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Development stages and types of glass art from past to present

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Vol. 73 | No. 4 | Apr 2017 International Journal of Sciences and Research

Development stages and types of glass art from past to present

Murad Allahverdiyev (Corresponding Author)

(Near East University, Department of Arts Education, Atatürk Faculty of Education,
North Cyprus, Mersin 10 Turkey, +0-0392-223 6464,
E-mail: [Link]@[Link])

Yucehan Yucesoy
(Near East University, Department of Arts Education, Atatürk Faculty of Education,
North Cyprus, Mersin 10 Turkey, +0-0392-223 6464,
E-mail: [Link]@[Link])

ABSTRACT

The history of glass dates back to old times and it has an important place in art. People
learned to produce glass at the beginning of civilization and therefore it plays an
important role in the human society and in development of the history of culture.
Through the whole history of humanity, the glass was used in many fields of life. The
usability of glass in artistic works, architecture and aesthetic industry arises from it’s
decorative characteristics. Accordingly, the glass is primarily used in the formation of
daily products and aesthetic art works. The present study aims to provide a systematic
review on the aspects and components of glass art and the development stages of glass
art from past to present. Document analysis method was used in the study in order to
achieve the aims of the study. Development of glass from different cultures and societies
was also mentioned. Formation, development stages and types of glass from past to
present were discussed in detail. The results of the study were discussed based on
relevant literature and recommendations for further research and practices were also
provided.
Keywords: art, glass, glass art, aesthetic, development stages.

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1. INTRODUCTION

Glass is a material which emerged around Mediterranean Sea on B.C. 3000-

2500s, developed and became prevalent. Throughout the history, many different
methods were used to shape the glass (Aslan, 2007). People started to produce glass for
the first time in the ancient times which corresponds to a few thousand years ago.
According to Kucukerman (1985), glass is mainly defined as a material which gains
liquidity when it is heated and becomes hard and fragile when it gets cold. Glass has
been used in every domain of life such as a technical requirement, luxurious consumable
item, daily usage and industrial product and it has the properties of fragility and
requiring protection (Aslan & Yazar, 2015).
The importance of glass is explained as showing certain difference from famous
materials. One of the most salient and important property of glass is its limpidity.
Previously, the windows were put in plexiglass instead of glass. However, this material
was in a small shape and had a bad light transmission. Since the glass has a hard
chemical property, the glass products can protect places against exposure of rain, frost
and sun light that are called as atmosphere agents. The high chemical of glass helps glass
products made in ancient times to keep themselves as the same until our age (Brill,
1992).
As it is known, glass has specific decorative properties and it has an important
place in art. According to aesthetic perspective, the glass has an ability to express the
game of light that involves all colours of rainbow exactly. The light makes the glass
more attractive with various colors through existing in it and getting through from inside
of it. The glass attracts attention with its transparency and smoothness (Masaru, 2016).
In the field of arts, mosaic artistry has a special importance among the techniques
similar to stained-glass technique. The main compound of glass is mostly consisted of
“slica (silicon dioxcide)” that shows its all typical properties. This compound has great
importance in nature and it forms 60% of soil. In order to obtain glass from sodium
carbonate, it must be exposed to high temperature. First, alcali is melted, then quartz and
lime are melted in it. These mixtures becomes a chemical compound by the help of
taking out various silicates. Therefore, the hardening process increases the mechanical
strength of glass. The more complex the product is, the more reliable the result is. As a
result, hardened product can be very sensitive to mechanical damage of top layer. It is

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possible to classify chemical properties of glass as durability to acid, durability to alcali

and durability to water (Kucukerman, 1985).
Furthermore, in the field of education, it is stated that glass art should be more
included in the programs of educational institutions (Aslan, 2007) and use of different
methods and strategies in education for every student is essential (Demirok and
Baglama, 2015). Therefore, it can be inferred that glass art is perceived as an important
area in arts education and it must be more prevalent in education as well. When the
literature is examined, it is seen that the number of studies on the aspects and
components of glass art is limited. Therefore, based on the wide and comprehensive
place of glass art in many domains of life, the present study aims to provide a review on
the development stages, taspects and components of glass art, different types of glass
and examples of glass art from several regions in order to constitute a general
perspective on glass art from past to present. This study is expected to be a guide for
researchers and artists to have more knowledge about glass and glass art.

