Evaluating and Selecting the FIVE FUNCTIONS OF SOIL

Environment for Crop Production  Habitat for soil organisms

1. Good Location  Water supply & purification
 Access to adequate  Engineering medium
infrastructures  Recycling nutrients &
 Farm to market roads organic wastes
 Electricity & water  Medium for plant growth
sources B. Soil characteristics/properties
 Port facilities (airport & that affect crop production
seaport) 1. Soil depth
 Communication facilities  Top soil is the most
 Post-harvest facilities like fertile layer of the soil profile
dryer, cold storage  Loss of the top soil
Examples of Dryer means significant reduction in the
1. Flat-bed dryer agricultural value of the land
2. Solar bubble dryer  Soil depth is determined
Storage Systems by digging a pit & measure the
1. Hermetic storage thickness of the topsoil (from soil
2. Bag storage surface down to bedrock/hardpan
3. Bulk storage layer which obstructs downward
 Favorable socio-economic proliferation of the root)
conditions  For perennial crops, soil
 Peace & order should be as possible (At least 80cm)
 Political stability so that roots can penetrate deep & be
 Availability & cost of able to explore & obtain water &
manpower nutrients from larger volume of soil
 Government policies  Deep soil is essential in
 Tariff/taxes on typhoon-prone area where roots must
imported inputs be anchored deeply to avoid blow-
 Tax incentives down of trees
 Trade policy  Shallower soil can be
 These factors do not directly utilized for shallow-rooted crops (Eg.
affect the productivity itself but Annual crops)
could seriously affect the 2. Soil texture
management (including  Refers to the relative
handling & marketing of proportion of soil particles (sand,
products) & eventually profits silt & clay)
 Such factors are best &  Affects soil
appropriately addressed by the characteristics
government  Soils of moderate soil
2. Suitable Site texture (loam) are ideal for most
 Site refers to factors that directly crops
affect growth & productivity of the
crops: SOIL AND CLIMATE
Suitable Soils
A. Important functions of soil
1. Provides anchorage to the
plant
2. Serves as medium/reservoir
for air, water, nutrients, and
beneficial organisms
Soil Texture Triangle 3. Soil structure
 Refers to the
arrangement of soil particles into
characteristic aggregates
 Determined by kind &
amount of cementing materials
(eg. OM, fine clay particles)
 Also determined by soil
management (eg. Proper tillage,
mulching, addition of organic
materials)
 A desirable soil structure
should be granular & porous; for
easy root proliferation
 To develop & maintain a
desirable soil structure, high
organic matter should be
maintained & tillage must be
done at the right time

Characteristics Course- Fine- 4. Nutrient content

textured textured  Macronutrients &
soil soil micronutrients must always be
Water-holding Low High available at optimum & balance
Granular - resembles cookie
capacity amount
crumbs
Cat-ion exchange Low than 0.5cm
- less Highin  Otherwise, nutrient
capacity diameter deficiencies or toxicities occur
Aeration/drainage - Good
commonly found Poorin that could lead to reduction in
Ease of tillage surface
Easy horizons Hard yield & quality; may even kill the
where roots have plants
been growing 5. Soil pH
Blocky - irregular blocks  pH is a measure of
- 1.5-5.0cm in degree of alkalinity or acidity
diameter  affects
Prismatic - vertical columns of availability/solubility of nutrients
soil that might be a & activity of microorganisms
number of cm long (organic matter decomposition,
- found in lower mineralization nitrogen fixation,
horizons nutrient absorption)
Columnar - vertical columns of Ideal Soils for Crop Production
soil that have a salt A. For upland crops
“cap” at the top 1. Deep
- found in soils of 2. Moderate texture
and climates 3. Moderate pH
Platy - thin, flat plates of 4. Fertile
soil that lie 5. High organic matter
horizontally 6. Well-drained
- found in B. For lowland crops (eg. Rice)
compacted soil 1. Deep
Single grained - soil is broken into 2. Excellent water-holding capacity
