : “Rights [Link] the Sabbath day , to keeep it Holy
cxonsidered negative rights may include civil and 9. You shall not bear false witness againts your
political rights such as freedom of speech ,private neighbor
property , freedom for violent crime , freedom of 10. You shall not covet your neighbor’s house you
worship ,habeas corpus a fair trial . shall not covet your neighbor’s wife , nor his male
servant, nor his female servant , nor his ox , nor his
Rights considered positive rights may include donkey , nor anything that is your neighbor’s
other civil political rights such as police protection Values
of person and property and the right to counsel as The foundation from which a society’s
well as economic , social and cultural rights such are based
as public education ,health care ,social security Intrinsic versus instrumental or extrinsic values
and minimum standard of living.
The intrinsic value of something is said to be the
Character Based ( virtue ethics ) Don’t ask what value that that thing has “in itself,” or “for its own
can I do but what kind of person can I BE? sake,” or “as such,” or “in its own right.” Extrinsic
What is unique about computer data / value is value that is not intrinsic. Many
Information/ philosophers take intrinsic value to be crucial to a
Does the emergence of digital media significantly variety of moral [Link]
alter how we are to think about ethical
responsibilities towards one another. How or why Intrinsic value has traditionally been thought to lie
not? at the heart of ethics. Philosophers use a number of
Is technology neutral ? terms to refer to such value. The intrinsic value of
Who is responsible for the impacts and something is said to be the value that that thing has
consequences of the global diffusion of ICTs ? “in itself,” or “for its own sake,” or “as such,” or
( designers ,users who? Distributed responsibility/ “in its own right.” Extrinsic value is value that is
Computer /Information Ethics not intrinsic.
“ Computer and information ethics “ in the
broadest sense of this phrase , can be understood A few examples of intrinsic values are food and
as that branch of applied ethics which studies and water. Extrinsic values are those that are not
analyzes such social and ethical impacts of ICT. necessary for sustaining life but they are just
Moral /Ethics needed to run life. A few examples of extrinsic
-Costums , habits , behavoir values are cell phones, bike, dress etc. They
Ethics is the study of morality include objects both physical and abstract.
So we are studying the customs ,habits of ICT and How do we develop moral system?
all that it entails Religion
Moral System Legality
Fundamental Purpose is to prevent or alleviate Philosophy / Ethics
harm or suffering Cyberethics and Logic
Rationality An argument has at least two characteristics –
Gert’s Ten Moral Rules VS Ten Commmandments includes at least two claims and aims to establish
Do not kill conclusion
Do not cause pain
Do not disable What do wed look for in an argument? How do we
Do not deprive pleasure construct arguments?
Do not deceive Clear, well define terms, how reasoned your
Keep your promises approach is .
Do not cheat
Obey the law Understand valid versus invalid arguments:
Do your duty If an argument is valid and its premises are tyrue ,
[Link] shall have no other gods before ME the conclusion must be true: a valid argument
[Link] shall not make for yourself a carved image cannot have true premises and false conclusion
any likeness of anything that is in heaven above ,or The validity of an argument depends , however ,
that is in the earth beneath or that is in the water not the actual truth or falsity of its premises and
under the earth conclusions , but solely on whether or not the
5. Honor your Father and your Mother argument has valid logical form. The validity of an
[Link] shall not murder argument is not a guarantee of the truth of its
conclusion . A valid argument may have false The most common examples of normative ethical
premises and false conclusion theories are utilitarianism, Kantian duty-based
Types of fallacies ethics (deontology), and divine command theory,
Faulty reasoning which are described later in this chapter.
1. Informal logical fallacies
an informal fallacy is an argument whose stated Utilitarianism is a normative ethical theory that
premises fail to support their proposed conclusion. places the focus of right and wrong solely on the
Informal fallacies often come about because of an outcomes (consequences) of choosing one
error in reasoning. ... All informal fallacies of action/policy over other actions/policies. As such,
deductive reasoning contain a fundamental it moves beyond the scope of one's own interests
disconnect between the premises and the and takes into account the interests of others.
conclusion.
