CHAPTER 2

Literature Review
2.1 General
Concrete is the most widely used construction material in today’s era for its low construction
coast, ease of construction, less required maintenance, high compressive strength, better fire
resistance etc. However, the concrete is weak in tension and therefore reinforcing bars are used.
If concrete exposed to harsh environment, it becomes vulnerable as its corrosion susceptibility
of rebars leads to deterioration of concrete structures and creates durability problems. However,
with the excessive growth of civilization, there is a scarcity of mineral aggregate and the
situation demands for finding alternative aggregate. Bangladesh is a land of sediments and clay.
Due to easy availability of clay, bricks (burnt clay) are used as alternative to mineral aggregate
all over the country and brick making industry is growing rapidly. However, brick making
industry has serious environmental complications for creating serious air pollutions and soil
erosions.

On the other hand, induction furnace slag which is the by-product of steel making industry, is
often treated as a waste material. With the growth of construction industry, the demand of steel
has increased. If slag is used as an alternative aggregate in construction industry, then it may
solve many environmental problems and help in ensuring sustainable development.

2.2 Engineering Properties of Aggregate

The properties of aggregate which influence the behavior of fresh and hardened concrete are
called the engineering properties of aggregate. They are mainly,

 Gradation of Aggregate (ASTM C136)

 Specific Gravity (ASTM C127)
 Water Absorption Capacity (ASTM C127)
 Void in Aggregate (ASTM C29)
 Aggregate Impact Value (BS812)
 Aggregate Crushing Value (BS 812)
 Ten Percent Fine Value (BS 812)
 Flakiness Index
 Elongation Index
  Angularity Number
 Los Angles Abrasion Value (ASTM C131)

2.2.1 Gradation of Aggregate

Aggregates used in concrete making contain aggregates of various sizes. This particle size
distribution of the aggregates is termed as “Gradation”. The sieve analysis is conducted to
determine this particle size distribution.

Proper gradation of aggregates is one of the most important factors in producing workable
concrete. Proper gradation ensures that a sample of aggregates contains all standard fractions
of aggregate in required proportion such that the sample contains minimum voids. A sample of
the well graded aggregate containing minimum voids will require minimum paste to fill up the
voids in the aggregates. Minimum paste means less quantity of cement and less quantity of
water; leading to increased economy, higher strength, lower shrinkage & greater
durability. The workability is improved when there is an excess of paste above that required to
fill the voids in the sand, and also an excess of mortar (sand plus cement) above that required
to fill the voids in the aggregate because the fine material lubricates the larger particles.

there are three typical range categories of aggregate grading:

[Link] Well graded

Well-graded aggregate has a gradation of particle size that evenly spans the size from the finest
to the coarsest. A slice of a core of well-graded aggregate concrete shows a packed field of
many different particle sizes. It is characterized by the S- shaped in gradation curve.

[Link] Poor graded

Poor-graded aggregate is characterized by small variation in size. It contains aggregate particles
that are almost of the same size. This means that the particles pack together, leaving relatively
large voids in the concrete. It is also called “uniform-graded”. It is characterized by steep curve.

[Link] Gap graded

Gap-graded aggregate consists of aggregate particles in which some intermediate size particles
are missing. A core slice of gap-graded, or skip grade, concrete shows a field of small sized-
aggregate interspersed with slightly isolated, large aggregate pieces embedded in a small sized
aggregate. It is characterized by a gradation curve with a hump in between.
Poorly graded concretes generally require excessive amounts of cement paste to fill the voids
making them uneconomical. Gap-graded concretes fall in between well-graded and poorly-
graded in terms of performance and economy. Gap graded is viable gradation, but not optimal.
Well-graded aggregates are tricky in proportion. The goal of aggregate proportioning and
sizing is to maximize the volume of aggregate in the concrete while preserving the strength,
workability and finishing. This balance the proportions of each so there are just enough of each
size to fill all the voids, while preserving workability and cast-surface quality.

Fig. 2.1: Gradation of Aggregates, showing, Well-graded, Poorly graded & Gap graded)

2.2.2 Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of aggregates is important properties that is required for the design of
concrete and bituminous mixes. The specific gravity of a solid is the ratio of its mass to that of
an equal volume of distilled water at a specified temperature. Because the aggregates may
contain water-permeable voids, so two measures of specific gravity of aggregates are used:
apparent specific gravity and bulk specific gravity.

[Link] Apparent Specific Gravity

Apparent Specific Gravity, Gapp, is computed on the basis of the net volume of aggregates i.e
the volume excluding water-permeable voids. Thus

/
= (2.1)

where, MD is the dry mass of the aggregate, VN is the net volume of the aggregates excluding
the aggregates excluding the volume of the absorbed matter, W is the density of water.

[Link] Bulk Specific Gravity

Bulk Specific Gravity, Gbulk, is computed on the basis of the total volume of aggregates
including water permeable voids. Thus
 /
= (2.2)

where, VB is the total volume of the aggregates including the volume of absorbed water.

There are two types of bulk specific gravity:

a. Oven Dried Condition (OD), it is the ratio of the oven dried density of the aggregate
to the density of the gas free distilled water at a standard temperature (i.e. 4 oC).
b. Saturated Surface Dry Condition (SSD), It is the ratio of the saturated surface dry
density of the aggregate to the density of the gas free distilled water at a standard
temperature (i.e. 4 oC).

2.2.3 Water Absorption Capacity

Water Absorption is the increase in the mass of the aggregate due to the penetration of water
into the pores of the particles during a prescribed period of time. The term absorption does not
include the amount of water adhering to the surface of the particles. Water absorption is
expressed as percentage of the dry mass.

2.2.4 Void in Aggregate

A void is the volume of space in a material such as sand or gravel not occupied by particles.
The volume of voids is made up of tiny gaps between particles of the material.

There are more than one reason for the appearance of these cavities on concrete. They are:

a. Improper mould
b. Improper use of lubricant or No use of lubricant (Lubricant is used to avoid sticking of
concrete to the inner walls of moulds while casting)
c. Improper vibration
d. High water cement ratio

So, by installing a proper mould without any damages, applying lubricant before casting in
sufficient amounts along with good water cement ratio and proper vibration we can easily avoid
these voids.

2.2.5 Aggregate Impact Value

The aggregate impact value gives a relative measure of the toughness or the resistance of
aggregate sudden shock or impact is not proportional to the resistance to a slowly applied
compressive load. AIV is the percentage of fines produced from the aggregate sample after
subjecting it to a standard amount of impact. The standard amount of impact is produced by a
known weight, i.e. a steel cylinder, falling a set height, a prescribed number of times, onto an
amount of aggregate of standard size and weight retained in a mould.

