ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is a complex group of ductless glands, which synthesizes one or more
hormones and secretes them directly into blood. They are present in different parts of the body,
work in co-ordination as an integrated system. The study of endocrine glands and hormones is
called endocrinology. The father of endocrinology is Thomas Addison. The first endocrine
disease reported was Addison’s disease (1885) caused by the destruction of adrenal cortex.
GLANDS
There are certain organs in the body that are concerned with the production and secretion of
special kind of chemical substances to regulate the proper functioning of the body .They are
called glands.
TYPES OF GLAND
(A) Exocrine glands
(B) Endocrine glands
No. Exocrine glands Endocrine glands
1. Glands with ducts. Ductless glands.
2. Discharge their secretions into the ducts. Discharge their secretions directly into
the blood.
3. Glands are present near the site of action. Glands may be present at a far away site
than action.
4. Secretions are called enzymes. Secretions are called hormones.
5. E.g.:-Salivary gland, gastric gland. E.g.:-Pituitary gland, thyroid gland,
parathyroid gland etc.
HORMONES
Hormones are the chemical messengers produced by the endocrine glands, organs or part of the
body, which is carried through the blood to another part of body, stimulating by chemical
action to increase its activity or to increase secretion of another hormone. The word hormone
was introduced by starling in [Link] word hormone is derived from a Greek word. The first
hormone discovered was Secretin by bayliss and starling in 1093.
Functions of hormone
 Growth:-Growth hormone.
 Metabolism:-Insulin.
 Reproduction:-Sex hormone.
 Homeostasis:-Hormones of hypothalamus.
 Water electrolyte regulation:-ADH, aldosterone.
 Antistress action:-Adrenalin.
DEFERENCE BETWEEN HORMONE AND ENZYME
No Hormones Enzymes
1. They are produced at one site and are They may act at site where they are
passed by blood to another site for produced or carried to another site for

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 action. action.
2. They may act slowly or quickly. They act slowly.
3. They are used up in their action. They are not used up in their action.
4. They have low molecular weight. They have very high molecular weight.
5. It may be steroids, peptides, proteins or They are simple proteins.
amino acid derivates.
6. The chemical controlled reactions are not The chemical controlled reactions are
reversible. reversible
7. Excess or deficiency of hormones may Excess or deficiency of enzymes which
cause disorders. catalyzed the chemical reactions.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Endocrine system consists of following endocrine glands:
 Hypothalamus
 Pituitary gland ( Hypophyseal gland)
 Thyroid gland
 Parathyroid gland
 Adrenal gland
 Ovary in female
 Testes in male
 Islets of lungerhans (Pancreas)
 Pineal gland( epiphysis or Epiphyseal gland)
 Thymus gland
 Placenta (Temporary)

HYPOTHALAMUS
Hypothalamus is the part of diencephalon and lies below hypothalamic sulcus on the lateral
wall of third ventricle. Hypothalamus is linked with the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland by
nerves& to anterior lobe by a complex system of blood vessels. The chemicals released by
hypothalamus are called releasing factors (RF) or releasing hormones (RH) that stimulate the

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pituitary to secrete specific hormones. The hormones released by hypothalamus and their effect
on pituitary are given below:
1.) Adrenocorticotrophic Releasing hormones (ARH):- It stimulates the anterior lobe of the
pituitary gland to secrete its Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) or Adrenocorticotrophic.
2) Somatotrophin releasing hormone (SRH):- It stimulates the anterior lobe of the pituitary
gland to release its growth hormone (GH) or Somatotrophin.
3) Thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH):- It stimulates the anterior lobe of the pituitary
gland to secrete its thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH).
4) Growth inhibiting hormone (GIH):- This hormone is also called as somatostatin. It inhibits
the secretion of growth hormone (GH) from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
5) Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH):-It stimulates the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland to
secrete its Prolactin.
6) Prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH):- It inhibits the secretion of Prolactin from the anterior
lobe of pituitary gland.
7) Gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GRH):-It stimulates the anterior lobe of the pituitary
gland to secret its follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and lutainsing hormone (LH) in ovaries
and to secrete its interstitial cells stimulating hormone (ICSH) in testes.
8) Melanocyte inhiting hormone (MIH):- It inhibits the secretion of Melanocyte stimulating
hormone from the intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland.
9) Melanocyte releasing hormone (MRH):-It stimulates the intermediate lobe of pituitary
gland to secrete its Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH).
PITUITARY GLAND (HYPOPHYSIS, MASTER GLAND)
Pituitary gland is also known as hypophysis. It is situated in the hypophyseal fossae of the
sphenoid bone below the hypothalamus of the brain. It consists of two lobes:
 Anterior lobe
 Posterior lobe
These two lobes are connected by pars intermidia (Which is a small interdigitate lobe).
ANTERIOR LOBE (ADENOHYPOPHYSIS)
This is the largest part of the pituitary gland. It consists of glandular tissue. The hormones
secreted by the anterior lobe of pituitary gland are of two different kinds, first controlling the
functioning of other endocrine glands and second controlling the target organ. The anterior
pituitary secretes several hormones like:
 Growth hormone/Somatotrophic hormone
 Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
 Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
 Prolactin
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
 Luteinizing hormone (LH)