2. Ad hominem attacks ( attacks againts the Divine command theory (also known as
person-used in politics and academia) theological voluntarism) is a meta-ethical theory
which proposes that an action's status as morally
Arguing about IT and Ethics good is equivalent to whether it is commanded by
Should the school have the right monitor your God.
email? What is a profession/
Is online gaming a social illl? Professionals are experts who employ their
Should google have the right to censor in China? nauthority as experts in a unending meditation
Why do we need Ethical Theories? between an nindividual private interest and
Can guide us in our analysis of moral issues collective public interests
involving , cyber –technology. A professional is considered an expert , capable of
Is there a simpler ,alternative scheme that we making informed decisions
could use in our moral deliberations?
Distinction between practitioner and professional-
Why not simply follow the “Golden Rule” part of the distinction comes from ethics . There is
Or follow one’s own conscience? a distinction between the personal and the
professional that must be reconciled.
Ethical Theories Professionalism includes a commitment to
. Definition: The Ethics is the branch of benefiting others beyond what ordinary morality
philosophy that deals with the principles of requires
morality and the well-defined standards of right Ethics ? Law? Policy?
and wrong that prescribe the human character and Ethics provide a structured context to which we
conduct in terms of obligations, rights, rules, look reasonable decision
benefit to society, fairness, etc. Law does not necessarily tell us what is inherently
Following the Golden Rule good or bad. It prescribe behavior not for the
No one would ever obje3ct to the spirit the golden purpose of morality but for the purpose of
rule “ do unto others as you would have them do satisfying a societal requirement or rule. rules are
unto you” dictated by authority , not necessarily moral
This rule assumes that whatever I am willing to MIND LECTURES 1
accept that you do unto me , you would also be
willing to accept that I do unto you Philosophy of Mind
The philosophy of mind is that area of philosophy
Suppose that if I were a programmer I would be that deals with topics that in one way or another
willing to give away my software programs for relate to mental life. The most commonly
free .Does it follow that I should expect others to identified core question in the philosophy of mind
do the same for me? is:
Structure of Ethical theories
An essential feature of theory in general is that it What is the relation between human mental life
guides us in our investigation and the human body?
In science ,theory provides us with some general Or
principles and structure to analyze our data. What is the relation between mental life and the
The purpose of ethical theory , like scientific physical world?
theory , is to provide us with framework for
analyzing moral issues. The 20th century shift
The 20th century began with the dominance of
A good theory should be coherent ,consistent, philosophy focused on language, logic,
comprehensive aqnd systematic. mathematics and epistemology. The philosophy of
mind was largely seen as posterior to discussions If the Self = my body, then what happens to my
of language and epistemology. body also happens to me.
Two shifts occurred in the philosophy of mind as My body undergoes physical change constantly.
the 20th century developed. My Self does not undergo change constantly.
First, philosophy of mind became an So, the self ≠ the body.
interdisciplinary subject. Currently, it is impossible
to study the philosophy of mind without knowing a Continuity Question: If there is something I
great deal about: computer science, fundamentally am, what is that thing underlying
phenomenology, neuroscience, linguistics, me throughout all the changes my body and mind
cognitive science, traditional philosophy, and non- undergo?
western philosophy, such as ancient Asian
techniques of meditation. Responsibility Question: If there is no continual
Second, language and epistemology are now seen self, how is that I can be held responsible for
to be less basic than philosophy of mind. something I did at an earlier time when that person
Questions about how language works and how we is not around any longer?
know things are taken to be dependent in part on
how the mind works. We now think of inquiring Problems in the Philosophy of Mind
into the mind as a way of learning about language The problem of Intentionality
and knowledge.
Problems in the Philosophy of Mind Intentionality or aboutness is a pervasive
The Problem of Other Minds component of human life and essential to
understanding the human condition.
The mind ≠ body. Intentionality allows us to think at one location or
A person can only perceive another person’s body. refer from one location to something that is
So, a person cannot perceive another person’s spatially distant or temporally distant from us.
mind. Some think that intentionality is the mark of
mental phenomena.
Non-Solipsism Question: How do I know there are
other minds out there at all? How is it that thoughts inside my head can reach
out beyond my head and refer to something very
Non-Uniqueness Question: How do I know that distant in space and time?
my mind is not completely unique, even if there
are other minds out there? More generally, how is the phenomena of
aboutness possible in a physical world?