Aggregate Impact Value = (B/A)*100 (2.3)

Where

A = Total Wt. of the Sample

B = Fraction passing BS sieve #7 after crushing.

2.2.6 Aggregate Crushing Value

Aggregates used in the construction, should be strong enough to resist crushing. If the
aggregates are weak, the stability of the structure is likely to be adversely affected. The strength
of coarse aggregates is assessed by aggregate crushing test. The aggregate crushing value
provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under gradually applied compressive load.
Lesser the aggregate crushing value stronger is the given sample of aggregates.

Aggregate Crushing Value = (B/A)*100 (2.4)

Where

A = Total Wt. of the Sample

B = Fraction passing BS sieve #7 after crushing.

2.2.7 Ten Percent Fine Value

Ten percent fines value is a measure of the resistance of aggregate crushing subjected to loading
and it is applicable to both weak and strong aggregate. Fine aggregates are defined as those
passing 2.36mm sieve.

The test aims at looking for the forces required to produce 10% of fine values (i.e. weight of
fines aggregates/weight of all aggregates = 10%). This test is very similar to Aggregate
Crushing Test in which a standard force 400kN is applied and fines material expressed as a
percentage of the original mass is the aggregate crushing value.

2.2.8 Flakiness Index

The flakiness index of course aggregate is defined in percentage by weight of aggregate
particles and least dimension (thickness) of those particles should not be less than 0.6 times
their mean area. Flakiness index test is not applicable for aggregates sizes smaller than 6.3mm.
Flaky or elongated course aggregates are disadvantageous to higher workability and stability
of mixes.

Flakiness index test is conducted by using a metal thickness gauge. An adequate quantity of
course aggregate is taken such that the minimum number of 200 pieces of any fraction can be
tested. Each fraction is gauged in turn for thickness on the metal gauge. The total amount
passing in the gauge is weighed to an accuracy of 0.1 % of the weight of the samples.

2.2.9 Elongation Index

Elongation index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles whose greatest
dimension (length) is greater than one and four-fifth times (1.8 times or 9/5 times) their mean
dimension. It is measured on particles passing through mesh size of 63mm and retained on
mesh size of 6.3mm.

Presence of elongated aggregates in a mix disturbs the packing of particles and creates more
space. Elongated particles have high ratio of surface area to volume which reduces the
workability of concrete. If elongated particles are used for pavement base course construction,
they may break down easily under heavy loads which will cause damage to the pavement. So,
it is necessary to know the elongation index of given aggregate mix.

Fig. 2.2: Shape of Elongated Aggregate Particles.

2.2.10 Angularity Number
Angularity number is used to give an indication of shape of aggregate. The concept of
angularity number was suggested by Shergold. It gives a qualitative representation of shape
of aggregate.
Angularity number test gives an idea of how angular the aggregate is. This is based on the
percentage of voids in the aggregate after compaction in a specified manner.
In angularity number test, a quantity of single sized aggregate is filled into metal cylinder of
3 liter capacity. Then the aggregate is compacted in a standard manner and the percentage of
void found out. The normal aggregate which are suitable for making concrete may have
angularity number anything from 0 to 11. Angularity number 0 represents the most practicable
rounded aggregate. Angularity number 11 indicates the most angular aggregate that could be
used for making concrete.

2.2.11 Los Angles Abrasion Value

The Los Angeles (L.A.) abrasion test is a common test method used to indicate aggregate
toughness and abrasion characteristics. Aggregate abrasion characteristics are important
because the constituent aggregate must resist crushing, degradation and disintegration in order
to produce a high quality mixture.

The Working principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to produce abrasive action by use of
standard steel balls, which when mixed with aggregates and rotated in a drum for some
specified time for a specific number of revolutions also causes an impact on aggregates. The
percentage wear of the sample aggregates due to rubbing with steel balls is determined and is
known as Los Angeles Abrasion Value.

2.3 Minimum Requirements of Engineering Properties of Aggregate in

Various Code
As the use of various types of aggregates has increased, it is necessary to have the knowledge
of basic requirements for aggregates which are stated in various codes and provisions to ensure
safety and fulfilling code requirement. ACI Manual of Concrete Practice (1994) describes
standard test procedures for various aggregate properties which is illustrated in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Properties of concrete influenced by aggregate properties (ACI Manual of Concrete
Practice).

Relevant Aggregate
Standard Tests Typical Values
Properties
1% to 10% (Fine Aggregate)
Sulphate Soundness ASTM C88
1% to 12% (Coarse Aggregate)
ASTM C666 & CRD - C - 114
Resistance to Freezing and
Performance of Aggregate in Air Durability Factor of 10% to 95 %
Thawing
Entrained Concrete by Rapid Cycles
ASTM C127 (Coarse Aggregate) 0.2% to 4 % (Coarse Aggregate)
Absorption
ASTM C128 (Fine Aggregate) 0.2% to 2% (Fine Aggregate)
0.2% to 6 % (Fine Aggregate)
Presence of Clay and Fines ASTM C117
0.2% to 1 % (Coarse Aggregate)
 ASTM C 227 Mortar Bar Expansion 0.01% to 0.2 % after 6 Months
Aggregate Reactivity
ASTM C 586 Rock Cylinder Method 0.01% to 0.2 % after 6 Months
Co-efficient of Thermal CRD - C - 125 1.0 x 106 /F to 9.0 x 106 /F
Expansion Aggregate Particles
ASTM D 2936
Tensile Strength 300 psi - 2300 psi
Rock Cores
ASTM D 2938
Compressive Strength 10000 psi - 40000 psi
Rock Cores
ASTM C40 Colour plate No. 3 or less
Organic Impurities
ASTM C87 85 to 105%
ASTM D3398
Particle Shape 35% to 50 %
Void Content
Clay Lumps and Friable
ASTM C 142 0.5 to 2 %
Particles
ASTM C136
Maximum Size 0.5 inch to 6 inch
Sieve Analysis
Modulus of Elasticity ASTM C469 1.0x 106 psi - 10.0 x 106 psi
ASTM C 127 1.6 to 3.2
Specific Gravity
ASTM C 128 1.6 to 3.3
ASTM C136 2.2 - 3.1 (Fine Aggregate)
Fineness of Modulus
CRD - C - 104 5.5 - 8.5 (Coarse Aggregate)
Density ASTM C29 75 lb/cft - 110 lb/ cft
ASTM C131 and C535
Resistance to Degradation 15% to 50 % loss
Los Angeles Machine