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 1. Growth hormone is necessary for the normal growth and development of the body,
2. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) regulates the synthesis of thyroid hormone in the
thyroid gland.
3. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) stimulate the adrenal cortex to synthesis its
hormones.
4. Prolactin is stimulates milk production in the breast.
5. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH):-It stimulates:
 Ovary in females to synthesis oestrogen
 Testes in males to produce spermatozoa
6. Luteinizing hormone (LH):-It stimulates:
 Ovary in females to produce progesterone
 Testes in males to produce testosterone.
POSTERIOR LOBE (NEUROPHYSIS)
The posterior lobe of pituitary gland secretes two hormones. They are Oxytocin and
vasopressin.
Oxytoxin: It has got two functions:
 Contraction of uterus during delivery and to bring about parturition.
 Ejection of milk from the breast.
Vasopressin:-It functions are:
 Decreasing urine output by increasing tubular reabsorption in the kidney.
 Increasing blood pressure by contracting capillaries and arterioles.
THYROID GLAND
Thyroid gland is the largest endocrine gland, situated in the neck region in front of larynx and
trachea at the level of the 5th cervical vertebra to 1st thoracic vertebra. This is highly
vascularized. It consists of two lobes each lying on either side of the trachea. The lobes are
connected with each other by means of a narrow “ISTHMUS”. Normally, it weighs about 20-
40 gm in an adult but it is subjected to variations even under physiological conditions. It is
larger in females than in males.

HORMONES OF THYROID GLAND

The thyroid gland secretes three hormones:
 Thyroxine (T4)
 Triiodothyrinine T3
 Calcitonin
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Thyroxine (T4) forms about 90% of total secretion, whereas T3 is only 9-10% of total secretion.
FUNCTIONS OF THYROID HORMONES (T3 AND T4)
 Thyroid hormone increases the metabolic activities of all most all tissues of the body
except brain, retina, spleen, testes and lungs.
 Thyroid hormone increases the synthesis of proteins in the cells.
 Thyroid hormone stimulates almost processes involved in the metabolism of
carbohydrate.
 It stimulates the lypolysis (Fat metabolism).
 Thyroid hormone increases the heat production in the body by accelerating the various
cellular metabolic processes and increasing basal metabolic rate.
 Thyroxine is also essential for maintaining the body weight. Increase in thyroxine
secretion decrease the body weight and decrease in thyroxine secretion increases the
body weight.
 Thyroid hormones have general and specific effects on growth. Lack of thyroxine can
arrest the growth and increase in thyroxine secretion can accelerate the growth of the
body especially in growing children.
 Thyroid hormone is one of the important general factors necessary for erythropoiesis
(Formation of red blood cells) thyroxine accelerates the process of erythropoiesis and
increase the blood volume.
 Thyroxine generally increases the appetite and food intake. It also increases the secretion
and movements of gastrointestinal tract. So, the lack of thyroxin causes constipation and
increased secretion of thyroxin causes diarrhea.
 Thyroid hormones increase force of contraction as well as rate of the heart. This
increases the cardiac output. It increases systolic blood pressure and decreases the
diastolic blood pressure.
Functions of Calcitonin
 Calcitonin facilitates the deposition of calcium on bones. It also suppresses the activity of
osteoblast. Which are responsible for resorption of calcium from bones. It inhibits even
the development of new Osteoclast in bones.
 Calcitonin increases the excretion of calcium through urine, by inhibiting the
reabsorption of calcium from the renal tubules.
 It prevents the absorption of calcium from intestine into the blood.
DISORDERS OF THE THYROID GLAND
 Hyperthyroidism( Thyrotoxicosis)
Increase secretion of thyroid hormone is called the hyperthyroidism.
 Hypothyroidism
Decreased secretion of thyroid hormones is called hypothyroidism.
 Cretinism
Hypothyroidism in children leads to a condition known as cretinism.

