Summary

Always purchase live shellfish from a reputable dealer. Tips for Fresh
Be sure to keep live shellfish cold and moist from point of purchase
until consumption for best quality. & Tasty Shellfish
Consuming raw meat products such as shellfish has unique risks. Be
certain to keep them cold and cook shellfish if you are at increased
Handling,

Safe Seafood Series

health risk (such as immunocompromised).
Storage,
For more information visit:
[Link]/shellfish and Cooking

Cape Cod Cooperative Extension

Simple recommendations
& Woods Hole Sea Grant to make fresh,
P.O. Box 367
Barnstable, MA 02630 Massachusetts shellfish a
508-375-6953 healthy part of any diet!
Support from funding opportunity
NOAA-OAR-SG-2013-2003654
What to Look For Elsa’s Mussels (in a creamy Dijon sauce)

Purchase shellfish from a reputable dealer; the shellfish should • 3-4 dozen mussels, debearded and scrubbed
be kept cold while in display or storage for sale at the dealer. • 1-1/2 cups white wine or dry white French Vermouth
Molluscan shellfish, like clams, oysters, or mussels are usually • 2 Tbsp flour
sold live, if one of your senses suggest otherwise and they look • 5 Tbsp unsalted butter, softened
or smell dead - avoid them. • 2 cloves garlic, chopped
• 4 Tbsp onion, chopped
Shellfish may open slightly or gape in storage but they should • 2 bay leaves
close when tapped or jostled. If they do not close, or have • 3/4 cup heavy cream
broken shells they are likely dead and should be discarded. • 4 Tbsp Dijon mustard
Note: some shellfish like soft shell clams or razor clams never • 2 egg yolks, lightly beaten
completely close their shell, but still normally clamp their shells.
The harvest and sale of shellfish is heavily regulated and uses a In a small bowl blend flour and 3 Tbsp butter together with a fork until
tagging system to trace shellfish back to the source. If you ever smooth. Melt remaining 2 Tbsp butter over medium high heat in a
have questions about the source, you can ask to see the tags. heavy-bottom sauté pan with lid that fits tightly. Add garlic, onion, and
bay leaf and cook, stirring for a few minutes. Add white wine and bring
to a boil. Add mussels, cover and cook until shells open. Check after
about 5 minutes. Remove mussels from liquid with slotted spoon and
place in a bowl. Bring liquid to a boil then take off heat. Quickly add the
flour and butter mixture and put back on the heat; whisking constantly.
Bring mixture to a boil until it thickens. Cook for another minute or two
to cook out the raw taste of the flour. Reduce heat to low. Add cream,
mustard, and egg yolks. Heat to warm, stirring constantly. Don’t bring
back to a boil, or the eggs might curdle. Pour sauce over mussels.

Easy Oyster Stew

• 2 Tbsp butter (bacon drippings work well also)
• 3 green onions, chopped
• 14 oz shucked oysters, with the liquor (12-18 depending on size)
• 24 oz whole milk
• 1 Tsp black pepper (or Cayenne for more spice)
• 1-2 Tbsp fresh tarragon, chopped (or try other herbs of your choice)

Melt butter and briefly tenderize the green onions. Add the rest of the
ingredients and heat slowly over a low to medium heat until the edges
of the oysters begin to curl (do not boil the stew). For a heartier stew
start with bacon drippings instead of butter.
 Cooking & Recipes
Shellfish are considered fully cooked when the internal temperature
reaches 145°F for 15 seconds. Size will make a difference but the
FDA suggests these cooking times for a fully cooked product.
• Steaming, 4-9 minutes after steaming starts
• Boiling, 3-5 minutes after shells open
• Baking, 10 minutes at 450°F
• Shucked meats should be boiled or fried (at 375°F) for 3 minutes

