Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Surrey

Module ENGM032 Steel and Composite Bridge Design.

Unit 5 Ultimate Load Method Of Design For Plate
girders.
Study time 15 hours

5.0 Introduction
The economic design of plate girders frequently involved the use of thin web plates
reinforced by longitudinal and vertical stiffeners. As usually the stiffened web will buckle
before the girders collapse, the use of ultimate load methods of design are required if full
advantage is to be taken of the post buckling load carrying capacity of web plates.

5.1 Web failure

It has been shown by Rockey3-5 that a shear web may fail in a number of different ways.
If the web plate has no initial imperfections then prior to buckling it does not impose any
lateral loading on the boundary members. Once the web has buckled it is no longer
capable of carrying any further compressive loading across the diagonal and as a result the
web has to carry all additional shear loads by a diagonal tensile membrane action, this
action being referred to as a 'truss type action'. This membrane action imposes a lateral
load upon the flanges and it is possible for this membrane action to cause the flanges, and
therefore the girder, to fail due to the development of plastic hinges in the flanges.

Whether or not this type of failure will occur depends upon the stiffness of the flanges and
upon the magnitude of the membrane loading which varies with the elastic buckling stress
of the web. With an increase in the elastic buckling stress there is a decrease in the
membrane action. If the flanges are sufficiently stiff then the boundary members
comprising of the flanges and the stiffeners permits the web to develop a full membrane
action until it yields. Once this stage has developed, the web cannot carry any further
shear load and any further loads imposed upon the girder have to be carried by the flanges
and stiffeners acting as a Vierendeel frame.

The behaviour of a plate girder web loaded in shear can be divided into three stages:-

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Stage I
This only applied to a perfectly flat plate, the applied shear stress is less than the critical
shear elastic buckling stress and therefore the web panel carries the applied load by a pure
shear action.

Stage II
This mode of action results from the fact that in a buckled web the compressive stresses
cannot increase and any additional load has to be carried by a tensile truss action.

With normal welded plate girders which have webs with significant permanent
deformation, no buckling will be observed and the loadings which are associated with
Stage II occur as soon as load is applied to the girder. Failure occurs when the diagonal
tension yields and the boundary members develop sufficient plastic hinges to result in a
failure characterised by one of the three possible forms of failure listed under Stage III.

Stage III
(a) If the lateral membrane loading on the flange is sufficient to develop plastic hinges in
the flanges, then failure will be due to the development of a mechanism consisting of
a yielded diagonal strip together with plastic hinges in the tension and compression
flanges.

(b) If the membrane loading corresponding to a yielded web is not sufficient to develop
plastic hinges in the flanges then failure will occur when either:

(i) the web material fractures, such as occurs in an aluminium web;

(ii) the framework comprising the flanges and the stiffeners, acting as a Vierendeel
frame develops a 'frame' mechanism;
(iii) the compression flange buckles laterally or torsionally.
When web panels are under the influence of shear forces and bending moments, it is
necessary to allow for the influence of the bending stresses on the buckling and post-
buckling behaviour of the web panel, including in particular the influence of the bending
stresses on the stiffness of the flange members.

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When the bending stresses become more significant than the shear stresses, failure will
occur either by general yielding of the flanges, inward collapse of the flanges or by lateral
buckling. Consequently, in design, it is necessary to distinguish between shear mechanism
type of failure and the various forms of flange failure.

Figure 5.1
5.2 Interaction Diagrams
Studies by Rockey6 have established that the interaction between the shear and bending
loading on a web panel can be accurately represented by the interaction diagram shown as
follows.

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Figure 5.2

Point S represents the collapse load when the web panel is subjected to pure shear forces.
In this case a symmetrical girder will develop a mechanism similar to that shown in Figure
5.3(A).

When significant bending stresses act in addition to the shear stresses, the sway
mechanism developed is of the form shown in Figure 5.3(B). In this case the hinge
positions in the compression and tensile flanges are no longer identical; Cc has decreased
and Ct has increased.

