Control Engineering -15ME73 2018

MODULE 4
FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS

LESSON STRUCTURE
4.1. Nyquist Stability criterion
4.2. Nyquist criterion using Nyquist plots
4.3. Simplified forms of the Nyquist criterion
4.4. The Nyquist criterion using Bode plots
4.5. Bode attenuation diagrams
4.6. Stability analysis using Bode plots

OBJECTIVES:

 To demonstrate Stability Determine Gain & Phase Margins Medium effort.

 To demonstrate applications of the frequency response to analysis of system stability
(the Nyquist criterion), relating the frequency response to transient performance
specifications.
 To demonstrate frequency response and to determine stability of control system
applying using Bode plot.
 To demonstrate to plot graph of amplitude plot, usually in the log-log scale and a
phase plot, which is usually a linear-log plot.

4.1. Nyquist Stability criterion

This graphical method, which was originally developed for the stability analysis of
feedback amplifiers, is especially suitable for different control applications. With this method
the closed-loop stability analysis is based on the locus of the open-loop frequency response

. Since only knowledge of the frequency response is necessary, it is a versatile

practical approach for the following cases:

a) For many cases can be determined by series connection of elements whose parameters
are known.

b) Frequency responses of the loop elements determined by experiments or can be

considered directly.

c) Systems with dead time can be investigated.

d) Using the frequency response characteristic of not only the stability analysis, but also the
design of stable control systems can be easily performed.

4.2. Nyquist criterion using Nyquist plots

To derive this criterion one starts with the rational transfer function of the open loop
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Figure: Poles of the open and closed loop in the plane (multiple poles are counted according to
their multiplicity)

To determine , the locus can be drawn on the Nyquist diagram and

the phase angle checked. Expediently one moves this curve by 1 to the left in the

plane. Thus for stability analysis of the closed loop the locus of the open loop
according to Figure 5.5 has to be drawn.

Figure : Nyquist diagrams of and

Here is the continuous change in the angle of the vector from the so called critical point (-1,j0)

to the moving point on the locus of for . Points where the locus passes through

the point (-1,j0) or where it has points at infinity correspond to the zeros and poles of on the
imaginary axis, respectively. These discontinuities are not taken into account for the derivation of .

Figure shows an example of a

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Figure: Determination of continuous changes in the angle

where two discontinuous changes of the angle occur. Thereby the continuous change of the angle
consists of three parts

The rotation is counter clockwise positive.

As the closed loop is only asymptotically stable for , then from the general case of
the Nyquist criterion follows:

The closed loop is asymptotically stable, if and only if the continuous change in the angle of the

vector from the critical point (-1,j0) to the moving point of the locus of the open loop is

For the case with a negative gain of the open loop the locus is rotated by 180 relative to

the case with a positive . The Nyquist criterion remains valid also in the case of a dead
time in the open loop.

4.3. Simplified forms of the Nyquist criterion

It follows from that for an open-loop stable system, that is and , then .
Therefore the Nyquist criterion can be reformulated as follows:

If the open loop is asymptotically stable, then the closed loop is only asymptotically stable, if
the frequency response locus of the open loop does neither revolve around or pass through
the critical point (-1,j0).

Another form of the simplified Nyquist criterion for with poles at is the so called
'left-hand rule':

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The open loop has only poles in the left-half plane with the exception of a single or double
pole at (P, I or behaviour). In this case the closed loop is only stable, if the critical

point (-1,j0) is on the left hand-side of the locus in the direction of increasing values of
.

This form of the Nyquist criterion is sufficient for most cases. The part of the locus that is
significant is that closest to the critical point. For very complicated curves one should go back to
the general case. The left-hand rule can be graphically derived from the generalised locus

The orthogonal ( )-net is observed and asymptotic stability of the closed loop is given, if
a curve with passes through the critical point (-1,j0). Such a curve is always on the left-

hand side of .

4.4. The Nyquist criterion using Bode plots

Because of the simplicity of the graphical construction of the frequency response

characteristics of a given transfer function the application of the Nyquist criterion is often

more simple using Bode plots. The continuous change of the angle of the vector from

the critical point (-1,j0) to the locus of must be expressed by the amplitude and phase

response of . From figure

Figure : Positive (+) and negative (-) intersections of the locus with the real axis on
the left-hand side of the critical point

it can be seen that this change of the angle is directly related to the count of intersections of

the locus with the real axis on the left-hand side of the critical point between . The
Nyquist criterion can therefore also represented by the count of these intersections if the gain
of the open loop is positive.