Garlicky Grilled Littlenecks

• 2-4 dozen littleneck clams

• ½ stick butter
• 2 Tbsp olive oil
• ½ cup white wine
• 3 cloves minced garlic Raw Shellfish
• 2 Tbsp chopped fresh parsley
• ½ Tsp ground oregano Consuming raw shellfish allows for a unique opportunity
to taste the shellfish exactly how they were shaped
Preheat a gas grill, one side by the growing environment. However, raw shellfish
of the grill on high, the also come with unique risks, in that naturally occurring
other on low. Rinse the marine bacteria, such as Vibrio may occur in shellfish
clams, then place on the which at high doses can cause gastro-intestinal illness. At
high heat side of the grill. temperatures below 50°F the bacteria will not grow so
On the low heat side of the risk is controlled by the harvesters and dealers by keeping
grill melt the butter in an shellfish cold from harvest to sale. Similarly, shellfish
aluminum pan then add purchasers should keep shellfish cold after purchase for
the remaining ingredients. the safest, freshest shellfish eating experience. Warmer
Close the grill cover and water temperatures are generally associated with greater
check every few minutes potential Vibrio occurrence so keeping shellfish cool in the
for clams that have opened. summer is especially important.
Carefully remove the Note: certain individuals are at higher risk of illness
opened clams to reserve from raw or partially cooked shellfish. Pregnant
the juices in the shell, and place in the aluminum pan on the other women, young children, the elderly, and individuals with
side of the grill to mix with the sauce. Serve with bread. compromised immune systems or decreased stomach
acidity should avoid consuming raw shellfish. Cooked
shellfish are still safe for these individuals.
Handling Storage Shucking
• Be prepared when purchasing • Live shellfish should be kept Shucking or opening an oyster or clam can be intimidating, but with
shellfish, bring a cooler or bag refrigerated at less than 50°F, to a little practice and patience it becomes easier. When working with
with ice or an ice pack to keep prevent spoilage and bacterial knives safety is key, make sure to protect your hands and use an
them cool while taking them growth. appropriate knife. Use a towel or glove to protect the hand used to hold
home. The dealer may also be the shellfish.
able to provide ice. • Placing a moist towel over
the shellfish also helps keep The most common method for opening is
• Shellfish should be rinsed or them moist and fresh in the through the hinge
washed to remove dirt or shell refrigerator, just avoid storing
them in water. Place oyster cup (deep) side down
debris, but do not store them in
water. Insert knife in hinge between 2 shells
• Do not store live shellfish in

Oysters
• Prevent cross-contamination: a sealed container, and do not Twist slightly to get separation
handle and store raw shellfish freeze live shellfish as this will
Use care not to exert too much pressure
separate from other foods. kill them.
As shells open slide knife inside against upper
shell to cut muscle attachment
Remove/discard upper flat shell
Cut remaining muscle attachment in cup half
of shell to free the oyster

Usually requires a thinner knife with one

sharp edge
Relaxed clams open more easily so keeping
Be Prepared! Keep Shellfish Cold! clams cold or on ice can help
Insert the sharp edge of the knife between
Quahogs
the shells opposite the hinge (from the hinge
Safe Storage Times in Refrigerator can also work)
Live Shellfish Freshly Shucked: Oysters or Clams Apply pressure to slowly push the knife
Oysters, use within a week Refrigerated, sealed container, between both shells
Quahogs, use within a week 5-7 days As the shells open use the knife to cut the 2
Mussels, 2-3 days Frozen, up to 3 months muscles on either side to open the clam
Soft-shell & razor clams, 1-2 days
Scallop meats, 2-3 days Slice the muscles close to the shell
attachment to release the meat from the shell
Can I Eat My Catch Raw? Safe Seafood Series
Eating oysters and quahogs raw
is a traditional and tasty way to
handle your harvest, but there are

the harvest:
risks to be aware of. There are
naturally occurring bacteria such as

Safe Shellfish
Vibrio species that can accumulate
in shellfish and at high levels
can cause human illness. These Obtain a recreational shellfish license
bacteria respond to temperature;
for
from your town - it is required.

P LEASE REM EM BER

they multiply rapidly at high temps

Recreational
(80°F+) and their growth slows or Only harvest from town approved
ceases at low temps (45°F). The areas.