2. METHODOLOGY

This study is based on a literature review which aims to generate a perspective on

the aspects and components of glass art. In line with the aim of the present study,
document analysis as a qualitative research method was used. Document analysis
involves the examination of written materials which includes information about
phenomenon or phenomena targetted to be investigated and determination of certain
categories (Bowen 2009; Yildirim & Simsek, 2013).

3. RESULTS

3.1. Formation of Glass Production

The glass is produced in simple ovens, in small containers and in low

temperatures. That is why glass bulk is obtained very sticky and in a little amount. This
factor usually causes limitation of formalation methods of material and frivolousness of

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its dimensions. Herewith the material used in this period was only named as glass and
although this material was similar to its chemical compound it did not have transcluent
property (Fernandes, Tulyaganov & Ferreira, 2009; Zimmermann, 2010).

3.2. Antique Glass

In the time of ancient periods two famous events took place in optical glass
production: people started to produce transcluent and colourless glass like mountain
crystal and produce big and beautiful containers that were made from this by blowing
method. The glass appeared to be the only material that is able to limit space and pass
the light beams. This factor suprised people so much that they started to change it with
gold in few centuries. However, in antique era the data suitable to ovens that people used
to produce glass, could not be kept and protected (Greiner-Wronowa, 2011).
According to the explanations of people such as Pliniy in middle ages as well as
Herakli and Teofilos in later eras, it can be said that production of glass were made with
two methods. As suitable to this, the ovens are seperated into three parts: a section for
cooking and cooling glass. During cooking of glass that is mixing of stuff materials, they
were made by adding cullet as it is done currently. In antique age, the composition of
glass has changed and become closer to modern glass technique. It can be seen that the
technique was excellent since the glass was produced at high temperature and also it was
close to modern glass composition since it was consisted of much qelevinin (30%) and
little ehengin (35%) in ancient Egypt (Rosenow & Rehren, 2014).

3.3. Glass Blowing

Some processes are proposed to formulate glass products with blowing method:
1: collecting first portions of glass and preparing of glass bottle. 2: collecing of
additional portions of glass, formulation of prepared solution according to form and
measurement of ready material. 3: blowing of solution in form or formless. 4: sticking of
material to ponti and seperating from the pipe. 5: seperating material from ponti and
send to cooling (Eisen, 1916; Senkal, Ahamed, Trusov & Shkel, 2013).

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3.4. Venetian glass (Murana Glass) and Mosaic

The most famous era of Venice was new manufacture of aesthetic glass
productions. Czech Republic is in the first place in glass manufacturing. This state has
started to produce colourful glass since the end of 17th century and made a first
breakthrough in European market with its heavy, well decorated and unique products
(Raedt, Janssens & Veeckman, 1998).
Mosaic in general meaning, defines a general type of an aesthetic art that the
picture is stiffenned to eachother and is created by small pieces of suitable materials and
especially late ancient period buildings have an important place in terms of mosaic
programs with geometric shapes (Ozcan, 2013). It is possible to seperate all products of
Mosaic art into two groups: 1: the descriptions of these products belonding to this group
were expressed by “mosaics” that are formed by numerous cubes having the same size
and content. 2: this group was described by “mosaics” that are formed by colourful
layers having various content and size.

3.5. Stained Glass

Stained glass term was taken from the word “vitre” in French and means
window glass. Stained glass was designed to cover window hole and developed by
various colourful glass pieces stiffened on glass by burning method. The pieces that
were cut are figured and connected to each other with a composite. Reynolds (2013)
stated that the use of stained glass windows increased during the mid-12th century. In
addition, it is mentioned that the term “stained glass” usually refers to colored glass
formed with metallic oxides and glass in which colors have been painted and then fused
in an oven. Artists firslty should draw sketches or cartoons of the finished work on
window.
In 19th century stained-glass became prevalent. In order to raise this field of
aesthetic art, the serious steps were taken about 1900s with the preperation of stained-
glasses in Ar-Nuvo style by artists. However, the real innovation in stained-glass
occured after a long time. During 1900-1920 years some stained-glass of 13th century
were restored in France. They were considered as a new discovery for artists. In the