individual particles 3. Fertile
that do not stick 4. High organic matter
together 5. Moderate pH
- always 6. Fine-texture (preferably clay soil)
accompanies a Favorable Climate
loose consistence
- found in sandy
soils
  Climate refers to the average  Primary source of water for crop
condition of the atmosphere in a given production
area  Most agri areas in the country are
 An ultimate determinant of what crop fully dependent on it
species to grow  Hence, rainfall distribution is a
 Influences all plant physiological & critical faction in crop production
biochemical processes such as  Used as basis in classifying
photosynthesis, respiration, climate in the Philippines
transpiration, flowering, fruit TYPES OF CLIMATE
maturation a. Type I
Components of Climate  Two pronounced seasons
1. Temperature  Dry – nov to April
 Determines the distribution of the  Wet – may to oct
crop species in the world b. Type II
 Temperate crops: apple, pear,  No distinct dry period
wheat  Max rainy period from nov to
 Tropical crops: mango, banana, jan
coconut c. Type III
 In the Phil., the average variation  No pronounced max. rainy
in temp is very small; 25.6C period
(Jan) to 28.2C (may)  With short dry or relatively
 Lower temp at high altitudes like dry period from nov to April
Baguio City (1,200m); ave temp d. Type IV
could be as low as 13C  Rainfall is more or less
2. Light evenly distributed
 Controls practically all aspects of throughout the year
plant growth & development; 4. Typhoons
from seed germination to fruit  Extremely destructive to crops
development  Yet beneficial since 47% of
 Essential in photosynthesis rainfall is associated with typhoons
TWO ASPECTS OF LIGHT  Ave. of 21 typhoons annually;
 Light Intensity mostly passing visayas and Luzon
 Varies with season:
lower intensity during rainy
season than dry season due
to cloud cover
 In mountainous areas,
slopes facing either east or Land Preparation
west receive less sunlight  Includes all steps necessary to make
 Light duration/daylength or the soil ready for planting
photoperiod  Extent of land preparation depends on
 Controls flowering in existing vegetation & specific crop
some plants requirements
 Controls bulb & tuber For lowland crops (eg. Rice)
formation in certain crops  Tillage is done usually when soil is fully
 Other crops are not saturated with water
sensitive (they are called  Land preparation involves puddling the
day-neutral crops) soil; initially by plowing, followed by
 In the Phil, light several harrowings
duration is significantly  Soil structure is destroyed
shorter during Nov, Dec and  Soil is compacted at plow sole
Jan layer
3. Rainfall  Water percolation & seepage are
minimized/reduced
  Final step is levelling & ‘marking’  Reasonably level (without
 Implements include moldboard plow, depressions where water may
comb-tooth harrow (‘suyod’) and accumulate)
wooden lever, pulled by draft animal For perennial crops (eg. Trees)
(carabao) or by tractors  Extent of land prep depends on the
 Marker is usually used to facilitate conditions of the land
transplanting of rice seedling  Second growth forest
For upland crops  Open grassland
 Tillage is done when soil moisture is  Land previously planted to crops
near field capacity  Land presently planted to
 With excessive soil moisture, tillage perennial crops (eg. Coconut
will result to soil compaction & will plantation)
destroy soil structure  May or may not involved plowing &
 Field Capacity – soil condition at which harrowing but must include:
excess water had been fully drained  Cutting of grasses & other
 Soil moisture content at field capacity: vegetations
 Sandy soils – 6-10%  Manually or use of
 Loamy soils – 18-26% machines (or use of
 Clayey soils – 23-29% herbicides)
 Plowing, harrowing & rotavation are  Adopts a minimum tillage system
done to:  Laying out
 Incorporate crop stubbles &  Should follow
weeds into the soil recommended planting
 Develop a desirable soil structure distance & systems of planting
 For easy seed germination Planting distance depends
& root development on crop species/varieties (eg.