Indian Standard (IS 383), Coarse and Fine Aggregate for Concrete-Specification (2016)
describes the basic requirements of aggregates for concrete which are shown in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Allowable limits of various parameters for aggregates (IS 383)

Parameters of Aggregates Allowable limits

Wearing Surface: <30%
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV)
Concrete Other than Wearing Surface: <45%
Wearing Surface: <30%
Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)
Concrete Other than Wearing Surface: <45%
Ten Percent Fines Value (TFV) Concrete Other than Wearing Surface: <50kN
Wearing Surface: <30%
Los Angeles Abrasion Value (LA)
Concrete Other than Wearing Surface: <50%
Fine Aggregate: <10%
Soundness of Aggregate (Tested with Na2SO4)
Course Aggregate: <12%
Fine Aggregate: <15%
Soundness of Aggregate (Tested with MgSO4)
Course Aggregate: <18%
20mm: 90%-100%
Sizes of Coarse Aggregates for Mass Concrete
4.75mm: 0%-10%
(20mm to 4.75mm)
2.36mm: 0%-0.2%
Flakiness Index <40%
Elongation Index <40%
British Standard (BS 882), Specification for Aggregates from Natural Sources for Concrete
(1992) describes the requirements of aggregates to be used in concrete which are given in Table
2.3.

Table 2.3: Quality Requirements of Aggregates (BS 882)

Parameters of Aggregates Allowable limits

Heavy Duty Concrete Floor Finishes: <25%
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) Pavement Wearing Surfaces: <30%
Others: <45%
Heavy Duty Concrete Floor Finishes: >150kN
Ten Percent Fines Value (TFV) Pavement Wearing Surfaces: >100kN
Others: >50kN
Crushed Stone: <40%
Flakiness Index
Natural Gravel: <50%
20mm: 85%-100%
Single Sized Coarse Aggregates
14mm: 0%-70%
for Mass Concrete (20mm to
10mm: 0%-25%
4.75mm)
5mm: 0%-5%
Crushed Gravel Course Aggregate: 2%
Fines (% Mass Passing 75μm Crushed Rock Aggregate: 4%
Sieve) Crushed Gravel Sand: 4%
Crushed Rock Sand: 16%

2.4 Production of Slag in Steel Making Industries

Steel slag, a by-product of steel making, is produced during the separation of the molten steel
from impurities in steel-making furnaces. The slag occurs as a molten liquid melt and is a
complex solution of silicates and oxides that solidifies upon cooling.

Virtually all steel is now made in integrated steel plants using a version of the basic oxygen
process or in specialty steel plants (mini-mills) using an electric arc furnace process. The open
hearth furnace process is no longer used.

In the basic oxygen process, hot liquid blast furnace metal, scrap, and fluxes, which consist of
lime (CaO) and dolomitic lime ([Link] or "dolime"), are charged to a converter (furnace).
A lance is lowered into the converter and high-pressure oxygen is injected. The oxygen
combines with and removes the impurities in the charge. These impurities consist of carbon as
gaseous carbon monoxide, and silicon, manganese, phosphorus and some iron as liquid oxides,
which combine with lime and dolime to form the steel slag. At the end of the refining operation,
the liquid steel is tapped (poured) into a ladle while the steel slag is retained in the vessel and
subsequently tapped into a separate slag pot.
There are many grades of steel that can be produced, and the properties of the steel slag can
change significantly with each grade. Grades of steel can be classified as high, medium, and
low, depending on the carbon content of the steel. High-grade steels have high carbon content.
To reduce the amount of carbon in the steel, greater oxygen levels are required in the steel-
making process. This also requires the addition of increased levels of lime and dolime (flux)
for the removal of impurities from the steel and increased slag formation.

2.4.1 Types of Slag

There are several different types of steel slag produced during the steel-making process. These
different types are referred to as furnace or tap slag, raker slag, synthetic or ladle slags, and pit
or cleanout slag.

The steel slag produced during the primary stage of steel production is referred to as furnace
slag or tap slag. This is the major source of steel slag aggregate. After being tapped from the
furnace, the molten steel is transferred in a ladle for further refining to remove additional
impurities still contained within the steel. This operation is called ladle refining because it is
completed within the transfer ladle. During ladle refining, additional steel slags are generated
by again adding fluxes to the ladle to melt. These slags are combined with any carryover of
furnace slag and assist in absorbing deoxidation products (inclusions), heat insulation, and
protection of ladle refractories. The steel slags produced at this stage of steel making are
generally referred to as raker and ladle slags.

Pit slag and clean out slag are other types of slag commonly found in steel-making operations.
They usually consist of the steel slag that falls on the floor of the plant at various stages of
operation, or slag that is removed from the ladle after tapping.

Because the ladle refining stage usually involves comparatively high flux additions, the
properties of these synthetic slags are quite different from those of the furnace slag and are
generally unsuitable for processing as steel slag aggregates. These different slags must be
segregated from furnace slag to avoid contamination of the slag aggregate produced.

In addition to slag recovery, the liquid furnace slag and ladle slags are generally processed to
recover the ferrous metals. This metals recovery operation (using magnetic separator on
conveyor and/or crane electromagnet) is important to the steelmaker as the metals can then be
reused within the steel plant as blast furnace feed material for the production of iron.
2.5 History of Use of Slag
Iron and steel slags have a long history of being utilized as industrial by-products. The material
itself is as old as the production of iron by humans (sometime after 2000 B.C.), although the
large number of applications is a recent development. The earliest reports on the use of slag
refer to the Greek physician Aristotele who stated that slag can be used as medicine (e.g. for
curing wounds) as early as 350 B.C. During the following centuries, slag has been used for
different purposes including cast cannon balls in Germany (1589),wharf buildings in England
(1652) and roads made from slag were first built in England in 1813.

The latent hydraulic activity of ground granulated blast furnace slag i.e., its cementitious
properties when in contact with water, was discovered by Emil Langen in 1862 and started a
new era for using slag. However, the applications were quite sporadic. It was not until the
early twentieth century, when the use of slag became usual and large quantities of slag began
to be used for number of purposes.

The awareness of environmental considerations and more recently the concept of sustainable
development as well as the need for recycling of by-products for economic and environmental
reasons has led to rapid development of slag utilization. The steel industry has investigated its
slag continuously, taken care of suitable processing and if necessary modified the iron and
steel making processes to get slag products, which fulfil the requirements of the specific
standards and regulations.

Based on the intensive research over more than 100 years, the current fields of applications
are: aggregates in bound and unbound mixtures, additions for the production of cement and
concrete, fertilizer, stone wool, etc.