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Figure 5.3

Point C represents the position on the interaction diagram at which the mode of failure
changes from the shear mechanism mode to the flange failure mode. This change occurs
when the applied bending moment M is approximately equal to Mf, which is the
contribution of the flanges to the plastic moment of resistance of the girder. The ultimate

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load Vc at this position can be accurately predicted using the empirical relationship given
in Equation 5.12 below.

 σy   1 
Vc τ
= cr +  t  sin  4 θ d  0.554 + 36.8 M pf  2 −  b  8 
  5.12
Vyw τ yw  σ yw   3  Mf    d  
 

The moment relationship between points S and C on the interaction diagram can be
constructed in two sections; a straight section between S and S' is determined as follows:-

The shear at S' is equal to the pure shear value at S and the bending moment M's at S' is
assumed to be the maximum bending moment in the end panel of a simply supported
girder. Thus M's = Vsb with the maximum allowable value of M's restricted to 0.5Mf.

When the plate girder is subjected primarily to bending stresses, plate girders with slender
webs collapse by the inward movement of the compression flange which occurs when the
applied moment is close to that which will result in the extreme flange bending stresses
reaching yield stress. Thus, for typical plate girders where the web plate buckles before
collapse, it is not possible for the plate girder to develop its full plastic moment of
resistance. Point D on the interaction diagram corresponds to the bending moment at
which this inward collapse of the flange occurs. However, for hot rolled beam sections or
fabricated girders of similar proportion with webs which fail by yielding this inward
collapse of the flange will not occur.

For the case of a typical plate girder subjected to a bending moment which produces yield
at the extreme flange fibre, because the bending stresses in the web plate are below yield,
it is possible for the web plate to support a shear load, its value given by the ordinate DB
on the interaction diagram. This value can be determined from a consideration of the
combination of shear and bending stresses which will cause the section to yield.

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5.3 Transversely Stiffened Web Plates

Shear ultimate load Vs.
The pure shear load ratio Vs/Vyw (point S in the interaction diagram) is given by:-

σy
Vs τ 2  b σy *
= cr + 3 sin θ cot θ -  t + 4 3 sin θ  t Mp  5.1
V yw τ yw  d  σ yw  σ yw 

where is the inclination which the membrane field makes with the flanges

 τ  3
2 
σt y 3 τ cr  2 
1+ 
cr
=− sin 2 θ +  sin 2θ - 1  5.2
σ yw 2 τ yw  τ yw   4 
 

* M pf
Mp =
d 2 tσ yw

where Vyw is the shear force on a panel to produce yielding of web τywdt

cr critical shear stress of web

yw shear yield stress of web material

y tension field web membrane stress
t

yw yield stress of web material

Mpf is the plastic moment of resistance of the flange plate
= yf bf tf2/4 for a single flange plate.

Equation 5.1 is subject to the control

  2 
 b   3 τ cr
2  τ  
*
+ 1− 0.25 cr   
 d  2 τ
Mp < 0.125 − 5.4
 yw  τ yw  
  

*
When M p is greater than the limiting value stated in Equation 5.4, the hinges form at the
corners of the panels, is 45° and the ratio Vs/Vyw is given by:-

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  2 
Vs τ cr  d  *  3  τ cr  3 3  τcr  
M + −  +  −   
 b p  4  τ 
= +4 3
V yw τ yw  yw 4 16  τyw  
  
5.5

From Equation 5.1 it can be seen that Vs/Vyw is composed of three components. The first
component is due to the buckling stress cr, the second component is that part of the
membrane field which is supported by the vertical stiffeners and the third component to
the contribution provided by the flanges.