 Improve soil aeration Big trees vs small trees) &
 Improve infiltration of growing conditions (eg. Fertile
water & internal drainage vs unfertile soils)
Contour Plowing  Systems of planting
 In gently sloping field, tillage is done  Square
across the slope & following the  Triangular
contour lines  Quincunx
 Implements:  Digging of holes & planting
 Carabao-drawn implements  Holes should be big & deep
 Moldboard plow, spike tooth to give space for addition of
harrow (‘kalmot’) & furrower (‘lithao’) compost at the bottom &
 Tractor-drawn Implements sides
 Moldboard plow, disc plow,  During digging, topsoil
disc harrow & rotavator & furrower should be separated from
Furrowing the sub-soil
 Furrows are shallow canals of specified Selection and Preparation of Planting
distances where seeds or seedlings Materials
are to be planted A. Use of recommended varieties
 Ridges are raised beds formed  For successful farming, use only
between the furrows varieties recommended or approved
 During rainy season, seeds or by the National Seed Industry Council
seedlings are planted on the ridges (NSIC), an agency under the DA
 A well-prepared upland soil should be:  Such varieties after having been
 Granular & friable bred & undergone rigid testing &
 Stubbles & weeds thoroughly evaluation were:
incorporated with the soil  Proven to have good yield
 Desirable quality
  Resistance to pest &  These conditions are achieved by
diseases storing the seeds in air-tight container,
 Other desirable traits refrigerated room & provided with
 On recently-released varieties, contact dessicant (silica gel or charcoal)
the NSIC  Seeds should ne protected from
B. Preparation of Planting Materials insects & fungus using pesticides)
1. Kinds of planting material  Example: grain crops, vegetables
a. Use of seeds (sexual & few fruit crops
propagation) b. Recalcitrant seeds
 Applicable to most annual  Seeds that cannot tolerate low
crops (agronomic, veges, moisture level; once dried, seed
plantation crops) viability is lost
 Also as rootstocks for  Such seeds should be sown
grafting & budding of tree immediately after extraction
crops  Seeds may remain viable for
b. Use of vegetative parts some time (1-4months) when stored
(asexual propagation) under moist condition (high RH) inside
 Roots, leaves & stems a polyethylene bag & kept at relatively
 Applicable to most fruits & low temperature
ornamental crops, some  Example: mango, rambutan,
agronomic crops, some cacao, oil palm, rubber, jackfruit,
plantation crops & few mangosteen, santol, lanzones, durian
vegetables c. Intermediate seeds
2. Advantages of asexual over  Seeds that can withstand
sexual methods desiccation to around 10-12% MC &
a. Plants are true-to-type can be stored successfully in hermetic
 With same traits containers
(productive, good fruit  Lose viability more rapidly at low
quality) as the mother temps (<10C) than at warmer temps
plant (12-21C)
b. Trees are smaller  Example: coffee, papaya, neem,
c. Trees start bearing fruits chico, tea, oil palm, citrus sp., star
earlier apple, royal palm
d. Asexual propagation is the
only option for seedless
varieties (eg. Banana,
seedless grapes); sterile (eg.
Siniguelas) or when seeds are Pre-germination treatment of seeds
not readily available 1. Scarification
(sugarcane, cassava,  Treatment that improves the
bamboo) permeability of the seed coat to
3. Seeds for planting must be: water & hasten seed germination
 Physiologically mature – with  Some techniques:
sufficient food reserve needed  Soaking seeds in water
to produce a vigorous & healthy overnight (eg. Papaya &
seedlings coconut)
 Should be viable (embryo is  Dipping seeds in boiling
capable of germination) water (eg. 5 min for guava)
Types of Seeds  Dipping seeds in acid (eg.
a. Orthodox seeds Abaca seed: 2% HCL for 30
 Seeds that can be dried without min)
losing its viability  Removal of endocarp (eg.
 Viability remains for a long period Mango)
when stored under low relative  Removing basal portion of the
humidity, low temp & low oxygen husk (eg. Coconut)
  Removing mucilage from seeds  Seeds sown directly without
 Papaya – rubbing with hand pre-germination
& sand  Duration: 20-42 days
 Cacao, Santol – rubbing with c. Dapog method
hand & sand  Raised bed of puddled soil
 Tomato – fermenting seeds covered with banana leaves
overnight followed by or plastic sheet.