Animal Question: Do non-human animals have
minds like humans? Problems in the Philosophy of Mind
Questions concerning emotion and rationality
Problems in the Philosophy of Mind
The Problem of Free Will What is an emotion?
The mind = body. What is it to be rational?
The body is governed by laws of nature. Are our actions guided by reason or by emotion, or
Either laws of nature are deterministic or by both?
indeterministic. What is the specific analysis of an emotions, such
If laws are deterministic, then there is no free will. as anger?
If laws are indeterministic, then my actions are Are there different kinds of rationality, such as
random. practical vs. theoretical?
Can reason influence emotion?
Illusion Question: Is freewill an illusion? Can emotion override reason?

Morality Question: How can there be moral

responsibility without free will? Problems in the Philosophy of Mind
Question concerning mind-reading?
Punishment Question: If our bodies are governed
by deterministic laws, why are we punished? We How do I know what another person is doing or
could not have done otherwise. trying to do?
How does autism help us understand human mind-
Problems in the Philosophy of Mind reading?
The Problem of the Self and Personal Identity What role do mirror-neurons play in explaining
our understanding of another person’s behavior?
What evidence can we use to decide between
competing theories of mind-reading?
(Leibniz Law): x = y if and only if every property
Problems in the Philosophy of Mind of x is a property of y.
Questions concerning AI? (Mind Essence): Mind is essentially indivisible.
(Material Essence): Matter is essentially divisible.
Can computers think? So, mind ≠ matter.
What criterion is appropriate for answering the
question of whether computers can think? Questions: Is consciousness essentially
What can we learn about human cognition by indivisible?
studying ways in which we can program Is there a sense in which
computers to learn? we can divide the mind?
What are the moral boundaries of AI? The Conceivability Argument
Does mathematics provide a counterexample to the
idea that computers can perform mental tasks If I can conceive of my mind existing without my
equivalent to humans. body, then it is possible for my mind to exist
Is the singularity coming? What does the without my body.
singularity suggest about the nature of I can conceive of my mind existing without my
mindedness? body.
So, it is possible for my mind to exist without my
Problems in the Philosophy of Mind body.
Questions on specific mental states: If it is possible for my mind to exist without my
body, then my mind is not identical to my body.
What is a belief? So, my mind is not identical to my body.
What is a desire? Arnauld’s Criticism
What is an intention? Descartes’ assumes that if I can conceive x
What is attention? without y, then it is possible for x to exist without
What is perception? y.
What is memory? Arnauld challenges him with the following
example:
A man ignorant of geometrical knowledge can
Main Outline conceive of a right triangle existing without having
The Cartesian Backdrop of 20th Century the Pythagorean property P. The reason why is
Philosophy of Mind because he may grasp that the triangle T has a 90
degree angle, but fail to see that it has the
Behaviorism Pythagorean property P.
However, it is impossible for T to exist without P.
Identity theory So, it is not true that if S can conceive x without y,
it is possible for x to exist without y.
Functionalism Princess Elizabeth’s Criticism
Descartes maintains that mind and matter are
Physical Reduction fundamentally distinct.
The Cartesian Backdrop of 20th century Philosophy Princess Elizabeth raises the following worry
of Mind about causation by showing that the following
Cartesian Dualism claims are inconsistent.
Upward causation: sometimes my body causes my
The Divisibility Argument mind to think something. I place my hand in a hot
fire, and I think OUCH! that hurts.
The Conceivability Argument Downward causation: sometimes I decide to do
something, and then my body moves.
Arnauld’s Criticism Causal Closure: All and only entities of the same
type can bear causal relations to one another.
Princess Elizabeth’s Criticism Dualism: Mind and Matter are fundamentally
Cartesian Dualism distinct types.
Cartesian dualism is the inherited picture of the
relation between mind and body that 20th century Behaviorism in the 20th Century
philosophers use as a backdrop for developing new Wittgenstein’s Beetle in a Box Thought
ideas about the mind and the body. Here is the core Experiment
view of Cartesian Dualism:
The Divisibility Argument Ryle’s University Objection
 members of the Colleges live, where the Registrar
Logical vs. Methodological Behaviorism works, where the scientists experiment and rest.
But I have not yet seen the University in which
Mental States as Behavioral Dispositions reside and work the members of your University.’