The buckling resistance of the web plate is calculated assuming that the stiffeners and
flanges provide the web plate with a simple support. For the case of a panel subject to
shear it is given by:

π 2E t
2
τ cr = K 5.6
12 1− µ  d 
( )
2

2
d 
where K = 5.35 + 4 for b / d > 1.0
 b
2
d
K = 5.35  +4 for b / d < 1.0
 b
5.7

When τ cr / τ yw > 0.8 it is recommended that τ cr τ yw be replaced by the reduced value

of τ cr τ yw by

2
  τ yw  
− 1 
τcr
= 1 − 0.68  5.8
τ yw   τ cr  3

1
Which is valid for
3
< (τ yw / τ cr )< 1.118
From Equation 5.2, because σ ty varies with it is necessary to find that value of d

which will result in Equation 5.1 providing the maximum value of Vs. From a parametric

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2θ d
study it has been shown that θ = where d is the inclination of the diagonal of the
3
web plate, leads to either the correct answer or to an underestimation of the collapse load.

It may be shown from Equation 5.5 that if the web plate is thick and does not buckle
before failure

Vs d
= 1.0 + 4 3  M p
*
5.9
V yw  b 

and therefore:

4M pf
Vs = V yw +
b

If the flanges of the girder are deep it is necessary to allow for the shear carried by the
flanges. This will vary with the thickness of the flanges; the additional shear force Vf is
given by:-

Vf τ 3  σt y   2a
=  cr +   sin 2θ  5.10
V yw  τ yw 2  σ yw  d

where a is the distance from the centre of the area of the flange to the web flange junction.
In normal plate girders this component is small but with girders having flanges of tubular
construction it can become significant.

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Shear and Bending Ultimate Load Ratio Vc/Vyw

The load ratio Vc/Vyw is given by:-

σ y   b  8 
1
Vc τ  4θd   36.8M pf
= cr +  t  sin 0.554 + 2− 5.12
V yw τ yw  σ yw   3   Mf    d  
 

where Mpf is the plastic moment of an individual flange and Mf is the plastic moment of
resistance of flanges about the neutral axis of the girder.

Equation 5.12 is subject to the limit that Vc/Vyw shall not be greater than Vs/Vyw. If this
is the case then Vc is taken as equal to Vs. When the web plate is thick and does not
buckle, y is zero, and therefore Vc equals Vyw. For the case of a symmetrical plate
t

girder having single rectangular flange plates, Equation 5.12 can be simplified as:

 
Vc τ   9.2 
=  cr  + D0.554 +  5.13
V yw  τ yw  d
  +1
  tf  
 

σt y  1 
 4θ d   b 8
where D = sin 2 -   
σ yw  3  d
 

Thus to calculate the positions of S and C, it is necessary only to calculate cr/ yw and
*
the values of Mpf, Mf and M p . Substitution into Equation 5.5 will yield Vs/Vyw and
substitution into Equation 5.13 will yield Vc/Vyw.

5.4 Collapse Behaviour of Girders When Subjected to High Bending Moments

If a plate girder is subjected to a bending moment in excess of Mf then it will fail in a
bending mode. If sufficient lateral support is provided to ensure that lateral buckling does
not occur, then a thin walled plate girder will fail by inward collapse of the compression

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flange. This will occur when the applied ultimate bending moment Mu is close to that
moment My which produces yielding of the extreme fibres of the compression flange.

When a thin walled plate girder buckles under the action of a bending moment, a portion
of the web plate subject to compression loses its capacity to support additional
compressive loading. Hence the strain distribution across the depth of the web plate does
not remain linear after the web plate buckles. This results in load shedding which gives a
shift in the position of the neutral axis, and this produces a corresponding increase in the
compressive bending stresses set up in the flanges. There is, therefore, a reduction in the
moment necessary to produce yielding of the compression flanges. The influence of these
reduced web plate compressive stresses is referred to as load shedding. Coopers formulae7
is capable of accurately predicting the relationship between the bending moment Mu/My
and the depth / thickness ratio of the web plate girders having web plates reinforced by
both horizontal and vertical stiffeners.

Mu A d E 
= 1 − 0.0005 w  − 5.7 for Mu > M p 5.15
My Af  t σ yf 

As the bending stresses in the web plate are below yield the web plate can support a shear
load; the shear force VB which acts with the bending moment Mu being calculated from

VB Mp − Mu
= 5.16
VC M pw

Where Mp is the full plastic moment of resistance of the full section

1
= σ yf A f (d + t f ) + σ ywd 2 t for a symmetrical girder with a single flange plate and Mpw is
4
the full plastic moment of resistance of the web plate =
1
σ ywd 2t when the girder is symmetrical.
4

If Mu is less than Mf which can occur in girders with deep flanges and thin webs then MB
equals Mu and VB equals VC.