Regarding the intersections of the locus of with the real axis in the range ,
the transfer from the upper to the lower half plane in the direction of increasing values are
treated as positive intersections while the reverse transfer are negative intersections

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(Figure 5.7). The change of the angle is zero if the count of positive intersections is equal

to the count of negative intersections . The change of the angle depends also on the
number of positive and negative intersections and if the open loop does not have poles on the
imaginary axis, the change of the angle is

In the case of an open loop containing an integrator, i.e. a single pole in the origin of the complex

plane ( ), the locus starts for at , where an additional is added to the

change of the angle. For proportional and integral behaviour of the open loop

is valid. In principle this relation is also valid for , but the locus starts forat

(Figure 5.8), and this intersection would be counted

Figure : Count of the intersections on the left-hand side of the critical point for behaviour of the
open loop

as a negative one if , i.e. if the locus for small is in the upper half plane of the real axis. But

de facto there is for (and accordingly ) no intersection. This follows from the detailed
investigation of the discontinuous change of the angle, which occurs at . As only a continuous
change of the angle is taken into account and because of reason of symmetry the start of the locus

at is counted as a half intersection, positive for and negative for , which is

analogous to the definition given above For continuous changes of the angle

The open loop with the transfer function has poles in the left-half plane and possibly a

single ( ) or double pole ( ) at . If the locus of has positive and

negative intersections with the real axis to the left of the critical point, then the closed loop is
only asymptotically stable, if

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is valid. For the special case, that the open loop is stable ( , ), the number of positive and
negative intersections must be equal.

From this it follows that the difference of the number of positive and negative intersections in
the case of is an integer and for not an integer. From this follows immediately,

that for the number is even, for the number is uneven and therefore in
all cases is an even number, such that the closed loop is asymptotically stable. This is only

valid if .
The Nyquist criterion can now be transferred directly into the representation using frequency

response characteristics. The magnitude response , which corresponds to the locus

, is always positive at the intersections of the locus with the real axis in the range of

. These points of intersection correspond to the crossings of the phase response

with lines , etc., i.e. a uneven multiple of 180 . In the case of a positive

intersection of the locus, the phase response at the lines crosses from below to
top and reverse from top to below on a negative intersection as shown in Figure 5.9. In the
following these crossings

Figure : Frequency response characteristics of and definition of positive (+)

and negative (-) crossings of the phase response with the -180 line

will be defined as positive (+) and negative (-) crossings of the phase response over the

particular lines, where may be valid. If the phase response starts at -

180 this point is counted as a half crossing with the corresponding sign. Based on the discussions
above the Nyquist criterion can be formulated in a form suitable for frequency response
characteristics:

The open loop with the transfer function has poles in the right-half plane, and possibly a
single or double pole at . are the number of positive and of negative crossings of the

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phase response over the lines in the frequency range where is

valid. The closed loop is only asymptotically stable, if

is valid. For the special case of an open-loop stable system ( , )

must be valid.

Table 7.1: Examples of stability analysis using the Nyquist criterion with frequency response
characteristics

Finally the 'left-hand rule' will be given using Bode diagrams, because this version is for the
most cases sufficient and simple to apply.

The open loop has only poles in the left-half plane with the exception of possibly one single or one

multiple pole at (P, I or behaviour). In this case the closed loop is only asymptotically stable,

if has a phase of for the crossover frequency at .

This stability criterion offers the possibility of a practical assessment of the 'quality of
stability' of a control loop. The larger the distance of the locus from the critical point the

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farther is the closed loop from the stability margin. As a measure of this distance the terms
gain margin and phase margin are introduced according to Figure below

Figure : Phase and gain margin and or , respectively, in the (a) Nyquist diagram and (b)
Bode diagram

Example Problems:

Q1 The polar plot of the open-loop transter of feedback control system intersects the
real axis at—2 Calculate gain margin (in dB) of the system.

Q2. What is the gain margin of a system in decibels if its Nyquist plot cuts the negative
real axis at — 0.7?

Ans.

a = —0.7

Q4. Consider a feed lock system with the open-loop transfer function. Given by

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Examine the stability of the closed-loop system. Using Nyquist stability theory
.

Q 5. Draw the Nyquest plot for the open loop transfer function given below:

and obtain the gain margin and phase margin

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Q6. Consider a feed lock system with the open-loop transfer function. Given by

Examine the stability of the closed-loop system. Using

Nyquist stability theory.

Q7. Sketch the Nyquist plot for the system with the open loop transfer function

and determine the range of K for which the system is

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To get point of intersection on real axis, equate imaglnary part to zero.

Q.8. Sketch the Nyquist plot for system with

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Q 9. How is it possible to make assessment of relative stability using Nyquist criterion?

Construct Nyquist plot for the system whose open loop transfer function is

Find the range of K for stability.

Ans.

  Nyquist critierion can be used to make assessment of relative stability. 

 Using the characteristic equation the Nyquist plot is drawn. A feedback system is
sable if and only if, the i.e. contour in the G (s) plane does not encircle the (—1,
 0) point when the number of poles of G(s) in the right hand s plane is zero. 
 If G (a) has P poles in the right hand plane, then the number of anticlockwise
encirciements of the (—1, 0) point must be equal to P for a stable system,
 N=—P0
where N = No of clockwise encirclements about (—1, 0) point in C (s)
plane P0 = No of poles G (s) in RHP 0

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4.5. Bode attenuation diagrams

If the absolute value and the phase of the frequency response

are separately plotted over the frequency , one obtains the

Figure 6.1: Plot of a frequency response: (a) linear, (b) logarithmic presentation ( on a
logarithmic scale) (Bode plot)
amplitude response and the phase response. Both together are the frequency response

characteristics. and are normally drawn with a logarithm and with a linear scale.