2.6 Mechanical Properties

2.6.1 Poisson’s Ratio
Poisson's ratio is the ratio of transverse contraction strain to longitudinal extension strain in the
direction of stretching force. Tensile deformation is considered positive and compressive
deformation is considered negative. The definition of Poisson's ratio contains a minus sign so
that normal materials have a positive ratio. Poisson's ratio, also called Poisson ratio or the
Poisson coefficient
2.6.2 Compressive strength
Compressive strength or compression strength is the capacity of a material or structure to
withstand loads tending to reduce size, as opposed to tensile strength, which withstands loads
tending to elongate. In other words, compressive strength resists compression (being pushed
together), whereas tensile strength resists tension (being pulled apart)

2.6.3 Tensile strength

Tensile strength is a measurement of the force required to pull something such as rope, wire,
or a structural beam to the point where it breaks. The tensile strength of a material is the
maximum amount of tensile stress that it can take before failure, for example breaking

2.6.4 Yield Strength

Yield Strength or Yield Stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material
begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic)
deformation begins. Prior to the yield point the material will deform elastically and will return
to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. Once the yield point is passed, some
fraction of the deformation will be permanent and nonreversible

2.6.5 Modulus of elasticity

An elastic modulus (also known as modulus of elasticity) is a number that measures an object
or substance's resistance to being deformed elastically (i.e., non-permanently) when a stress is
applied to it. The elastic modulus of an object is defined as the slope of its stress–strain curve
in the elastic deformation region. A stiffer material will have a higher elastic modulus.

2.7 Thermal properties

2.7.1 Specific Mass
The specific Mass is the mass per unit volume of a material; expressed by ρ.

2.7.2 Moisture Content

Water content or moisture content is the quantity of water contained in a material, such as soil
(called soil moisture), rock, ceramics, concrete, crops or wood etc. Water content is used in a
wide range of scientific and technical areas, and is expressed as a ratio, which can range from
0 (completely dry) to the value of the materials' porosity at saturation. It can be given on a
volumetric or mass (gravimetric) basis.
2.7.3 Convection Coefficient
The Convection Coefficient heat transfer coefficient or film coefficient, or film effectiveness,
in thermodynamics and in mechanics is the proportionality constant between the heat flux and
the thermodynamic driving force for the flow of heat (i.e., the temperature difference, ΔT)

ℎ= (2.5)

Where:

q= amount of heat transferred (heat flux), W/m2 i.e., thermal power per unit area, q = dQ

/dA

h= heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2K)

ΔT= Difference in temperature between the solid surface and surrounding fluid area, K.

2.7.4 Relative Emission

Relative Emission intensity is the average emission rate of a given pollutant from a given
source relative to the intensity of a specific activity.

2.7.5 Parameter of Thermal Conductivity

Parameter of Thermal conductivity (often denoted k, λ, or κ) is the property of a material to
conduct heat. It is evaluated primarily in terms of Fourier‟s Law heat conduction.

2.8 Durability of Concrete Structures: Causes of Concrete Deterioration

Cooper (1994) and Ervine (2010) define durability to mean “the ability of a product to perform
its required function over a lengthy period under normal conditions of use without excessive
expenditure on maintenance or repair”. Durability of concrete may be defined as the ability
of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack, and abrasion while maintaining its
desired engineering properties.

Concrete is one of the most widely used construction material around the world owing to its
workability, strength and impressive durability. Nevertheless, limitations in material selection,
design and application can lead to concrete deteriotion which in turn can cause aesthetic,
functional and structural issues. The reasons of concrete deteriorations were classified in to
three categories by Li (2011) and they are mechanical, physical and chemical. According to
the Portland Cement Association, the types and causes of concrete deterioration are- corrosion
of embedded metals, freeze-thaw deterioration, chemical attack, alkali-aggregate reactivity,
abrasion/erosion, fire/heat, restraint to volumetric changes, overload or impact, loss of support
and surface defects.

Depending upon the service property required and surrounding environment it is exposed to,
different concrete entail different degrees of durability. Different concretes require different
degrees of durability depending on the exposure environment and properties desired. For
example, concrete exposed to tidal seawater will have different requirements than indoor
concrete. Factors affecting durability of concrete can be:

 Cement content

 Compaction

 Curing

 Cover

 Permeability

The leading cause for concrete deterioration and the most relevant in the context of Bangladesh
is the corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete.

2.9 Service Life of RC Structures Subjected to Corrosion

Most of the published service life models associated with corrosion of reinforcing steel in
concrete have followed a simplified model that was first introduced by Tuutti (1982), wherein
the mechanism of corrosion is considered as a two-stage process (Martin-Perez, 1999):

a. Initiation Period: during which the steel remains in a passive state. The onset of corrosion
corresponds to reinforcement depassivation due to either carbonation of the concrete cover or
accumulation of chloride ions at the reinforcing steel layer.

b. Propagation Period: during which the structure deteriorates as a result of loss of

reinforcing steel cross-sectional area and accumulation of corrosion products around the bar
surface. This phase lasts until an unacceptable degree of corrosion damage has occurred.

2.10 Corrosion Initiation in Concrete

The highly alkaline de-passivating layer around the reinforcements is disrupted as the pH of
the surrounding media is being lowered (Miyazato and Otsuki, 2010). This exposes the
reinforcement to elements of corrosion that induces the slow degradation of the steel rebar and
finally leading to the structural failure of the reinforced concrete structures. The corrosion
phenomenon can be classified on the basis of the elements that induce the de-passivation of the
highly alkaline protective layer into:

a) Corrosion induced by carbonation.

b) Corrosion induced by chlorination.

2.10.1 Corrosion Induced by Carbonation

Carbonation occurs when carbon dioxide from the air penetrates the concrete and reacts with
hydroxides, such as calcium hydroxide, to form carbonates. In the reaction with calcium
hydroxide, calcium carbonate is formed:

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O (1)

This reaction reduces the pH of the pore solution to as low as 8.5, at which level the passive
film on the steel is not stable.