Harvesters
risk is much greater in the warmer
Keep harvested shellfish cool.
months, and it is
extra important In warm weather bring cooler with ice
to keep your to cool your harvest quickly.
shellfish cool
Never leave shellfish in direct sun or
after their
harvest at hot enclosed area such as car trunk.
this time. Refrigerate shellfish but do not store
shellfish in water.
Unfortunately, certain groups of
people are at heightened risk Eat shellfish as soon as possible after
of Vibrio illness and should not harvest for maximum enjoyment.
consume shellfish or any animal DO NOT consume raw if you have a
product raw. The FDA has placed challenged immune system (such as
immunocompromised individuals diabetes, liver disease, etc.).
such as those with liver disease, Keep it cool and
alcoholism, cancer, diabetes, Cape Cod Cooperative Extension enjoy it fresh!
chronic kidney disease, AIDS, & Woods Hole Sea Grant
low stomach acidity, or on steroid P.O. Box 367
Barnstable, MA 02630
or immunosuppressive drugs in 508-375-6953
this group. Fortunately, cooking
shellfish to 145°F will destroy this
bacteria and most other potential
pathogens, so anyone can still enjoy
their harvest in one of many potential Support from funding opportunity
recipes! NOAA-OAR-SG-2013-2003654
Guidelines for Safe Shellfish
Harvesting your own shellfish for a tasty
meal is an experience many Massachusetts Keep Shellfish Cool
residents and visitors enjoy. Surrounded by
the cold clean waters of the Atlantic, the “Bay
State” provides a natural buffet of shellfish
choices. But before you set out to “dig your
own” there are basic guidelines
to follow and be
aware of. Most towns have dedicated funds within
their budgets to enhance shellfish locally.
Towns expend significant effort growing
shellfish to ensure maximum growth and
survival. Shellfish relays are another
option and involve the transfer of shellfish
from an area closed to harvest to another
Where to Start? area for a depuration period and eventual Handling the Harvest?
In MA the harvest. After making sure to harvest shellfish
management from waters open to shellfishing, the most
of recreational important thing is to properly handle and
harvest is done store your catch for maximum freshness.
by each coastal town. The town should Shellfish should be kept cool (35-40°F)
have a shellfish or natural resource and moist (but not frozen); this is most
department where you can obtain a easily done in the refrigerator crisper
required license, the regulations, and bin. Kept cool, tightly closed shellfish like
a map of areas open and closed to oysters and quahogs can stay fresh for
shellfishing. They are a great source of several days, while soft shell clams and
town shellfish information. mussels should be used more quickly.
If shellfish are gaping open and do not
Why are Some Areas Closed? respond to touch they are dead and
Where Do Our Shellfish Come From? The MA State Division of Marine Fisheries should not be consumed.
Some of the clams and oysters you works closely with towns to regulate and
harvest come from ‘natural set’ which manage shellfish growing areas. They It is not recommended to store shellfish
are the progeny (spat) from reproductive monitor water quality for conditions such after harvest in containers of water (fresh
adults. However, sometimes nature needs as bacterial/viral contamination and or salt). If purging of sand is desired this
a helping hand when there are insufficient harmful algal blooms (HAB’s) such as “red may be done at the time of harvest in
numbers of new recruits being produced. tide.” Water quality and its relationship to your basket while shellfishing. Purging
Towns have several methods they safety is the basis for opening or closing at home may allow unwanted bacteria to
employ to ensure shellfish beds remain areas so it is important to heed these accumulate adding unnecessary risk to
productive. designations. your harvest.
Marine Extension Bulletin Jan 2014