Problems with Behavioral Dispositions It has then to be explained to him that the
Wittgenstein’s Beetle in a Box I University is not another collateral institution,
some ulterior counterpart to the colleges,
If I say of myself that it is only from my own case laboratories, and offices which he has seen. The
that I know what the word “pain” means – must I University is just the way in which all that he has
not say the same of other people too? And how can already seen is organized. When they are seen and
I generalize the one case so irresponsibly? when their coordination is understood, the
Suppose everyone had a box with something in it: University has been seen. His mistake lay in his
we call it a “beetle”. No one can look into anyone innocent assumption that it was correct to speak of
else’s box, and everyone says he knows what a Christ Church, The Bodleian Library, the
beetle is only by looking at his beetle. – Here it Ashmolean Museum and the University, to speak,
would be quite possible for everyone to have that is, as if ‘the University’ stood for an extra
something different in his box. One might even member of the class of which these other units are
imagine such a thing constantly changing. – But members. He was mistakenly allocating the
suppose the word “beetle” had a use in these University to the same category as that to which
people’s language? – If so it would not be used as the other institutions belong.
the name of a thing. The thing in the box has no Ryle’s University II
place in the language-game at all; not even as a A Category Mistake occurs when a predicate is
something: for the box might even be empty. –No, applied to a domain for which it is not defined.
one can ‘divide through’ by the thing in the box; it Example: 2 has parents from Detroit. ‘2’ refers to
cancels out, whatever it is. That it is to say: if we a type of thing, a number, for which the predicate
construe the grammar of the expression of ‘is a parent’ is not defined. The property of having
sensation on the model of ‘object and designation’ a parent does not apply to 2.
the object drops out of consideration as irrelevant.
– Philosophical Investigations 293 The quest for the nature of the Mind as something
Wittgenstein’s Beetle in a Box II independent of and over and above the behaviors
Either mental state terms name something internal we engage is like looking for the nature of the
which is private and inaccessible to others, or they University as something independent and over and
pick out something external which is public and above the various parts and their organization.
accessible to others. The quest in the University case rests on a
If mental state terms pick out something internal category mistake.
which is private and inaccessible to others, then it So, the quest in the Mind case rests on a category
is possible that the internal experience each of us mistake.
associates with a mental state term, such as pain,
picks out in our own case something different from Behaviorism I
that of others. As a consequence, it is in principle
possible that we do not mean the same thing by the Dualism: When one listens attentively there is an
use of mental state terms. internal focusing of one’s attention and a listening.
If mental state terms pick out something external The attention is a function of mind, and the
which is public and accessible to others, then it is listening is a function of bodily behavior.
possible for mental state terms to have some stable
component of meaning in virtue of which others Behaviorism: ‘Listening Attentively’ is a unified
can communicate with one another. act not composed of two distinct components
So, mental state terms cannot only have a private involving conscious attentive focus, and bodily
component of meaning, in virtue of which their listening. All that is involved is listening
meaning is exhausted. attentively to whatever one is listening to.
Moreover, mental state terms also have a public Behaviorism II
meaning component. Behaviorism is the view that mental life is nothing
Ryle’s University I over and above behavior. There are two different
kinds of behaviorism:
A foreigner visiting Oxford or Cambridge for the
first time is shown a number of colleges, libraries, Logical behaviorism maintains that mental states
playing fields, museums, scientific departments under logical analysis just are behavioral states.
and administrative offices. He then asks ‘But
where is the University? I have seen where the
Methodological behaviorism maintains that from a as they do. It is only that they have what they
psychological standpoint behavior is all that regard as important ideological reasons for
matters for the study of the mind. Internal states behaving as they do, and they have, through years
are not objectively observable, and so, it is of training, learned to live up to their own exacting
incorrect to try to deploy them in psychology. standards.
Logical Behaviorism --Brains and
Mental states such, as Jones believes that it will Behavior 1968
rain, Jones hopes that it will rain, Jones desires
that it rain, etc are ultimately logical shorthand for Putnam’s super-Spartans II
descriptions of behavior.
D is the correct behavioral disposition associated
‘Jones believes that it will rain’ fundamentally with mental state M only if it is inconceivable that
means a person is in M, but fails to display any of the
In situation C, Jones will do P1 or P2 or P3…. or Pn. behavior associated with D.