washing Alternatively, paved surface
 Scarification Techniques: may be used as seedbed
 Soaking seeds in acid  60kg pre-germinated seeds
 By clipping  40 sq m plot
 Soaking in water overnight  10-14 days from soaking of
 Using a file seeds
2. Vernalization 2. Raising of vegetable seedlings
 Subjecting water-soaked or  Suitable for small-seeded crops:
germinating seeds to cold lettuce, cabbage, pechay,
treatment to achieve flowering of tomato, eggplant, celery
cool-season crops grown in  Crops with slow germination rate
warmer environment & slow establishment
Crop Temp (C) Duration  Crops that are susceptible to
(day) damping-off disease
Onion 0 15 TWO METHODS:
Carrot 0-10 5-7 a. Seedbed method
Cabbage 10 5-7  Uses well-prepared soil,
sterilized by sunlight, heat
3. Stratification or chemical (40%
 Subjecting the seeds to cold formaldehyde)
treatments in order to break  Seed spacing: 7cm
dormancy between rows; 2-3 seeds
Crop Temp Duration are drilled per linear cm
Grape 4C 3 months b. Seedbox method
Gladiolus 40F 4-6 months  Use of seedbox (33cm
wide x 50cm long x 7cm
deep)
 Soil media: mixture of
Raising of Seedlings sand, compost & garden
1. Rice seedlings soil; sterilized by heat or
a. Wetbed method chemical
 Puddled soil as germinating  Seeds are sown at 2-3
bed seeds per linear cm with
 Seed requirement: 50kg/ha rows spaced at 7-8cm
 Space requirement: 400  Seedlings are then
sq.m. transferred to another
 Pre-germinated seeds seedbox to provide more
(soaked in 24hrs & space. This process is
incubated for 48 hrs) called pricking or pricking-
 Duration: 25-30 days from off.
soaking 3. Raising of seedlings to be used as
b. Drybed method rootstock or for field planting
a. Germination bed or seedbed
 Uses unpuddled soil but kept
moist  Consists of fine sand or its
mixture (50:50) with garden
 Seed reqt: 50kg
soil
 Space reqt: 500 sq m
 Seeds are sown closely within
rows of appropriate distance
 b. Bagging or Potting Large planting
 Practice of transplanting materials)
seedlings to indiv bag or  For unsold grafter plant,
container to allow further roots of which have
growth of seedlings before become potbound or
field planting or grafting have penetrated the
 Potting Media – plastic bags
consist of either pure d. Raising of seedlings in nursery bed
loamy garden soil e. Balling
(with high OM) or  Practice of digging the
mixture (1;1:1) of seedlings (from the nursery
garden soil, fine sand, bed) with a ball of soil still
and compost intact with the roots
 Containers commonly  Dug seedlings are
used are black plastic immediately wrapped with
bags of varying sizes materials (eg. Sack, banana
depending on the crop bracts, coconut leaf) that
& the length of time could keep the soil firmly
seedlings should intact with roots
remain in the nursery  Applicable to
 Seedlings for seedlings (eg. Citrus,
grafting lanzones) raised on a
- 7 x 11 (3 ½ x nursery bed
2 ½ x 11) for  Applicable to large,
mango, overgrown trees &
rambutan, palms that have to be
durian & santol moved to another site
 Smaller bag for 4. Asexual propagation
non-grafter a. Separation and Division
seedlings  Make use of modified roots &
- 6” x 10” (3” x stem such as:
3” x 10”) for  Runners
guava, atis,  Specialized
passion fruit & stems which arise
guyabano from the leaf axils &
 Plastic bags must form roots on their
always be provided own
with holes for  Examples:
adequate drainage & strawberry, black
aeration pepper & fern
c. Rebagging  Suckers
 Practice of transferring the  Adventitious
seedling from one bag to leafy shoots that arise
another in order to provide from the stem base or
greater rooting space below the ground
 Required for slow-  Examples:
growing seedlings banana, abaca,
(mangosteen & pineapple, anthurium,
lanzones) that require African daisy & red
one or more years palm
before grafting/planting  Slips
 Required of seedlings  Leafy shoots that
that need to be kept in arise from axillary bud
the nursery longer at the base of the fruit
before field planting (eg. (as in pineapple)
  Crown 1. Root cuttings
 Leafy shoots that  Eg. Breadfruit (rimas)