Woods Hole Sea Grant Program

Cape Cod Cooperative Extension

Shellfish, Nitrogen, and the Health of our Coastal Waters

harvest through commercial and recreational fishing as well as
more recently through aquaculture. These filter feeding shellfish
are also important ecologically. They provide food and habitat
for other marine and estuarine species, and promote the cycling
of nutrients by grazing upon phytoplankton blooms.
Since bivalve shellfish obtain nutrition from their local
environment and are an integral part of the ecosystems in
which they live, managing shellfish populations has become an
important part of managing a healthy water body. Unfortunately,
due to a number of factors most of our nearshore shellfish
populations are in decline. In fact, it has been estimated that
85% of oyster reefs have been lost globally, with U.S. Atlantic
coast oyster reefs classified as poor or functionally extinct (Beck
et al. 2011). With declines in natural populations and increased
recognition of ecosystem services lost, communities are increas-
ingly interested in examining the potential for propagation and/
or restoration of shellfish to help remediate a portion of increas-
ing nutrient inputs.
Figure 1. Eelgrass competing with macroalgae or seaweed in nutrient rich waters.
Eutrophication will often cause eelgrass to decline as algae takes over, one way in
which marine habitat may be altered.

Our coastal water bodies and estuaries are essential habitat

for many species and are also important to the economic
health of coastal communities. While nitrogen (N) is a vital
nutrient to the marine environment, in excess it causes eutro-
phication or an increase in the rate of supply of organic matter
to a system (Nixon 1995). Eutrophication can lead to a series
of negative consequences and thus nitrogen can be a root cause
of habitat degradation (Howarth 2008). Reducing nitrogen
to thresholds identified as important to maintain ecosystem
health is the approach being examined throughout coastal
Massachusetts. Strategies being considered for reduction of
nitrogen include centralized or improved wastewater treat-
ment, stormwater treatment, increased tidal flushing, enhanced
Figure 2. Quahog seed being grown through a municipal shellfish program.
attenuation via wetlands, and others (Dudley 2003).
The propagation of shellfish is another strategy that is
currently being considered as a method to reduce nitrogen in Potential ways for shellfish to be used in
coastal waters, with several municipalities scaling projects for nitrogen remediation
this effect. Bivalve shellfish, including commercially important Shellfish do not absorb nitrogen directly from their en-
oysters (Crassostrea virginica) and quahogs (Mercenaria vironment but act as a first order consumer as they graze on
mercenaria), live in coastal water bodies and derive their nutri- phytoplankton (primary producer). The microscopic plant life
tion by filter feeding on available algae or phytoplankton in shellfish feed upon assimilate dissolved nitrogen available directly
the water column. The productivity of nearshore waters has from the surrounding waters, which can be transferred to the
sustained a long history of economically important shellfish shellfish following consumption and digestion. As shellfish graze 1
 At
mo
sp
he Air
ric
N
Dissolved N Assimilation Phytoplankton
Surface water N (Inorganic N)

Release to atmosphere
Consumption
rN
a te
dw

Inorganic N release
n
ou
Gr Excretion Bivalves Harvest N in tissues

Excretion
Water Biodeposits N gas release
(Organic N)

Microbes
• Decomposition
• Nitrification Denitrification to N gas
• Denitrification

Sediment N Burial

Figure 3. An overview of how bivalves interact with the marine nitrogen cycle, and potential ways in which nitrogen may be removed in green.
Adapted from Newell et al. 2002 and [Link]