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same age the irresistable rising of this aesthetic art started. In 20th century the famous
artists with their stained-glass products were Henry Matios, Ternan Leje and Mark
Şaqal.
Fusing is a widely used modern technology in preparing of stained glass in latest
years in the West and now in Russia. It is done to heat the whole glass and seperate
elements of colourful glass at 800-900 C in a special oven. Later the mass involving
colourful glass pieces and glass pieces are melted and becomes a sheet. The sheets are
formulated at the second Stage with the help of oven and special forms. This method
provides to create stained-glass compositions without being limited with limitations of
methods with its variety of form and technologies as well as limitations (Matsumoto &
Wakuda, 2013).
In the end of 19th century Tiffany and La Fraj discovered multi level glass
technology in America. This led artists to reach variety of colour. This new technology
named with its creator Tiffany, was more free than stained-glass technology. Each glass
piece was framed with copper foil and then combined with others by brazing. This
method provides to emphasize the lines of figure. With the help of this technology, it is
possible to fulfill bigger areas.
In today’s technology, various light resources are used in stained glass art.
Therefore, it can be stated that technology is integrated into stained glass art and glass
art as a whole as well (Zor & Tepecik, 2015). Technology is especially used glass
production and shaping of glass.

3.6. Glass Production and Technology in Different Regions

The rich natural geographical location of Azerbaijan has created an opportunity

for glass manufacturing since ancient times. Azerbaijan is a very rich country with its
types of trees (oak, hawthorn, elm, cornel tree etc.) that are used to get high temperature
for burning of glass. Azerbaijan is also rich for glass sand and sodium carbonate
deposits. There are bottle and glass factories and glass goods production is common
(Seferov, 2007). Generally, the stages below are done for production of glass containers:
1: preperation and mixing of material 2: burning of glass mass 3: formulation of

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containers 4: figuring after coolings. It was figured out from excavations in Albany
region located in Azerbaijan that there were figurated containers among glass containers.
One of the consistent scientific evidences that proves public glass production is
the presence of globe in which the glass is burnt. One of these globes was found in 1962
by [Link] in an excavation done in torpaqqala (Qax) located in Azerbaijan
settlement. There has not been any change in installment of globe until 18th century.
Later new equipments has started to be used.

3.7. The History of Decorative Aesthetic Art Samples: Different Examples

Although there have been only small part of aesthetic glass products of south
countries, the craftsmen of Muslim countries developed these methods and made
productions of this art in the countries they lived in. In Egypt and Syria where Muslim
era reigned, there are products made of blown glass. In the era of Fatimid the products
similar to mountain crystal such as figured and colourful lamp, figured wineglass and
goblets and containers to keep smell were designed and started to be produced (Carboni
& Sabah, 2001).
In 13th and 14th centuries brilliant chandeliers that were produced in Syria for
big mosques are very famous. Ottoman Turkey became famous for their small glasses
made of colourful glass named as “the eye of a nightingale” (Yazar & Aslan, 2013).

3.7.1. Egyptian glass

It is known that the oldest glass production is in Egypt. The family that reigned in
17th century is accepted as the development of aesthetic glass manufacturing. From that
age to our age, numerous number of objects were kept and protected. These objects were
two wineglasses made from dark blue and yellow glass that the name of III Tutmosun
was written on (Munxen, Archeologic museum and New York, Metropolitan Museum),
nice plixrome ether bottle that was found from basementin Maxerpra (Cairo Museum),
ether bottle from the basement of pharaoh Amenxotep II (Cairo Museum), beads, vases,

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sticks and various ether bottles from the capital city Amerne during the reign of
Amenxotep V (Nicholson, 1993).
Craftsmanship of glass manufacturing in Egypt shows difference with high level
of its perfectness. As an example for this, it is necessary to take big black bottle in
various colour that was cut as a grape shape from the top, into consideration (Paris,
Louvre). Egyptians developed making mosaics from glass. For this aim, various
colourful glass layers were heated until melted and later they were weighted in order to
obtain thin and very long lines. Some parts of mosaics totally expressed Egypt motives
and some other parts showed difference with mysterious performance style. Besides,
Egyptians never tried to get transparency that shows the quality of glass.

3.7.2. Greek glass

There is limited amount of information about the presence of glass art in ancient
Greece. We know that workshops on glass manufactoring existed in Greece during
Helenistic period which is 3rd century B.C. For example the bottles in which cream was
kept. The material provided total requirements of big cosmopolit cities. The glass
manufacturing center was Alexandria and public craftsmen worked in these city
workshops. The decors in shape of' “pile” or “net” reminded old Egypt vases, the shape
of material was invented by Greek craftsmen and showed similarity with the lines of
pottery products. Here it is frequently possible to meet gypsum, ariball, amphora and
oynaxoya. In the era that Greek art world devastated, glass mosaic that was formed in
the middle of 2nd century A.C reminded “polixrome style” of Roman period with its
brilliant tones (Robertson, 1981).