arise from the top of  Matured root (about 1.5-6cm
pineapple fruit diameter) is excavated from the
 Corm ground & cut into 15-20cm long
 Underground  Cuttings are then sown
solid structure having horizontally in a bed of moist sand &
nodes & internodes provided with shade
 Examples:  Takes about 7-8 months for the
banana, gabi, abaca & cutting to produce new plants
gladiolus 2. Leaf cutting
 Rhizome  Leaf blade (with or without
 A modified stem petiole) is used
growing horizontally  Begonia
underground  Mature leaf is
 Examples: cut into sections, each
ginger, arrowroot, one having a large vein
heliconia intact
 Tuber  Cutting is
 Underground inserted vertically in the
thickened stem with medium with the
numerous buds called pointed base end down
eyes  A new plant
 Example: potato eventually develops
 Tuberous roots from the large vein at
 Modified roots the base of the section
that serve as main  African violet
storage organ of the  Leaf blade is
plant laid flat on the rooting
 Examples: sweet medium
potato, radish,  New plants
singkamas & winged develop at the base of
bean the petiole and at midrib
 Bulbils
 Aerial plantlets
formed on the axils of
the leaves or flower 3. Stem cuttings
stalk  Softwood, semi-
 Example: agave hardwood &
 Offsets herbaceous cuttings
 Plantlets that Soft-wood cutting
arise form stem  Consists of shoots taken from
 Examples: young flush
dendrobium &  Used in many ornamental shrubs
phalaenopsis  Semi-hardwood
b. Cutting cutting
 A method of asexual  Consists of partially mature
propagation in which shoots
detached vegetative part is  Examples: gumamela, croton,
allowed to regenerate its rose
missing organ(s) eventually  Hardwood cutting
develop into a complete  Consists of fully mature shoots
plant without leaves
TYPES OF CUTTINGS
  Examples: siniguelas, kakawati, 1. Utilize the good traits of
malunggay, cassava the rootstock (eg. Dwarfing
Herbaceous cuttings effect, tolerance to adverse
 Applicable to herbaceous plants soil conditions/diseases)
 Examples: chrysanthemum, 2. Early bearing
potato, tomato, vanilla, black pepper 3. True-to-type plant
Asexual propagation: Cutting 4. Can create plant with
 Root cutting multiple root system
 Leaf cutting 5. Repair damaged part of
the trunk – as in bridge
 Stem cutting
grafting
Requirements of a Successful Rooting
6. Changing of variety – by
 Temperature – about 27C
top working
 High relative humidity (85-100%) 7. Produce plant with
 Sufficient light multiple varieties
 Clean, moist & well-drained medium REQUIREMENTS OF A
 Protection from diseases SUCCESSFUL GRAFTING:
1. Compatible & actively
c. Marcotting or Air Layering growing rootstock & scion
 Rooting of a shoot or branch 2. Smooth cut made on both
while still attached to the mother plant rootstock & scion to ensure
 Applicable to plants that can max contact of their cambium
not be readily propagated by cuttings layers
(hard-to-root cuttings) 3. Scion should be kept from
REQUIREMENTS/STEPS drying by wrapping it with
1. Remove a ring bark, including plastic strip & covering with
cambium layer from the stem plastic tube (ice candy bag)
2. Put moist rooting medium around
the ringed part & wrapped with
transparent plastic sheet
3. When sufficient roots have
formed, cut the rooted shoot from COMMON METHODS:
the mother plant  Cleft grafting
4. Immediately bag or pot the  Approach grafting or
rooted shoot, then irrigate & put inarching
under shade  Patch budding – durian
d. Grafting/Graftage santol
 A method of asexual  Shield budding – for citrus
propagation which involves Planting & Transplanting
joining of two plant parts General Methods of Planting
with the objective of having a. Direct seeding/planting
the parts united & grow as  Seeds or other planting materials
one are directly planted in the field
 Rootstock – part of the ‘graft’  Applicable to:
that serves as the root  Seeds that readily
system germinate
 Scion – a part that is to be  Inexpensive seeds
grafted & eventually
 Species in which the
becomes the shoot system
seedlings are sensitive to
of the plant
root disturbances (eg.