and grow they incorporate an increasing amount of nitrogen and/or burial is the fact that the analyses of these processes is
from the local waters into their tissues. Overall, the filter challenging and expensive for practical purposes.
feeding activity of shellfish affects the marine nitrogen cycle
through incorporation of nitrogen in shellfish tissues and the How much nitrogen can a shellfish hold?
cycling of nitrogen through the particulate waste (feces and Determining the amount nitrogen present in shellfish shell
pseudofeces), collectively called biodeposits (Figure 3). and tissues is less complicated and may provide the most direct
Nitrogen may be removed from the marine environment approach to quantifying the amount of nitrogen that could
via shellfish in two general ways. Shellfish can be harvested be removed from a water body through shellfish production
directly thereby removing nitrogen accumulated in the tissues, and harvest. Literature values are available for some species of
or through the interaction of particulates released by shellfish shellfish but largely focus on eastern oysters in the Chesapeake
and the surrounding sediment. In the biodeposition and sedi- Bay region where nitrogen enrichment is also a prominent
ment interaction, the particulate waste (biodeposits) generated issue. Fewer literature values are available regarding our other
by shellfish falls to the bottom and can either become buried commercially important shellfish like the northern quahog (or
or feed an active population of sediment microorganisms. hard clam). Available values for nitrogen content in oysters
Under the right conditions these microorganisms can process and quahogs (Newell 2004, Higgins et al. 2011, Carmichael
the biodeposits, resulting in the production of di-nitrogen gas et al. 2012, Sisson et al. 2011) are of a similar range, though
(through the nitrification and denitrification processes) which display some variation between species, location, size, grow out
is then released to the atmosphere thereby removing it from the method, and season of harvest.
marine environment (for more complete description see Newell Due to this variability in the available literature a study was
et al. 2002, Kellogg et al. 2013). undertaken to determine nitrogen content values for oysters
The process of denitrification occurs naturally in coastal and quahogs in Massachusetts. Both species were sampled from
water bodies, and may be further stimulated by shellfish popu- a variety of sites in southeastern Massachusetts , including both
lations becoming a significant source of nitrogen removal from wild and cultured stocks, in both the spring and the fall.
the water column cumulatively over the course of a bivalve’s life Results from local oysters are similar to reported values
(Newell et al. 2005). Oyster reefs in particular have been shown from the Chesapeake region, though may be slightly higher
to have dramatically higher rates of denitrification compared to on average, and quahog nitrogen values were all higher than
control sites (Kellogg et al. 2013), while the evidence is limited those previously reported. The biggest differences or points of
and a bit unclear relating the influence of shellfish aquaculture variation seem to be ultimately related to either size or amount
to these processes (Higgins et al. 2013, Nizzoli et al. 2006). of tissue contained. For instance, a 3 inch (76mm) wild
Denitrification rates also vary seasonally based on levels of Chesapeake Bay oyster (Newell 2004) was found to have more
shellfish and microbial activity (Kellogg et al. 2013, Newell et nitrogen by weight though this was due to a shell weight over
al. 2005) and are also based largely on site and sediment condi- 3 times higher than that reported for other groups of oysters
tions, including bivalve densities (Burkholder & Shumway (Table 1). Even among Massachusetts oysters the way in which
2011). Further complicating the assessment of potential rates the oysters were grown showed differences in shell mass cor-
2 of nitrogen removal through bivalve stimulated denitrification responding to increased mass of nitrogen per animal. Likewise,
Table 1. Quahog and oyster data summary showing
the average of spring and fall Massachusetts samples Shell Length Shell Tissue Tissue Shell Total Total
with literature comparisons, NS indicates values were (mm) DW(g) DW(g) %N %N N(g) % N(DW)
not specified.
Adapted from Newell and Mann 2012. Quahogs from Cape Cod
Wild 57.1 32.6 2.43 7.50 0.18 0.24 0.67
Cultured 55.0 29.6 1.99 7.90 0.17 0.21 0.66
Quahog average 56.1 31.2 2.22 7.69 0.18 0.22 0.67

a harvestable oyster tends to weigh Wild quahogs from Virginia (Sisson et al. 2011)
more and thus have more nitrogen than NS NS NS 5.96 0.15 NS NS
a “littleneck” sized quahog, the size Oysters from Cape Cod
most valuable and popular for quahog
harvest. Wild 82.7 46.0 2.42 8.20 0.26 0.31 0.67
In terms of season, shellfish meats Cultured On-bottom 84.9 47.4 2.70 7.89 0.26 0.32 0.65
tend to be “lean” in the spring and Cultured Off-bottom 83.1 35.7 2.36 7.95 0.21 0.26 0.70
“fatten” into the fall with extra storage Off-bottom Triploid 86.5 22.3 1.36 8.50 0.32 0.19 0.82
in tissues for winter. In fact it was Oyster avgerage 83.8 40.9 2.43 8.01 0.24 0.28 0.69
found that oysters in October had 98%
more meat tissue compared to those Wild oysters from reefs in Chesapeake (Newell 2004)
of similar length in June. Over the 76.0 150.0 1.00 7.00 0.30 0.52 0.34
same period, quahogs averaged a 63%
increase in tissue, leading to increased Cultured floating cage oysters in Chesapeake (Higgins et al. 2011)