Suppose Pain = D, then Necessarily Pain = D.
Mental states are analyzed as dispositions to Super-Spartans, creatures which can be in Pain and
behave in certain ways. not exhibit D, are conceivable.
Problems for Behaviorism If it is conceivable that super-Spartans exist, then it
is possible that super-Spartans exist.
If it is possible that super-Spartans exist, then it is
Circularity as a problem for behavioral not necessary that Pain = D.
dispositions So, pain ≠ D.

Putnam’s Super-Spartans as a problem for Causation as a problem for behaviorism

behavioral dispositions Behavior seems to be the effect of the will.

Causation as a problem for behaviorism As a consequence if our behavior is all that our
mental life amounts to it would be hard to make
sense of claims such as the following.
Circularity as a problem for behavioral Jones’s ran into the store because he believed it
dispositions was going to rain and he didn’t want to get wet.
An analysis of mental states in terms of
dispositions is successful only if the analysis is In the claim above Jones’s beliefs and desire seem
non-circular. to play a causal role, so his beliefs and desires
cannot just be behaviors.
Jones believes that it will rain if and only if were it Identity Theory
to rain and he intended not to get wet, he would Identity Theory: Type vs. Token
bring an umbrella.
In the analysis of belief the notion of intention has Jackson’s Mary Thought Experiment
shown up, so we don’t have a complete analysis of
mental states in terms of pure behavior. Kripke’s argument against type identity theory
Questions:
Is it possible to give a non-circular analysis? Putnam’s argument against type identity theory
Does the circularity matter? Identity Theory I
Identity Theory is the view that mental states are
Putnam’s Super-Spartans I nothing over and above brain processes.

Imagine a community of ‘Super-Spartans’ – a Pain = C-fiber stimulation

community in which the adults have the ability to
successfully suppress all involuntary pain No one takes seriously the idea that we have
behavior. They may, on occasion, admit that they discovered exactly which brain states correlate
feel pain, but always in pleasant well-modulated with which mental states. So the example above is
voices –even if they are undergoing the agonies of just an equation of sorts that is used to think about
the damned. They do not wince, scream, flinch, the view propounded by identity theory.
sob, grit their teeth, clench their fists, exhibit beads
of sweat, or otherwise act like people in pain or The ‘is’ involved is one of strict numerical
people suppressing the unconditioned responses identity.
associated with pain. However, they do feel the Identity Theory II
pain, and dislike it (just as we do). They even Two Kinds of Identity Theory
admit that it takes a great effort of will to behave Type / Token distinction
How many numbers are in the following sequence: It is conceivable that someone is in pain, and that
33345512? C-fiber stimulation is not occurring, and there is
Type = 5 no way in which the conception of the
Token = 8 phenomenology of pain can be confused with
Type identity theory maintains that each mental some other state.
state type is identical to some brain state type. So, it is possible for pain to exist without C-fiber
stimulation.
Token identity theory maintains that each mental Pain = C-fiber firing only if it is necessary that
state token is identical to some token physical Pain = C-fiber firing.
state. So, Pain ≠ C-fiber firing.
Jackson’s Mary Thought Experiment I Putnam’s argument against type-identity theory
Mary is a brilliant scientist who is, for whatever
reason, forced to investigate the world from a Mental States are multiply realizable. They can
black and white room via a black and white occur in both human and non-human animals, and
television monitor. She specializes in they are also theoretically possible in beings that
neurophysiology of vision and acquires, let us are not fundamentally carbon-based.
suppose, all the physical information there is to If Pain = C-fiber firing, then any creature that fails
obtain about what goes on when we see ripe to have C-fibers cannot be in pain.
tomatoes, or the sky, and use terms like ‘red’, So, since mental states, such as pain, are multiply
‘blue’, and so on. She discovers, for example, just realizable, capable of being had by both humans,
which wavelength combinations from the sky dogs, and creatures whose existence we do not yet
stimulate the retina, and exactly how this produces know of in terms of the matter that constitutes
via the ventral nervous system the contraction of them, mental states are not type identical with any
the vocal chords and expulsion of air from the specific human brain structure.
lungs that results in the uttering of the sentence Functionalism
‘The sky is blue’… What will happen when Mary Fundamentals of Functionalism
is released from her black and white room or is The problem of mental holism
given a color television monitor? Will she learn
anything or not? It seems just obvious that she will The problem of the inverted spectra
learn something about the world and our visual
experience of it. But then is it inescapable that her The Chinese Nation Argument
previous knowledge was incomplete. She had all
the physical information. Ergo there is more to The Chinese Room Argument
have than that, and physicalism is false.