This representation is called a Bode diagram or Bode plot. Usually will be specified in
decibels [dB] By definition this is

The logarithmic representation of the amplitude response has consequently a linear

scale in this diagram and is called the magnitude.

4.6. Stability analysis using Bode plots:

 The magnitude and phase relationship between sinusoidal input and steady state

output of a system is known as frequency response.
 The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G (jw) is plot of the magnitude of G 

(jw) versus the phase angle of G (jw) on polar coordinates as ‗co‘ varied from zero to

infinity. 
 The phase margin is that amount, of additional phase lag at the gain crossover

frequency required to bring the system to the verge of instability. 
 The gain margin is the reciprocal of the magnitude l G(jw) l at the frequency at which
 the phase angle as _1800.
 The inverse polar plot at G (jw) is a graph of 1/G (jw) as a function of w. 

 Bode plot is a graphical representation of the transfer function for determining the
stability of control system. 
 Bode plot is a combination of two plot - magnitude plot and phase plot 

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 The transfer function having no poles and zeros in the right -half s-plane are called
 minimum phase transfer function. 
  System with minimum phase transfer function are called minimum phase systems. 
 The transfer function having poles and zeros in the right half s-plane are called non-
minimum phase transfer functions systems with non-minimum phase transfer

function. are called non-minimum phase system. 
 In bode plot the relative stability of the system is determined from the gain margin

and phase margin. .
 If gain cross frequency is less than phase cross over frequency then gain margin and

phase margin both are positive and system is stable. 
 If gain cross over frequency is greater than the phase crossover frequency than both
 gain margin and‘phase margin are negative.
 It gain cross over frequency is equal to me phase cross over trequency me gain marg

and phase margin are zero and system is marginally stable. 
  The maximum value of magnitude is known as resonant peak.
 The magnitude of resonant peak gives the information about the relative stability of

the system. 
 The frequency at which magnitude has maximum value is known as resonant

frequency. 
 Bandwidth is defined a the range of frequencies in which the magnitude of closed
loop does not drop —3 db.

Example Problems:

Q1. Sketch the Bode Plot for the transfer function given by,

and from Plot find (a) Phase and Gain cross rer frequencies (b) Gain Margin and Phase
Margin. Is this System Stable?

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The gain crosses 0db axis at co = 1.24 rad/sec, the gain crossover frequency is co =
1.24 rad/sec.
The phase crosses —180° line at co = 0.4 rad/sec, therefore phase crossover frequency
is co = 0.4 rad/sec.
At phase cross over the gain is 20 dB, therefore gain margin is —20 dB.
At gain crossover the phase angle is 2150, the phase margin is 180° + (—215°) = —35°.
As both gain and phase margins are negative, the system is unstable.

Q3. Sketch the bode plot for the transfer function given by

and from plot find gain margin and phase margin.

Ans.

On 0)-axis mark the point at 23.7 rad/sec. since in denominator (jw) term is having power
one, from 23.7 draw a line of slope —20 db/decade to meet y-axis. This will be the starting
point.

Step 1.

From the starting point to I corner frequency (0.33) the slope of the line is —20 db/decade.

From I corner frequency (0.33) to second corner frequency (1) the slope of the line will be —
20 ÷ (—20) = —40 db/decade.

From II corner frequency to IV corner frequency (2) the slope of the line be —40 + (÷20) =
—20 db/decade.

From III corner frequency to IV corner frequency, the slope of line will be —20 + (—20) =
—40 db/decade.

From IV corner frequency (5) to V corner frequency the slope will be —40 ÷ (+20) = —20
db/decade.

After V corner frequency, the slope will be (—20) ÷ (—20) = —40 db/decade.

Step 2.
Draw the phase plot.

Step 3.
From graph
Phase margin = +34°
Gain margin =infinity

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OUTCOMES:
At the end of the module, the students are able to:

 To Determine Gain & Phase Margins effect.

 Applications of the frequency response to analysis of system stability (the Nyquist
criterion), relating the frequency response to transient performance specifications.
 Determine stability of control system applying Nyquist stability criterion and using
Bode plot.
 Plot a graph of amplitude plot, usually in the log-log scale and a phase plot, which is
usually a linear-log plot.

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS:
1. Apply Nyquist stability criterion for the system with transfer function
G(S)H(S)= K find the stability.
S(S+2)(S+4)

2. The open loop transfer function of a system is given by G(S)H(S) = 10(S+10) .

S(S+2)(S+5)
Draw Bode diagram, Find Gain cross over frequency (GCF), Phase cross over
frequency (PCF), Gain margin (GM), Phase margin (PM). Find stability of the
system.
3. The open loop transfer function of a system is given by
G(S)H(S) = 50K
S(S+10)(S+6)(S+1)
Draw Bode diagram, Find Gain cross over frequency (GCF), Phase cross over
frequency (PCF), Gain margin (GM), Phase margin (PM). Find the value of K to
have GM=10 decibels.

FURTHER READING:
1. Control engineering, Swarnakiran S, Sunstar publisher, 2018.
2. Feedback Control System, Schaum’s series. 2001.

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