quantities of nitrogen stored in biomass
85.5 37.6 1.58 7.28 0.17 0.18 0.45
for fall harvests of both species.
Cultured and wild origin quahogs are not much different in
terms of nitrogen content, but oysters did exhibit differences.
Oysters of wild origin or those cultured on the bottom have Summary
thicker heavier shells which results in a higher nitrogen content Local nitrogen content data indicate Massachusetts shellfish
than thinner shelled oysters grown off the bottom. Small dif- are indeed an important part of nutrient cycling in nearshore
ferences between water bodies were seen but these differences waters, and the harvest of their tissues may represent a method
were not as dramatic as the seasonal differences and it may be to directly remove nitrogen from enriched embayments. In
somewhat related to nutritional status of the shellfish at the addition to the habitat value of shellfish and the removal of
time of sampling. nitrogen through harvest, there is potential for additional nitro-
Variables affecting tissue mass such as size, season, or grow gen removal through the processes of denitrification and burial
out method (for oysters) ultimately translate to varied quanti- though these numbers are more difficult to quantify. Quanti-
ties of nitrogen contained, an important parameter to keep in fication of nitrogen removal through shellfish harvest can be
mind when considering nitrogen removal potential. This is accomplished more simply and directly than quantification
increasingly important if shellfish are not harvested at uniform of denitrification. However nitrogen removal through harvest
size. For example, a large chowder sized quahog weighing in at will potentially fluctuate as a result of seasonal variations in
about a pound in whole live weight could contain the nitrogen shellfish activity, a population’s susceptibility to predation and
equivalent of about eight littlenecks. disease, or extreme weather events. This method also requires