3.7.3. Roman glass

In Roman period, glass became a prevalent material and blooming technique has
an important role in this. Accordingly, Old Roman aesthetic glass manufacturing lasted
to high“blooming” era. Romans developed this aesthetic art type at exceptional level
and tried hard to get it around (Ozaltin & Olmez, 2011). The blowing pipe first came out
in Syria in 1st century A.C. This was a new equipment and started to be used much in
Italy, Spain, Gaul and even in Germany. Rome and Alexandria were known as places

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manufacturing ornoments from glass. So in these kind of rich cities glass manufacturers
could easily sell their own products. And in later times the glass started to be
manufactured more transcluent, sometimes in blue and green colour. Until our age, some
small wineglasses have also started to be manufactured having the signature of master
Ennion that lived in Sidon in 1st century A.C.
Prevalence of figures and writings on glass as well as manufacturing of two
layered glass reminding camelia, became famous. The most famous sample of two
layered glass was white figured blue vase of Portlend. Apart from this in this era the
glass dipped into liquid gold also became famous. First, the layer that was dipped into
liquid gold was sticked on container then the figüre was drawn on it. Manufacturing of
this kind of glasses belong to the reign of Antonin and Severovs.
The aesthetic glass art of Roman era was famous with stained-glass samples.
Although we had few numbers of glass containers, German priest Teofilis seperated an
important part for this art in his famous work named “a thesis for various arts. He said:
here various colourful (White, black, blue, yellow etc.) glass containers are being
manufactured. In Roman era important containers were manufactured even for medical
field. For example bottles for urine etc. The glass containers manufactured in that era
were rarely used for eating.

3.7.4. Byzantine glass

There is little information about glass manufacturing in Byzantine in the

literature. However, it is known that people did not disregard Byzantine since it had a
very beautiful view. A few old figured objects were found in the treasure of Holy Mark
temple but it was unsure if they belong to Byzantine or not. Probably these objects
belonged to period after Roman Empire reign and refered to this empire. The other
samples that reflect the properties of Christianity were decorated with carvings. On the
wineglass that was found in Tunisia we see the pictures of Holy Pyotr and Holy Iohanna
(Ozaltin & Olmez, 2011).

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3.7.5. Gothic Glass

Stained-glass represented the main type of aesthetic products made from glass in
gothic era. This explains why the number of windows were increased in gothic type
churches different from Roman architecture style. Different from Roman stained-glasses
gothic stained-glasses were developed so blue colours were darkened whereas unpainted
glasses served to provide brightness. (Gage, 1982).
Stained glasses were donated to churches as presents by rich feodals, field
officers or craftsmen. In these stained glasses people figures were described both in
sitting position or in various poses. In some situations craftsmen designed their own
portraits over these containers. These portraits were also met among the workers of
Sartre.

[Link] in the Renaissance Period

The fame of Venice glass has started to increase more during Renaissance period.
In Venice craftsmen worked in Murano island and during Gothic era Murano became a
big glass manufacturing centre. Its importance continued to increase and in 14th century
Murano became the first place in glass manufacturing in Europe. In the second half of
this century Venetians began to adop glass manufacturing techniques that Syrians used.
The glass craftsmen from Barovyeri family gained a reputation with their glasses
covered with engraving and liquid gold. Starting from this era development started to
draw attention (McCray, 1999).
In Venice the most various types of glass products that gained general admiration
of Western countries, started to be manufactured. Among the products prepared in
Venice, wineglasses decorated with plants, flowers etc. were found.

3.7.7. Baroque Glass

In glass manufacturing Baroque covers the most brilliant era. In this era, Venice
is at the first place. The glass manufacturers in Venice continued to prepare objects that
gained great success in Renaissance (for example, rich ornamented wineglasses) as well
as mysterious art objects made of colourless glass and decorated wineglasses were

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manufactured. Apart from this, Venice chandelier that was blown seperated and made of
colourless glass should also be noted. After blown these cılcıraqs were attached to
metalic mile. “Paqoda” lamps found in Murano museum, consisted of four posts and
having symbols that go up from these posts. These lamps were prepared by Giuseppe
Briati before 18th century. In baroque art, emotions and subjectivity were more
dominant instead of rationalism as in Renaissance Period (Norberg-Schulz, 1927).