Carbonation is generally a slow process. In high-quality concrete, it has been estimated that
carbonation will proceed at a rate up to 0.04 inches per year. The amount of carbonation is
significantly increased in concrete with a high water-to-cement ratio, low cement content, short
curing period, low strength, and highly permeable or porous paste.
Carbonation is highly dependent on the relative humidity of the concrete. The highest rates of
carbonation occur when the relative humidity is maintained between 50 and 75 percent. Below
25 percent relative humidity, the degree of carbonation that takes place is considered
insignificant. Above 75 percent relative humidity, moisture in the pores restricts CO2
penetration. Carbonation-induced corrosion often occurs on areas of building facades that are
exposed to rainfall, shaded from sunlight, and have low concrete cover over the reinforcing
steel.
Carbonation of concrete also lowers the number of chloride ions needed to promote corrosion.
In new concrete with a pH of 12 to 13, about 7,000 to 8,000 ppm of chlorides are required to
start corrosion of embedded steel. If, however, the pH is lowered to a range of 10 to 11, the
chloride threshold for corrosion is significantly lower—at or below 100 parts per million. Like
chloride ions, however, carbonation destroys the passive film of the reinfo
rcement but does not influence the rate of corrosion.
2.10.2 Corrosion Induced by Chlorination
The highly alkaline passive protective layer can also be breached due to lowering of pH that
results from a high ingress of Chloride ions. Chloride ions destroy the film and, in the presence
of water and oxygen, corrosion occurs. Chloride ions were described by Verback (1975) as “a
specific and unique destroyer” (Neville, 1995). Chloride-induced corrosion is a concern for RC
structures that are located in a marine environment or subjected to deicing chemicals. The
process of chloride-induced corrosion is described by the following reactions:

Fe2+ + 2Cl− → FeCl2 (2)

Fe → Fe2+ + 2e− (3)

O2 + 2H2O + 4e− → 4OH− (4)

Fe2+ + 2OH− → Fe (OH)2 (5)

2Fe(OH)2 + ½ O2 + H2O → 2Fe(OH)3 → Fe2O3 · 3H2O. (6)

The products given by the reactions in (3)~(5) combine together to produce a stable film that
passivizes the rebar. The stability of this film depends on the oxygen (O2) availability and the
pH of the interstitial solution at the interface between rebar and concrete (Montemor et al.
2003). The reactions shown in (2) and (6), the passivized film can be disrupted and the
corrosion process is initiated at the presence of sufficient chloride ions (Cl−), oxygen (O2), and
water (Zhou et al., 2015). However, provided that the surface of the reinforcing steel is free
from loose rust, the presence of rust at the time the steel is embedded in concrete does not
influence corrosion (Neville, 1995).

In the case of chloride intrusion, chloride ions have only a small influence on the pH of the
pore solution. However, they can destroy the passive layer when the chloride content in the
pore solution exceeds a critical value (chloride threshold). However it has proved rather
difficult to establish a threshold chloride concentration below which there is no risk of
corrosion as it depends on numerous factors including (Bertolini et al, 1996):

1- pH of concrete i.e. the concentration of hydroxyl ions in the pore solution. Corrosion
can take place only above a critical ratio of chloride and hydroxyl ions. 0.6 can be
referred to as the critical ratio. The hydroxyl ion concentration in the pore solution
mainly depends on the type of cement and additives.
 2- Presence of voids at the steel/concrete interface which depends on the workability of
fresh concrete and the compacting procedure. Voids may weaken the layer of cement
hydration products deposited at the steel/ concrete interface and thus favor local
acidification which is required for corrosion to continue.

As discussed previously, similar to carbonation depth, a variety of material and environmental

related factors influence the chloride concentration around reinforcement, including cover
thickness, chloride resistivity, and chloride binding capacity of concrete, water-binder ratio of
the concrete mixture, curing conditions, age of concrete, cement type, cement composition,
surface chloride concentration, ambient temperature, and relative humidity. The geographic
environment of the structure, such as inland zone, coastal region, or marine, also has a
significant impact (Zhou et al., 2015).

2.11 Chloride Ion Ingress and Threshold Chloride Value

Chloride ions are present in seawater, groundwater, and deicing salts. The RC elements
exposed to these sources can have the chlorides migrating from external environments into
structural concrete. While the chloride ingress into concrete will not necessarily compromise
the concrete properties, the chlorides can seriously destroy the electrochemical stability of the
embedded reinforcement steel bars, inducing electrochemical corrosion. Actually, the
deterioration of RC elements by chloride ingress has become one of the major concerns for
durability of concrete structures. In addition, harsh winters and thus heavy use of deicing salts
present a risk of chloride induced corrosion also inland. Those elements of structures exposed
to cyclic wetting and drying have proven to be the most vulnerable to corrosion damage.

Those elements of structure which are exposed to cyclic wetting and drying have proven to be
the most vulnerable to corrosion damage. In concretes exposed to wet/dry cycles, it is believed
that chloride will enter the concrete initially by absorption and produce a reservoir of chloride
ions a relatively short distance from the concrete surface from which diffusion can occur. This
reservoir will be topped up by periodic absorption events. If the concrete dries out to a greater
depth, subsequent wettings carry the chlorides deeper into the concrete (Hong & Hooton,
1999). Therefore, diffusion of chloride ions through pore liquid and absorption, whereby bulk
solution containing chloride ions is sucked into concrete pores, are the two main transport
mechanisms involved in chloride ingress in concrete. Diffusion occurs due to the chloride
concentration gradient and is a relatively slow process and continuous, once some chloride has
entered the concrete, provided the pore liquid does not completely evaporate.

Penetration of chloride in concrete exposed to wet/dry environments occurs by diffusion and

absorption. Diffusion is a relatively slow and quite well understood process. However,
absorption is a relatively rapid transport mechanism and there is a lack of understanding of the
role of this mechanism on chloride ingress as studies on chloride penetration in concrete
exposed to wet/dry cycles ignore the effect of this mechanism on chloride ingress. In addition,
chloride penetration prediction models are mostly based on Fick’s laws of diffusion, ignoring
the effect of absorption on chloride ingress.

Chlorides can also be deposited on the surface of concrete in the form of airborne very fine
droplets of sea water (raised from the sea by turbulence and carried by the wind) or of airborne
dust which subsequently becomes wetted by dew. Although being a rare occurrence, chloride
ions can ingress into concrete from conflagration of organic materials containing chlorides.

According to Tutti’s model (1980), service life of reinforced concrete structures consists of two
stages: 1) time to corrosion initiation (Ti) and 2) time of corrosion propagation (Tp) as shown
in Figure 2.6. During Ti, diffusivity determines the time it takes for the chloride ions to reach
at the rebar surface to initiate corrosion. Once, corrosion has initiated during Tp, resistivity and
moisture content controls the available amount of water and/or O2 which affects the corrosion
rate (Presuel-Moreno, 2013).