Figure 4. Varying morphology of oysters from different sources. 3

 accurate quantification of numbers of shellfish being harvested Embayment Restoration and Guidance for Implementation
from specific water bodies. Strategies. Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protec-
It is recommended if nitrogen removal is to be pursued tion, Bureau of Resource Protection.
and credited to shellfish harvest, the amount be quantified on Higgins, C.B., Stephenson, K., and B.L. Brown. 2011.
a unit weight basis due to the fact that the amount of nitrogen Nutrient bioassimilation capacity of aquacultured oysters:
contained in an individual shellfish is directly correlated to quantification of an ecosystem service. Journal of Environmen-
size (i.e. amount of tissue). Estimates based on the number tal Quality, 40: 271-277.
of animals harvested may significantly under or overestimate Higgins, C.B., Tobias, C., Piehler, M.F., Smyth, A.R., Dame,
nitrogen based on the value being used. Shellfish are an im- R.F., Stephenson, K., and B.L. Brown. 2013. Effect of aqua-
portant part of our coastal ecosystems and properly managed cultured oyster biodeposition on sediment N2 production in
propagation, restoration, and harvest of bivalve populations can Chesapeake Bay. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 473: 7-27.
be an important tool in mediating the growing nutrient enrich- Howarth, R.W. 2008. Coastal nitrogen pollution: A review
ment issues faced in coastal Massachusetts waters. However, of sources and trends globally and regionally. Harmful Algae, 8:
shellfish act at an ecosystem level with limitations; nitrogen 14-20.
management plans that include shellfish as mitigation should Kellogg, M.L., Cornwell, J.C., Owens, M.S., and K.T.
also adequately address nitrogen inputs to marine ecosystems. Paynter. 2013. Denitrification and nutrient assimiliation on a
restored oyster reef. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 480: 1-19.
If more detailed information and analysis of nitrogen con- Newell, R.I.E., Cornwell, J.C., and M.S. Owens. 2002.
tent in Massachusetts oysters and quahogs is desired, a more Influence of simulated bivalve biodeposition and microphyto-
complete report is available through the Cape Cod Cooperative benthos on sediment dynamics: a laboratory study. Limnology
Extension or Woods Hole Sea Grant. and Oceanography. 47, 5: 1367-1379.
This publication was prepared by J. Reitsma, D. Murphy, Newell, R.I.E. 2004. Ecosystem influences of natural and
and A.F. Archer under NOAA Grant # NA10OAR4170083, cultivated populations of suspension-feeding bivalve molluscs:
Woods Hole Sea Grant Project # M/0-2s, through NOAA’s a review. Journal of Shellfish Research, 23, 1: 51-61.
National Sea Grant College Program, U.S. Dept. of Commerce; Newell, RIE, TR Fisher, RR Holyoke and JC Cornwell. 2005.
and was supported in part by Barnstable County’s Cape Cod Influence of Eastern Oysters on nitrogen and phosphorus re-
Cooperative Extension. It should be cited as follows: Shellfish, generation in Chesapeake Bay, USA. In Dame, R. and S. Olenin,
Nitrogen, and the Health of our Coastal Waters by J. Reitsma, The Comparative Roles of Suspension Feeders in Ecosystems.
D. Murphy, and A.F. Archer. We thank R.W. Fulweiler of Boston Vol. 47, NATO Science Series: IV - Earth and Environmental
University and R. York of the Mashpee Shellfish Department Sciences. 93-120. Springer, Netherlands.
for help in review of this document. The statements, findings, Newell, R.I.E. and R. Mann. 2012. Shellfish Aquaculture:
conclusions and recommendations are those of the author(s) Ecosystem Effects, Benthic-Pelagic Coupling and Potential for
and do not necessarily reflect the views of the aforementioned Nutrient Trading. A Report Prepared for the Secretary of Natu-
organizations. ral Resources, Commonwealth of Virginia. June 21, 2012.
Nixon, S.W. 1995. Coastal marine eutrophication: a defini-
References: tion, social causes, and future concerns. Ophelia 41,1: 199-219.
Beck, M.W., Brumbaugh, R.D., Airoldi, L., Carranza, A., Nizzoli, D., Welsh, D.T., Fano, E.A., and P. Viaroli. 2006.
Coen, L.D., Crawford, C., Defeo, O., Edgar, G.J., Hancock, B., Impact of clam and mussel farming on benthic metabolism and
Kay, M.C., Lenihan, H.C., Luckenbach, M.W., Toropoca, C.L., nitrogen cycling, with emphasis on nitrate reduction pathways.
Zhang, G., and X. Guo. 2011. Oyster Reefs at Risk and Recom- Marine Ecology Progress Series, 315: 151-165.
mendations for Conservation, Restoration, and Management. Sisson, M., Kellogg, M., Luckenbach, M., Lipcius, R.,
Biosciences, 76, 2: 107-116. Colden, A., Cornwell, J., and M. Owens. 2011. Assessment of
Burkholder, J.M. and S.E. Shumway. 2011. Bivalve shellfish oyster reefs in Lynnhaven River as a Chesapeake Bay TMDL
aquaculture and eutrophication. In S.E. Shumway, Shellfish best management practice. Final Report to the U.S. Army Corps
Aquaculture and the Environment. 155-215. Wiley-Blackwell. of Engineers, Norfolk District and the City of Virginia Beach.
Carmichael, R.H., Walton, W., and H. Clark. 2012. Bivalve- Virginia Institute of Marine Science. Special Report No. 429 in
enhanced nitrogen removal from coastal estuaries. Canadian Applied Marine Science and Ocean Engineering.
Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 69: 1131-1149.
Dudley, B. 2003. The Massachusetts Estuaries Project,

Cape Cod Cooperative Extension

Woods Hole Sea Grant P.O. Box 367, Barnstable, MA 02630-0367
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 508.375.6849
193 Oyster Pond Road, MS #2 Fax 508.362.4923
Woods Hole, MA 02543-1525 [Link]
508.289.2398
[Link]/seagrant
This document, a collaboration of the Woods Hole Sea Grant Program and
[Link]/woodsholeseagrant Barnstable County’s Cape Cod Cooperative Extension, should be cited as follows:
[Link]/woodsholeseagnt Shellfish, Nitrogen, and the Health of our Coastal Waters by J. Reitsma, D. Murphy,
[Link]/woodsholeseagrant and A.F. Archer.

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