Frank Fundamentals of Functionalism I
Jackson
Epipheno Functionalism maintains that the essence of mental
menal states, such as being in pain, having a desire, or
Qualia holding a belief, is the functional role they play in
Jackson’s Mary Thought Experiment II the cognitive system.
Basic Version
Mary knows all the physical facts. The focus is on function, and not on the matter or
Mary does not know all the facts. substance that realizes the function.
So, the physical facts do not exhaust all the facts.
Functionalist try to define mental states in terms of
General Deduction Version the causal relations they bear to inputs, outputs,
There are truths about consciousness that are not and other mental states.
deducible from physical truths.
If there are truths about consciousness that are not Fundamentals of Functionalism II
deducible from physical truths, then physicalism is Example: Pain is the state that tends to be caused
false. by bodily injury, to produce the belief that
So, physicalism is false. something is wrong with the body and the desire to
be out of that state, to produce anxiety, and in the
Kripke’s argument against type-identity theory absence of any stronger, conflicting desires, to
cause wincing or moaning.
If it is conceivable for P to exist without Q, and
there is no way in which the conception of P Functionalism is not the same as behaviorism
without Q can be confused with something else, because while behaviorism makes no reference to
then it is possible for P to exist without Q. internal mental states, functionalism explicitly
does.
 provide each of the billion people in China with a
Functionalism is not open to the circularity specially designed two-way radio that connects
problem that behaviorism faced because them in the appropriate way to other persons and
functionalist can use Ramsey-sentences to avoid to the artificial body mentioned in the previous
circularity. Consider the definition of pain above. example. We replace the little men with a radio
The Ramsey sentence of it is: transmitter and receiver connected to the input and
xyzw [x tends to be caused by bodily output neurons. Instead of a bulletin board, we
injury & x tends to produce states y, z, and w & x arrange to have letters displayed on a series of
tends to produce wincing and moaning]. satellites placed so that they can be seen from
anywhere in China.
Ned Block
The Problem of Mental Holism Troubles with
The objection from mental holism holds Functionalism
that functionalism makes it very hard for
two distinct individuals of the same Question: Would such a system instantiate a mind?
species and two individuals of different The Chinese Nation Argument II
species to share the same mental state.
Functionalism maintains that mental states are
Between Persons Version: John and Jim defined by their functional role and not by the
both believe the A’s will win the pennant, material that realizes the role. And is true only if
but that and a few other beliefs are the any material that does realize the role actually
only ones they have in common. So given instantiates the state.
that so little of their psychology is in It is possible for the Chinese nation to instantiate
common, it cannot be that their beliefs the role of a particular mental state, or set of
have the same functional role, so they mental states, for about an hour.
don’t have the same belief. However, it is implausible that the Chinese nation
actually instantiates the particular mental state, or
Cross Species Version: John and Bunny set of mental states, for the hour envisioned.
Rabbit Sam both can feel pain, but since So, functionalism is false.
John has a richer psychology than Sam, The Chinese Room Argument I
they are not both in pain.
Imagine that a bunch of computer programmers
Mental holism cuts against the idea that have written a program that will enable a computer
functionalism can really capture the to simulate the understanding of Chinese. So, for
multiple realizability of mental states in example, if the computer is given a question in
the right way. Chinese, it will match the question against its
memory, or data base, and produce appropriate
The Problem of Inverted Spectra answers to the questions in Chinese. Suppose for
the sake of argument that the computer’s answers
Functionalism about the qualitative aspects of are as good as those of a native Chinese speaker.
seeing a color is true only if it is impossible for Now then, does the computer, on the basis of this,
there to be two individuals with identical understand Chinese, does it literally understand
functional roles, but distinct qualitative characters. Chinese, in the way that Chinese speakers
It is conceivable that two individuals exist with understand Chinese?
inverted spectra, where one sees blue the other The Chinese Room Argument II
sees yellow, where one sees red the other sees Imagine that you are locked in a room, and in this
green. room are several baskets full of Chinese symbols.