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  Goiter
Goiter means enlargement of the thyroid gland. This can occur both in hyperthyroidism and
hypothyroidism.
PARATHYROID GLANDS
Parathyroid glands are four small, round shaped like pea size gland, situated in the posterior
surface of each lobe of the thyroid gland. They are surrounded by connective tissue capsules.
They are 6mm long, 4mm wide, 2 mm thick. They consist of two types of cells such as chief
cells and oxyphil cells. The chief cells are the major synthesis of Parathormone or parathyroid
hormone (PTH).

Functions of Parathormone (PTH)

Parathormone is very important hormone and has following effects:
 Parathormone causes increased absorption of calcium from gastrointestinal tract.
 Parathormone also increases absorption of calcium from bones into blood.
 Parathormone decreases calcium excretion from kidney.
DISORDERS OF PARATHYROID GLAND
 Hyperparathyroidism
Increased secretion of Parathormone is called hyperparathyroidism.
 Hypoparathyroidism
Deceased secretion of Parathormone is called hypothyroidism. It results in hypocalcaemia.
ADRENAL GLANDS
Adrenal glands are a paired structure situated at the tip of each kidney. They are also known as
suprarenal gland. These glands are small in size about 4cm in length and 3cm in thickness.
Structure of adrenal gland
Each of the glands is provided with two regions differing from each other both anatomically
and physiologically. The outer part is called cortex and inner part is called medulla.
 ADRENAL CORTEX
Histologically, the adrenal cortex is divided into three zones
o The outer most layer is known as zona glomerulosa and it secretes Mineralocorticoids.
o The middle layer is known as zona fasciculata, which secretes Glucocorticoids and to slight
extent, sex hormones.
o The inner most layer is known as zona reticularis, which secretes mostly sex hormones and
slight an extent, Glucocorticoids.