Figure 2. 3: Schematic Illustration of the initiation and propagation stage in reinforced

concrete (Presuel-Moreno, 2013)
Chloride induced reinforcement corrosion is widely accepted to be the most frequent
mechanism causing premature degradation of reinforced concrete structures. Condition
assessment and service life prediction is based on comparing the chloride content in the
concrete at the steel depth – either measured in the field or computed by means of theoretical
modelling – with the chloride content that is believed to be tolerable before corrosion starts.
The latter is commonly referred to as critical chloride content or chloride threshold value.
Owing to the considerable statistical variation of the parameters involved in service life
considerations, probabilistic approaches are preferentially used since these aim at taking into
account the uncertainties inherent to all parameters – at least on a theoretical basis (Angst,
2011).

A review on the critical chloride content has shown that this parameter scatters significantly in
the literature and that the published data does not offer a basis to improve service life
predictions. The reported values are not consistent, particularly regarding non-traditional
binder types. This was, at least partly, explained by the wide variety of experimental methods
and the pronounced effect of certain experimental parameters. It was concluded that there is a
strong need for a generally accepted, practice-related test setup for the critical chloride content
(Angst, 2011).

The threshold depends on an array of factors, many of which are still imperfectly understood.
Moreover, the distribution of chlorides within the hardened cement paste is not uniform, as
found in chloride profiles in actual structures. While, under any given circumstances, there may
be a threshold chloride content for corrosion to be initiated, its progress depends on the
resistivity of the hardened cement paste, which varies with humidity and on the availability of
oxygen, which is affected by the immersion of concrete (Neville, 1995).

2.12 Chloride Diffusion

Provided that concrete is in a saturated state, chloride ions enter the concrete by ionic diffusion
due to the existing concentration gradient between the exposed surface and the pore solution
of the cement matrix (diffusion driving force). This process is mathematically described by
Fick’s 1st law of diffusion, according to which the rate of transfer of diffusing chlorides through
a plane perpendicular to the direction of diffusion is proportional to the concentration gradient.

For the simple case where chloride binding is neglected Fick’s 2nd law of diffusion, which in
one-dimension is given by:
 = . (2.6)

2.13 Chloride Diffusion Coefficient

Experimental evidence has shown that the rate of chloride diffusion in concrete, usually defined
by the chloride diffusion coefficient Dc, depends on internal material parameters such as
temperature, porosity, cement type, cation type associated with Cl− ions, moisture content, and
curing conditions.

2.14 Chloride Diffusion Coefficient Measurement

The calculation of the time to steel reinforcement depassivation is becoming an urgent need
due to the engineering demand of prediction of the service life of concrete structures. The
initiation time of steel corrosion is composed of two steps: the time taken by the aggressive
(chlorides in present case) to reach the reinforcement in a certain amount and the depassivation
stage itself. Due to the uncertainties on the chloride threshold value, it is simply assumed to be
a fixed value, and the majority of calculation methods of the initiation period are based in
characterizing the chloride diffusion coefficient, D. However, it is often neglected the fact that
at least two kind of coefficients can be obtained: one of them from steady-state experiments
using the so-called diffusion or migration cell (Ollivier et al., 1997), and the other from
nonstationary experiments (Alonso et al., 2000). These coefficients are called in literature
reversibly as effective, Deff, or apparent, Dapp, respectively. In order to avoid any confusion,
in the present literature they will be named as Ds =stationary value of diffusion coefficient and
Dns =nonstationary value.

Ds encounters only the ionic transport while Dns also takes into account binding of chlorides
with cement phases. This difference concerning the consideration of chloride binding is very
important when trying to use these values for prediction of the initiation period of rebar
corrosion and when comparing different testing methods. Thus, any calculation of Ds from
resistivity values leads to a value which cannot be directly used to predict service life or
duration of the initiation period because it does not take into account chloride reaction. On the
opposite, Dns obtained from experiments that explicitly do take into account binding, might be
used for predicting purposes, only provided that other factors such as concrete ageing or
chloride external concentration had been taken into account.
In order to determine the Ds, the device used is the classical two compartments cell, where one
of the chambers is filled with a chloride solution while the other contains a free chloride
solution. Periodically along the experiment, Cl- concentration in both compartments has to be
monitored in order to determine the flux of chlorides throughout the specimen. Two
disadvantages are mainly attributed to this type of test: The first one is the fact that it is time
consuming since getting the values of diffusion coefficients takes a very long time. On the
other hand, since it is necessary to take liquid samples for the chlorides to be analyzed, this
kind of test is laborious as well as expensive. The first disadvantage has been overcome by the
application of an electrical field that accelerates the movement of chloride ions in the way that
the time of testing can be shortened from several months to a few days. However, the second
inconvenience has not been solved yet. In order to make this test less expensive and time
consuming in steady-state conditions, in this paper, chloride concentration in the anolyte during
a migration test has been correlated to the conductivity of the anodic solution.

NT BUILD 355 (1997) – Steady state migration test was developed in the beginning of the
1980’s and revised in the middle of the 1990’s. This is a steady state migration test. The test
procedure according to the revised version involves: – Coating the curved surface of the
specimen with, for example, epoxy resin; – Saturating the specimen by immersion in saturated
lime water until the weight changes by not more than 0.1% per day; – Mounting the specimen
between the migration cells and filling the upstream cell with 5% NaCl solution and the
downstream cell with 0.3 N NaOH solution; – Applying an external potential of 12 V DC
between the two cells and measuring the actual potential drop across the specimen by using
two reference electrodes; – Qualitatively checking the downstream cell for chlorides by using
slightly acidified 1 M AgNO3 solution until a white precipitate can be observed; –
Quantitatively determining chloride contents in the downstream cell at least once a day over at
least seven days by using a standardised method; – Performing linear regression analysis of at
least five points of the linear part of the c-t (concentration-time) curve until a linear correlation
coefficient of at least 0.9 is obtained; – Calculating the chloride flux J from the slope of the
linear regression.