If it is conceivable that P, then it is possible that P. Imagine that you (like me) do not understand a
So, it is possible that inverted spectra exists. word of Chinese, but that you are given a rule
So, functionalism about the qualitative aspect of book in English for manipulating these Chinese
seeing a color is false. symbols. The rules specify the manipulations of
the symbols purely formally, in terms of their
Functionalism cannot capture the qualitative syntax, not their semantics. So the rule might say:
aspect of experience. ‘Take a squiggle-squiggle sign out of basket
The Chinese Nation Argument I number one and put it next to a squoggle-squoggle
sign from basket number two’. Now suppose that
Suppose we convert the government of China to some other Chinese symbols are passed into the
functionalism, and we convince its officials that it room, and that you are given further rules for
would enormously enhance their international passing back Chinese symbols out of the room.
prestige to realize a human mind for an hour. We Suppose that unknown to you the symbols passed
into the room are called ‘questions’ by the people is dots and non-dots at each point of the
outside the room, and the symbols you pass back matrix. The global properties are nothing
out of the room are called ‘answers to questions’. but patterns in the dots. They supervene:
Suppose, furthermore, that the programmers are so no two pictures could differ in their global
good at designing the programs and that you are so properties without differing, somewhere,
good at manipulating the symbols, that vey soon in whether there is or there isn’t a dot.
your answers are indistinguishable from those of a
native Chinese speaker. There you are locked in Reduction: Lewis’s account
your room shuffling your Chinese symbols with Mental State M = occupant of functional role F.
respect to incoming Chinese symbols. Occupant of F = brain state B.
Therefore M = B.
The Chinese Room Argument III Kim’s argument from causal exclusion
The following four claims appear to be
Strong AI: A suitably programmed computer can inconsistent:
understand a natural language and actually have
other mental capabilities similar to humans. Mental properties have causal powers.
Mental properties supervene on physical
If Strong AI is true, then there is a program for properties.
Chinese such that if any computing system runs Every physical effect has a sufficient physical
that program, that system thereby comes to cause.
understand Chinese. If a property E has a sufficient cause C, then no
A person could run a program for Chinese without other property C* distinct from C can be the cause
thereby coming to understand Chinese. of E.
Therefore, Strong AI is false.
The Chinese Room Argument IV What causal work do mental properties
do?
Computer programs are completely defined by
their formal syntactic structure. Fodor’s argument against reduction I
Manipulating syntax is not sufficient for From the character of the laws
generating semantic understanding.
Minds have semantic capacities. Laws of psychology involve exceptions.
So, computers cannot give rise to minds. Laws of physics do not involve exceptions.
So, the laws of psychology cannot be reduced to
Simulating a Mind is not equivalent to the laws of physics.
Duplicating a Mind
Physical Reduction Psychological Law: If agent A desires D, and M is
Fundamentals of physical reduction a means to D, then all else being equal A ought to
Kim’s argument from causal exclusion do M.
Davidson – Fodor argument against reduction Physical Law: E = MC2.
Fundamentals of physical reduction I These laws don’t have the same characters.
Reduction is the general attempt to reduce a So, reduction is impossible.
phenomenon described in one vocabulary to the Fodor’s argument against reduction II
language of another vocabulary. Typically one From the nature of laws
claims that the reduced vocabulary is not
fundamental. It is a law that P brings about Q.
Physical Reduction in the philosophy of mind is It is a law that R brings about S.
the view that mental life can be completely It is a law that P or R brings about Q or S.
understood in terms of physical entities and
relations. Fodor argues that while 1 and 2 are laws, 3 is not a
Physical Supervenience: No two possible worlds law.
can be identical in their physical properties and be
different in their mental or social properties. If A Fundamental Laws do not contain disjunctions in
supervenes on B, then A can be reduced to B. their antecedents and consequents.

Fundamentals of physical reduction II

Supervenience: Lewis’s example
A dot-matrix picture has global properties
– it is symmetrical, it is cluttered, and
whatnot – and yet all there is to the picture