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 Functions of Glucocorticoids:
The main functions of the glucocorticoids are as follows:
 It increases blood glucose level.
 It increases breakdown of protein.
 It helps in the breakdown of fat into fatty acid and glycerol.
 It blocks the inflammatory response to allergic reaction.
 It decreases body’s immunity.
Functions of Mineralocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids are group of hormones. The main hormone of the group is aldosterone.
The main functions of Mineralocorticoids are follows:
 Aldosterone increases the reabsorption of sodium ions from the distal convoluted tubule and
the collecting duct.
 The Mineralocorticoids cause persistent increase in extracellular fluid volume and the blood
volume. This finally leads to increase in blood pressure.
 Aldosterone increases the potassium excretion through the renal tubules.
Functions of androgens
 It helps in maintenance of growth development of reproductive organs.
 It helps in develops secondary sexual characteristics.
 It helps in process of Spermatogenesis.
 It helps in male pattern of aggressive behavior.
 It promotes RNA synthesis and protein synthesis.
 It increases Glycolysis, and also increases fatty acid synthesis and citric cycle.
 They are also responsible for bone maturation.
 ADRENAL MEDULLA
Adrenal medulla is the inner part of the adrenal gland and forms 20% of mass of adrenal gland.
It is made up of interlacing of cords of cells. These cells are called the chromophil cells or
pheochrom cells. Mainly hormones are secreted by the adrenal medulla is called catecholamine.
 Adrenaline (Epinephrine)
 Noradrenalin (nor- Epinephrine)
 Dopamine
Functions of Adrenaline and Nor-adrenaline:
 They increase the heart rate, Increase blood pressure.
 They are diverting blood to essential organs- heart, brain and skeletal muscle.
 They increase the basal metabolic rate.
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  They are dilatation of blood vessels of muscle, heart and brain.
 They dilate the pupil.
 Dilatation of bronchioles.
DOPAMINE
Dopamine is secreted by adrenal medulla. The type of cells secreting dopamine is not known.
Dopamine is also secreted by brain, basal ganglia, the physiological functions of circulating
dopamine are not known. The injected dopamine produces the following effects:
 Vasodilatation of mesentery.
 Increases the blood pressure.
 Increases heart rate.
DISORDERS OF ADRENAL GLAND
 Cushing syndrome
Cushing's syndrome is a hormonal disorder characterized by obesity due to Hypersecretion of
Glucocorticoids.
Hyperaldosteronism (Conn’s syndrome)
Hyperaldosteronism is the hormonal disorders characterized by increased secretion of
aldosterone.
 Addison’s disease
Addison’s disease is the disorders of hormone characterized by deficiency of both
Glucocorticoids and Mineralocorticoids hormone. This disease was discovered by [Link]
Addison in 1885.
 Pheochromocytoma
Pheochromocytoma is the disorders of hormone characterized by excessive secretion of
catecholamines.
ISLETS OF LUNGERHANS (PANCREASE)
The pancreas is the pale yellowish grey gland, weighing about [Link] is about 12-15 cm
long and situated in the epigastric and left hypochondriac region of the abdominal cavity.
Structure of islets lungerhans
The endocrine part of the pancreas takes the form of many small clusters of cells called islet of
langerhans pancreatic cells. The pancreas has about one million islets of langerhans. Each islet
of langerhans consists of four types of cells such as:
1. Alpha cells (α cell):-They produce glucagon hormone.
2. Beta cells (β cells):-They produce insulin hormone.
3. Delta cells (δ cells):-They secrete somatostatin (ss) hormone.
4. Pancreatic polypeptide cells (PP-Cells or PF cells):-They secrete pancreatic polypeptide
(PP) hormone.
Functions of insulin
 It converts excess glucose into glycogen in the liver and muscles.
 It decreases breakdown of Glycogen (Glycogenolysis).
 It prevents formation of new Glucose from protein and fat (Gluconeogenesis).

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Functions of glucagon
 It increases Glycogenolysis (Break down of glycogen into glucose) in the liver.
 It increases Gluconeogenesis (Formation of glucose from proteins) in the liver.
 It increases the secretion of bile.
 It inhibits the secretion of gastric juice.
Functions of somatostatin
 It inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon.
 It decreases the motility of stomach, duodenum and gallbladder.
 Hypothalamic somatostatin inhibits growth hormone secretion from anterior pituitary.
 It decreases the rate of nutrient absorption into the blood from gastrointestinal tract.
Functions of pancreatic polypeptide
The exact physiological action of pancreatic polypeptide is not known. It is believed to increase
the secretion of glucagon and inhibits the release of pancreatic juice.
DISORDERS OF ISLETS OF LUNGERHANS
 Diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus is a clinical syndrome characterized by hyperglycaemia due to absolute or
relative deficiency of insulin. In the most cases, the diabetes mellitus develops due to the
reduced secretion of insulin by beta cells of islets of Langerhans.
 Hyperinsulinism
The excessive secretion of insulin from pancreas is called hyperinsulinism.
PINEAL GLAND
The pineal gland is a small body attached to the roof of the third ventricle and is connected to it
by a short stalk containing nerves. The pineal gland is about 10mm long, reddish brown in
colour and is surrounded by a capsule. The pineal gland is secreting melatonin.
Functions of Melatonin:-
This is the hormone secreted by the pineal [Link] its functions are not fully
understood, melatonin is believed to be associated with:
 Coordination of the circadian and diurnal rhythms of the many tissues because of this
function gland is also known as third eye of body.
 Inhibition of growth and development of the sex organs before puberty, possibly by
preventing synthesis of Gonadotropins.

NOTE: STUDY TESTIS FROM MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM, OVARY FROM FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM, PANCREAS
FROM NORMAL HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT AND THYMUS GLAND FROM LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.

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