Non-Steady State Migration Test standard NT BUILD 492 (1999) test procedure involves: –
vacuum-saturating the specimen by using a procedure similar to AASHTO; – mounting the
specimen in the migration cell (a silicon rubber tube) and filling the downstream cell with 0.3
N NaOH solution (anolyte); – p lacing the cell in the upstream reservoir (a plastic box)
containing 10% NaCl solution (catholyte); – Applying an external potential of 30 V DC
between the two electrodes and adjusting the potential (in a range of 10 to 60 V DC) according
to the initial current so as to keep the power consumption of the specimen in most cases less
than 2 W; – After a specified test duration (in most cases, 24 hours), axially splitting the
specimen into two pieces; – Spraying 0.1 M AgNO3 solution on one of the freshly split surfaces
of the specimen and, when the white silver chloride precipitation on the split surface is clearly
visible (about 15 minutes), measuring the penetration depths across the split surface at intervals
of 10 mm to obtain 5 to 7 valid depth readings; – Optionally, determining the surface chloride
content in the other piece of the specimen by using a standardized method. The chloride
diffusion coefficient, Drcm, is then calculated using the following equation 2.7:

= . (2.7)
∆

Where, xd is the average value of the penetration depths, t is the test duration, T is average
temperature, z is ion valence, L is thickness of specimen, E is the absolute value of voltage
applied and α can be taken as a laboratory constant

=[ . 1− (2.8)
√

2.15 Design Criteria for Slabs

2.15.1 Minimum Thickness
The thickness of a floor slab must be determined early in design because the weight of the slab
is an important part of the dead load of the structure. The minimum thickness can be determined
by many factors:

• Shear strength of beamless slabs (usually a controlling factor); slab must be thick
enough to provide adequate shear strength
• Flexural moment requirement (less often a governing factor)
• Fire resistance requirements
• Deflection control (most common thickness limitations)
[Link] Minimum Thickness of One-way Slab
Minimum thickness shall apply for one-way construction not supporting or attached to
partitions or other construction likely to be damaged by large deflections, unless computation
of deflection indicates a lesser thickness can be used without adverse effects.
Table 2. 4: Minimum Thickness of One-way Slab (Table 6.6.1, BNBC15)
Minimum thickness,
Simply One end Both ends
Cantilever
Member supported continuous continuous
Members not supporting or attached to partitions or other construction
likely to be damaged by large deflections
Solid one- way
/ / / /
slabs
Beams or ribbed
/ / . / /
one-way slabs

Notes:
Values given shall be used directly for members with normal weight concrete and
Grade420 reinforcement. For other conditions, the values shall be modified as follows:
(a) For lightweight concrete having equilibrium density, wc , in the range of 1440 to1840
kg/m3,the values shall be multiplied by (1.65 − 0.0003 ) but not less than 1.09.
(b) For other than 420MPa, the values shall be multiplied by ( . + / ).

[Link] Minimum Thickness of Two-way Slab

Thickness of the two-way slab shall satisfy the most restrictive of the requirements of (a), (b),
and (c) below:

a. If slabs are without interior beams spanning between the supports and have a ratio of long
to short span not greater than 2, the minimum thickness shall be in accordance with the
provisions of Table 6.6.3 and shall not be less than the following values:

i) Slabs without drop panels: 125 mm

ii) Slabs with drop panels: 100 mm

Table 2. 5: Minimum Thickness of Slabs without Interior Beams* (Table 6.6.3, BNBC 15)

Without drop panels‡ With drop panels‡

Exterior panels Exterior panels
, MPa† Interior Interior
Without With edge Without edge With edge
§ panels panels
edge beams beams beams beams§
280 /33 /36 /36 /36 /40 /40
420 /30 /33 /33 /33 /36 /36
520 /28 /31 /31 /31 /34 /34
* For two-way construction, is the length of clear span in the long direction, measured face-to-face of supports in slabs without
beams and face-to-face of beams or other supports in other cases.
† For between the values given in the table, minimum thickness shall be determined by linear interpolation.
‡ Drop panels as defined in Sec [Link].
§ Slabs with beams between columns along exterior edges. The value of for the edge beam shall not be less than 0.8.
b. The minimum thickness, ℎ for slabs with beams spanning between the supports on all sides,
shall be as follows:

1. For equal to or less than 0.2, section (a) shall apply

2. For greater than 0.2 but not greater than 2.0, ℎ shall not be less than

.
1. ℎ =  125 mm (2.9)
.

3. For greater than 2.0, ℎ shall not be less than

.
1. ℎ =  90 mm (2.10)

4. An edge beam with a stiffness ratio not less than 0.80 shall be provided
at discontinuous edges, or the minimum thickness required by Eq. 2.9 or Eq.
2.10 shall be increased by at least 10 percent in the panel with a
discontinuous edge.

Term in (2) and (3) is length of clear span in long direction measured face-to-face of beams.
Term in (2) and (3) is ratio of clear spans in long to short direction of slab. Term in (1),
(2) and (3) is average value of for all beams on edges of a panel.

2.15.2 Minimum Reinforcement

Minimum reinforcement is provided to increase the overall durability of the structure. Even
though in fully compressive member or member in which the concrete content is sufficient to
withhold the load, at certain points during its life, some tensile stresses which might develop
due to causes like temperature variations, creep, shrinkage etc. Thus to resist this unforeseen /
unpredictable tensile stresses some amount of steel reinforcement is provided in structure, this
steel in known as Minimum Reinforcement or Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement.

Area of shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall provide at least the following ratios of
reinforcement area to gross concrete area:

Slabs where reinforcement with = 275 N/mm2 or 350 N/mm2 are used: 0.0020

Slabs where reinforcement with = 420 N/mm2 are used: 0.0018

Slabs where reinforcement with exceeding 420 N/mm2 are used: 0.0018

In any case, the reinforcement ratio shall not be less than 0.0014.

Table 2. 6: Minimum Reinforcement for Slabs

2.15.3 Spacing of Reinforcement (Section 8.1.6, BNBC 15)

1. The minimum clear spacing between parallel bars in a layer shall be equal to one
bar diameter, but not less than 25 mm, or 4/3 times of maximum nominal size of
coarse aggregate, whichever is larger.
2. Where parallel reinforcement is placed in two or more layers, bars in the upper
layers shall be placed directly above those in the bottom layer with clear distance
between layers not less than 25 mm.
3. For compression members, the clear distance between longitudinal bars shall be not
less than 1.5 bar diameters nor 40 mm nor 4/3 times of maximum nominal size of
coarse aggregate.
4. For one-way slabs the maximum bar spacing shall not be more than three times the
wall or slab thickness h nor 450 mm.
5. For two-way slabs, maximum spacing of bars shall not exceed twice the slab
thickness h nor 450 mm.
6. For temperature steel, maximum spacing shall not exceed 5 times the slab thickness
h nor 450 mm.

2.16 Serviceability Criteria

Structural framing systems and components shall be designed with adequate stiffness to have
deflections, vibration, or any other deformations within the serviceability limit of building or
structure.
2.16.1 Deflection Limits
The permissible deflection is governed by many factors, such as the type of the building, the
appearance of the structure, the presence of plastered ceilings and partitions, the damage
expected due to excessive deflection and the type and magnitude of live load. The use of high
strength steel and concrete results in smaller sections and a reduction in the stiffness of the
flexural member and consequently increases its deflection.

The deflections of structural members shall not exceed the more restrictive of the limitations.