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It is also necessary to ensure that a plate girder subjected to bending will not fail by either
lateral or local buckling of the compression flange. Cooper recommends that Equation
5.15 can be modified to allow for this by the equation

M u M cr  Aw d E My 
= 1− 0.0005  − 5.7  5.17
M y My  Af t σ yf M cr 

where Mcr is the lowest value obtained from separate local and lateral buckling analyses of
the compression flange.

5.5 Longitudinally Reinforced Plate Girders

The most significant effect which an effective longitudinal stiffener has on the behaviour
of a plate girder subjected to shear is to increase the buckling resistance of the web plate.
When calculating the value of Vs and Vc for a longitudinally reinforced plate girder, the
values of cr are determined for each individual web panel assuming the edges of these
panels are simply supported. The buckling resistance of the weakest panel is then used in
2θd
Equation 5.1 and 5.13. The value of to be used is where d is the inclination of
3
the diagonal of the overall web panel.

The design process is valid only if the longitudinal stiffeners remain straight ie if they are
fully effective up to the failure load of the girder. If the longitudinal stiffeners have
insufficient stiffness and deflect out of plane to any significant extent, then the load
carrying capacity of the girder will be reduced.

5.6 Plate Girders Subjected to Bending

Longitudinal stiffeners are used on web plates subjected to bending to increase the
buckling resistance of the web plate, thereby reducing to a minimum the effects of any
load shedding by the web plate. In addition, if a slender web plate subjected to bending is
allowed to buckle, membrane stresses are developed in the web plate normal to the flange
and these increase the tendency of the compression flange to buckle inwards as a

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compression strut or to fail in a torsional mode. To calculate Mu for a longitudinal

reinforced web plate, Equation 5.15 can be used.

5.7 References
1. DUBAS, P. and GEHRI, E., (ed.) ‘Behaviour and Design of Steel Plated Structures’.
ECCS Technical Committee 8 - Structural Stability No. 44 1986.

2. CHATTERJEE, S. ‘The Design of Modern Steel Bridges’. BSP Professional Books,

London, 1991.

3. ROCKEY, K.C. "Factors influencing ultimate behaviour of plate girders". Proceedings

of the Conference on Steel Bridge (London 1968). London, British Constructional
Steelwork Association 1969.

4. ROCKEY, K.C. and SKALOUD, M. 'Influence of flange stiffness upon the load
carrying capacity of webs in shear". Final Report of the Eighth Congress of
International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (New York,
September 1968).

5. ROCKEY, K.C. and SKALOUD, M. "Influence of the flexural rigidity of flange upon
the load carrying capacity and failure mechanism of webs in shear". Acta. Tech.
C.S.A.V., volume 14 No 3, 1969, pp295-313.

6. ROCKEY, K.C. et al. "Ultimate load capacity of the webs of thin walled members".
Proceedings of Conference on Cold Formed Steel Structures, Rolla 1973, University
of Missouri, 1973, pp 169-200.

7. COOPER, P.B. "The ultimate bending moment for plate girders". Proceedings of
I.A.B.S.E. Colloquium. London 1971. Massonnet et al (eds). International
Association for Bridge & Structural Engineering, Zurich, 1972, pp 291-297.

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5.8 Example Calculation

Calculation of Collapse Load of a Plate Girder Reinforced by Vertical Stiffeners

Only.

This example shows how the previous work can be used to determine the actual collapse
load of a plate girder. The example girder chosen is one of several small plate girders that
have been fabricated and subsequently tested to destruction to determine the validity of the
approach.

310

Spacing of vertical stiffeners b is 1270 mm.

The yield stress of the flanges σyf is 265 N/mm2.

The yield stress of the web plate σyw is 258 N/mm2.