3.7.8. Rococo Glass

From the beginning of 18th century potash glass, glass similar to boqema and
soda glass suitable to ''Venice type'' were started to be produced. First glass bottles made
of black glass, were prepared. With these glass bottles, glass containers for vegetable
oils and liquors, were also designed. In Lanqqedoke containers for wine, various glasses,
fing shaped containers etc. were manufactured. When the figures of products were
examined, it could be possible to find out in which states they were manufactured. In
Rococo style mirrors were used to strengthen light saving. In installations of walls and
guest rooms it could easily be seen how life style changes during the reign of 14th Louis
(Minor, 1999).
The great interest in Rococo caused jewelers tended to more classical styles. The
most important jewelery craftsman of that era was [Link]. When he was not so
famous he sold some silver objects to young officer Bonapart by credit. The other
countries of Europe developed jewelery at that time. In England turning to classism style
with a silver vase produced by R. Adam in 1772 by dipping it into liquid gold. Among
American jewelers Pol Revir has an important place.

3.7.9. Glass in Classicism

In Classicism, the view of art is everyone, art must be performed for the society
is dominant (Mant, 2014). Nevertheless, Bohemian style became the characteristics in
the glass that was formed in classicism era of France. The building of King in San-Luide
showed similarity with the crystal of England involving lead acid. On the other hand, the
development of glass bottle manufacturing having modern lines should be emphasized.
During the reign of first emperor innovations came out, glass bottles and chalices were

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gathered on the table during dinner invitation. As a result new types of products started
to draw attention. For example the glass that was manufactured specially for Empress
Josephine, was designed by Azar. In Klyuni museum the total of masks that were
designed by Ron during Italian comedies, were kept and protected.

4. DISCUSSION

Glass is a form of art which is commonly used as goods, expression of emotions

and work of art. The present study aimed to provide a review on the development stages,
aspects and components of glass art. Ceramics and glass arts terms are both used
togehter today in the same kiln and without changing their structures. In line with the
aim of the study, a comprehensive literature review was conducted and it was revealed
that the number of studies focusing on the content, components and development stages
of glass is limited.
Document analysis method was used in the study. Exploring innovative theories,
practices and critical analyses of the arts is important. Therefore, it is expected that the
present study would be a preliminary research and beneficial guide for artists,
researchers, teachers and academicians through discussing the history, development
stages, forms and components of glass and glass together.
When the literature is examined, it can be clearly seen that studies mostly focus
on glass and ceramic (Helvajian & Janson, 2005) and stained glass (Reynolds, 2013). In
addition, technology develops rapidly today and it is also integrated in to glass art as
well.
Certainly, it is inevitable to ignore the crucial role of technology in our lives and
it is useful to integrate technology in glass art since it attracts more attention from people
at different ages especially children (Zor & Tepecik, 2015). In addition, glass art is more
included in educational institutions since the number of studies which emphasize the role
of arts in education has increased (Buyurgan & Buyurgan, 2007). In order to use arts in
every domain of life effectively, the gap between research and practice must be
eliminated and current trends, resources and literature should not be ignored.
Throughout the histoy, magnificent products and work of art were produced.
Glass took place in every domain of life from past to present which corresponds to an
almost 4,500 years of history of humanity and it has a place in the formation of

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tableware, vase, illumination, jewelery and industrial materials. Therefore, research and
practices in glass art should be more prevalent since things become more valuable and
meaningful with arts.

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study aimed to provide a systematic review on the development stages,

types, aspects and components of glass art from past to present. In order to achieve this
aim, a comprehensive literature review was carried out and document analysis was used
as the method of the study. The obtained data were presented systemically in order to
provide a general perspective on the aspects and components of glass art from a
historical perspective. Results showed that glass art takes place in every domain of our
lives, it has a very old and substantial history and it is used in many forms in many
regions of the world throughout the history. Based on the results of the study, the
following recommendations are provided for further research and practices in the field of
glass art:

 Artists should be encouraged to compose and produce work of glass art.

 Research should focus more on the use of glass art in education.
 Awareness in the society should be increased about glass art.
 A handbook on the overview of basic issues on glass art might be constituted in
order to reach more people.
 Teachers must be encouraged to include arts in education more in order to
support creativity.

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