Source of Error
Person- Need to be competent
and trained
Instrument/apparatus-
Calibrated
Process- Validated
Type of errors
Systematic errors
Systematic errors are biases in
measurement which lead to measured
values being systematically too high or too
low.
All measurements are prone to systematic
error. A systematic error is any biasing
effect, in the environment, methods of
observation or instruments used, which
introduces error into an experiment and is
such that it always affects the results of an
experiment in the same direction.
Incorrect zeroing of an instrument leading
to a zero error is an example of systematic
error in instrumentation.
Systematic errors
It can be a
Operational or personal errors
• Incomplete drying before
weighing
• Mechanical loss of sample
• Incorrect technique of
transferring sample
• Error in burette reading
Systematic errors
Instrumental and Reagent Error
• Faulty construction of balance
• Use of uncalibrated weight,
glassware and instrument
• Reaction of glassware and
reagent
• Reagent with impurities
Systematic errors
Error of method
• Wrongly standardized
instruments
• Faulty detector response
• Difference in Practical end point
and theoretical endpoint
How to reduce systemic errors
• Calibration of apparatus and
application of correction
• Running a blank determination
• Running a control determination
• Use of independent method of
analysis
• Running parallel determination
• Standard addition
• Internal standard
Random error
• Random errors in experimental
measurements are caused by
unknown and unpredictable
changes in the experiment.
• These changes may occur in the
measuring instruments or in the
environmental conditions.
Random error is always present
even if analyst measure very
precisely
Random error
Example
You measure the mass of a ring
three times using the same
balance and get slightly different
values: 17.46 g, 17.42 g, 17.44 g
Remedy
Take more data. Random
errors can be evaluated through
statistical analysis and can be
reduced by averaging over a
large number of observations.