5mm

1270

20mm

1. Calculate the Shear Buckling Stress τcr

Working from Equation 5.6

 π2 E   5 
2
τcr = K s   1270 
(
12 1 − υ2  )
2
 1270 
K s = 5.35 + 4  = 9.35 for b/d = 1.0
 1270 

 π 2 205x103   5  2
∴ τ cr = 9.35   
( )
12 1 − 0.282  1270 

∴ τ cr = 26.3 N/mm2

σ yw 258
The yield stress of the web in shear τyw = = = 149 N/mm2
3 3

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τcr 26.3
Hence = = 0.176
τ yw 149

2. Calculate the value of σ ty the tension field web membrane stress.

2θ d
The inclination of the diagonal θd is 45o ∴ = 30o and 2θ = 60o
3

From equation 5.2:

  2
 3 
σ ty 3 τcr  τ 
  sin 2θ − 1
=− sin 2θ + 1 +  cr 2
σ yw 2 τ yw   τ yw   4 
  

Hence σ ty = 222.6 N/mm2

M pf
3. Calculate M∗p where M∗p =
d 2 t σ yw

The plastic moment of resistance of the flange plate is:

1
M pf = b f t f2 σ yf
4

1
ie M pf = x 310 x 20 2 x 265 = 8.215 x 106 Nmm
4

M pf 8.215 x 106
M∗p = = = 3.826 x 10 −3
2 2
d t σ yw 1290 x 5 x 258

4. Calculate the collapse loads Vs and Vc.

Substituting for σ ty , sin2θ, and Mp in equation 5.1 and allowing for the additional shear
carried by the flanges as defined by Vf in equation 5.10, with 2a = tf for the flange plates
gives:

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y  σ y M∗  t  τ 3σ ty 
Vs τcr 2  b  σt  t p f cr
= + 3 sin θ cot θ −  + 4 3 sin θ +  + sin 2θ
Vyw τ yw  d  σ yw  σ  d τ 2σ yw 
 yw   yw

Vs
= 0.176 + 0.273 + 0.199 + 0.0129 = 0.661
Vyw

From equation 5.12

36.8 M pf    b  8 
1
Vc τcr σ ty  4θ 
= + sin  d  0.554 +  2−  

Vyw τ yw σ yw  3  Mf    d  

M pf is the plastic moment of one flange, hence:

M pf = 1 b f t f2 σ yf = 8.215 x 106 Nmm

4

M F is the plastic moment of the flange plates about the neutral axis, hence:
M F = σ yf A f (d + t f ) = 2.119 x 109 Nmm

Vc Vc
= 0.176 + 0.52 ∴ = 0.696
Vyw Vyw

As Vc Vyw is greater than Vs Vyw , Vc is taken to be equal to Vs .

5. Calculate M u and M F

Mu dt d 
From equation 5.15 = 1 − 0.0005  − 5 .7 E 
My bf t f t σ yf 
 

Mu
∴ = 0.95
My

I σ yf
But M y = = 2.432 x 109 Nmm
0.5d + t f

∴ M u = 2.31 x 103 kNm

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1
Also M p = σ yf A f (d + t f ) + σ yw d 2 t
4

Hence M p = 265 x 310 x 20(1290) + 0.25 x 258 x 5 x 12702 = 2.639 x 103 kNm

Mu 2.31 x 103
∴ = = 0.875
M p 2.639 x 103

Also as M f = 2.119 x 109 Nmm

M f 2.119 x 103
∴ = = 0.803
M p 2.639 x 103

6. Calculate VB

From equation 5.16

Using M pw = 1 σ yw d 2 t = 5.2 x 108

4

Vb Mp − Mu 2.639 x 103 − 2.31 x 103

= =
Vc M pw 5.2 x 10 2

Vb Vc
∴ = 0.795 from previous results = 0.696
Vc Vyw

Vb
Hence = 0.795 x 0.696 = 0.553
Vyw

Consequently when Vs , Vc and Vb have been determined, the interaction diagram can be
drawn.

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Self Study Question

Figure 4

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