 The goal is to replace the Corn, beans)
shoot of a rootstock with
 Big-seeded crops like okra,
scion taken from desirable
beans, patola, corn
variety
 Stem cuttings of siniguelas,
BENEFITS FROM/ADVANTAGES:
cassava, sugarcane,
 sweet potato are directly  Grafted plants
planted Population Density
 Other propagules (eg.  Refers to the number of plants per unit
Sucker, crown, tuber) area (eg. 10,000 plants per hectare)
FORMS OF DIRECT SEEDING Benefits of optimum population density:
1. Broadcasting 1. Early build up of sufficient leaf area
 Seeds are uniformly index for optimum use of solar energy
distributed on the field (eg. 2. Early & better control of weeds
Rice, pechay, raddish, cover 3. Increase efficiency in use of land, light
crop) & water
 It requires through land prep; Planting density depends on:
otherwise, weeds will be a 1. Crop species & varieties
serious problem  Grain crops vs trees
2. Hill method  Corn vs rice
 Seeds are sown at specified  Mango vs coffee
distance within hill & between  Tall vs short var of tice
rows of specified distances (eg.  Tall vs short var of banana
Corn, pineapple)  Erect vs spreading growth habit
 Weed control is much easier (lanzones vs rambutan)
than in broadcast because *optimum population density therefore
straight rows allow the use of a varies with plant height, canopy shape &
rotary weeder or cultivator size, growth habit, horizontal spread of
3. Drill method root system
 Specified number of seeds 2. Soil fertility & soil management
are sown within rows of practices
specified distances  Adopt lower population density in
 Eg. Small-seeded crops like fertile soils
mungbean 3. Season (related to availability of water
 Weed control is much easier & solar radiation)
than in broadcast because  Adopt a lower population density
straight rows allow the use of a during rainy season (when solar
rotary weeder or cultivator radiation is limiting)
4. Dibble 4. Method of propagation used
 Land does not require  Seed vs grafted/cuttings
plowing, harrowing &  Adopt higher population density
furrowing but needs thorough for grafted plants especially when
clearing dwarfing rootstocks are used
 Holes with no definite spacing 5. Mechanization to be employed
are dug; large enough to  Row spacing must conform with
accommodate the seeds the size of machine to be used
 Seeds are put into the holes 6. Cropping system to be adopted
& covered with thin layer of  With monocropping
soil  Adopt the usual population
 It is alternative planting density
system for corn, rice, sitaw &  In multiple cropping
okra grown in hilly sites  Population density should be
b. Transplanting method appropriately adjusted to
 Seedlings are initially raised in the accommodate all crops to
nursery & later planted to the field be grown
 Applicable to: Population Density (PD) Computation
 Seeds that are difficult to 1. Hill method
germinate PD = Area (m2) x No. of plants per hill
 Expensive seeds like F1 S 1 x S2
hybrid/GMO seeds S1 – distance between furrows (m)
 Rooted cuttings S2 – distance between hills (m)
 Unit – plants/ha  Cloudy weather; in case of
2. Drill method seedlings
PD = Area x No. of plant per linear 2. Transplanting perennials
meter  Holes should be as deep & wide
Distance between rows as possible
For perennial crops, PD varies with planting  Container must be carefully
patterns or systems: removed; making sure that the
1. Square system soil does not crumble/break to
 Plants are set at the corners of avoid root disturbance
the square  Seedlings with weak stem need
 Plants are equidistant to one to be tied to a support to keep
another them straight
PD = Area (m2)
S2
 One modification is rectangular
system where trees are planted
at the corners of rectangles
PD = Area (m2)
S 1 x S2
S1 – distance bet rows (m)
S2 – distance bet hills (m)
2. Triangular System (hexagonal)
 Plants are set at the corners of
triangle (equilateral)
 Allows higher PD than the square
by 15%
PD = Area
S2 X 0.866
3. Quincunx System (diagonal)
 A modification of the square
system where an additional
plant is planted at the center of
each square
 Has higher PD than the first two
systems
PD = Area (m2) + {[(L/S)-1][(W/S)-
1]}
S2
S – planting distance (m)
L – length of the farm (m)
W – width of the farm (m)
4. Modified Triangular System
 An additional tree is planted at
the center of each triangle
 Has the highest PD
Systems of Planting
 Square
 Triangular
 Quincunx
Planting Operations
1. Time of planting
 When soil is moist; usually at
the start of rainy season
 Anytime, if irrigation facilities
are available