Table 2.7: Deflection Limitsa, b, c, h (Except earthquake load) (Table 6.1.2, BNBC 15)
Construction +
Roof members:e
Supporting plaster ceiling /360 /360 /240
Supporting non-plaster ceiling /240 /240 /180
Not supporting ceiling /180 /180 /120

Floor members /360 - /240

Exterior walls and interior partitions
With brittle finishes - /240
With flexible finishes - /120

Farm buildings - /180

Greenhouses - /120
Where, , , and stands for span of the member under consideration, live load, wind load and dead load respectively.
Notes:
a. For structural roofing and siding made of formed metal sheets, the total load deflection shall not exceed /60. For
secondary roof structural members supporting formed metal roofing, the live load deflection shall not exceed /150.
For secondary wall members supporting formed metal siding, the design wind load deflection shall not exceed /90.
For roofs, this exception only applies when the metal sheets have no roof covering.
b. Interior partitions not exceeding 2 m in height and flexible, folding and portable partitions are not governed by the
provisions of this Section.
c. For cantilever members, shall be taken as twice the length of the cantilever.
d. For wood structural members having a moisture content of less than 16% at time of installation and used under dry
conditions, the deflection resulting from + 0.5 is permitted to be substituted for the deflection resulting from +
.
e. The above deflections do not ensure against ponding. Roofs that do not have sufficient slope or camber to assure
adequate drainage shall be investigated for ponding. See Sec 1.6.5 for rain and ponding requirements.
f. The wind load is permitted to be taken as 0.7 times the “component and cladding” loads for the purpose of
determining deflection limits herein.
g. Deflection due to dead load shall include both instantaneous and long term effects.
h. For aluminum structural members or aluminum panels used in skylights and sloped glazing framing, roofs or walls of
sunroom additions or patio covers, not supporting edge of glass or aluminum sandwich panels, the total load
deflection shall not exceed /60. For continuous aluminum structural members supporting edge of glass, the total
load deflection shall not exceed /175 for each glass lite or /60 for the entire length of the member, whichever is
more stringent. For aluminum sandwich panels used in roofs or walls of sunroom additions or patio covers, the total
load deflection shall not exceed /120.
2.16.2 Crack
Cracking in concrete is unavoidable due to its low tensile strength and low
extensibility. Reinforced concrete structures having low steel stresses under service loads
undergo very limited cracking, except for the cracks that occur due to shrinkage of concrete
and temperature changes (Piyasena 2002). However, in cases where service loads cause high
steel stresses, particularly when using high-strength steel, visible cracks are expected
under service loads. Wide and visible cracks affect the aesthetics of the structure and may
provoke adverse criticism. They may also result in steel reinforcement being exposed to
the environment, resulting in corrosion of the steel. Moreover, cracks may reduce the
bending stiffness of reinforced concrete members, which may lead to excessive deflection.
Slab systems designed to achieve low steel stresses at service load may serve their intended
function with very limited cracking.

A crack is formed in concrete when a narrow opening of infinite dimension has developed in
the concrete slab as the result of internal tensile stresses. These internal stresses may be due to
one or more of the following:

 External forces such as direct axial tension, shear, flexure, or torsion.

 Shrinkage.
 Creep
 Internal expansion resulting from a change of properties of the concrete constituents.

[Link] Types of Cracks

In general, cracks may be divided into two main types: Secondary cracks and main cracks.

[Link].1 Secondary Cracks

Secondary cracks very small cracks that develop in the first stage of cracking, are produced by
the internal expansion and contraction of the concrete constituents and by low flexural stresses
due to the self-weight of the member and any other dead loads. There are three types of
secondary cracks:

a. Shrinkage cracks are important cracks, because they affect the pattern of cracking that
is produced by loads in flexural members. When they develop, they form a weak path
in the concrete. When load is applied, cracks start to appear at the weakest section, such
as along the reinforcement bars. The number of cracks formed is limited by the amount
of shrinkage in concrete and the presence of restrains. Shrinkage cracks are difficult to
control.
 b. Flexural cracks are widely spaced and one crack does not influence the formation of
others. They are expected to occur under low loads such as dead loads. When a load is
applied gradually, tensile stress develop at the bottom fibers and when it exceeds the
flexural tensile stress of concrete, cracks start to develop. They widen gradually and
extend toward the neutral axis. It is difficult to predict the section at which secondary
cracks start because concrete is not a homogeneous isotropic material.
c. Corrosion cracks form when moisture containing deleterious agents such as sodium
chloride, carbon dioxide and dissolved oxygen penetrates the concrete surface,
corroding the steel reinforcement. The oxide compounds formed by deterioration of
steel bars occupy a larger volume than the steel and exert mechanical pressure that
perpetuates extensive cracking. This type of cracking may be severe enough to result
in eventual failure of the structure.
[Link].2 Main Cracks
Main cracks develop at a later stage than secondary cracks. They are caused by the difference
in strains in steel and concrete at the section considered. The behavior of main cracks changes
at two different stages. At low tensile stresses in steel bar, the number of cracks increases,
whereas the width of cracks remain small; as tensile stresses are increased, an equilibrium stage
is reached. When stresses are further increased, the second stage of cracking develops and crack
widths increase without any significant increase in the number of cracks.

Main cracks in beams and axially tensioned members have been studied by many investigators;
prediction of the width of cracks and crack control were among the problems studied. These
are discussed here:

a. Crack width and crack spacing, according to existing crack theories, depend on many
factors, which include steel percentage, its distribution in the concrete section, steel
flexural stress at service load, concrete cover and properties of the concrete
constituents.
Gergely and Lutz presented the following formula for the limiting crack width:

W = 0.076β ∗ 10 (in.) (2.11)

Where β is the ratio of the distance between the neutral axis and tension face to the
distance between the neutral axis and the reinforcing steel (about 1.35 in beams); A is
the area of concrete symmetric with reinforcing steel divided by number of bars (in.2);
 is the thickness of cover from the extreme tension fiber to the closest bar (in.); is
reinforcing steel stress (psi) and W is in inches.

b. Crack control depends on the permissible crack width. It is always preferable to have
a large number of fine cracks rather than a small number of large cracks. Secondary
cracks are minimized by controlling the total amount of cement paste, water-cement
ratio, permeability of aggregate and concrete, rate of curing, shrinkage and end-restraint
conditions.
The factor involved in controlling main cracks are the reinforcement stress, the bond
characteristics of reinforcement, the distribution of reinforcement, the diameter of the
steel bars used, the steel percentage, the concrete cover and the properties of concrete
constituents. Any improvement in these factors will help in reducing the width of
cracks.

Fig. 2.4: Primary and secondary cracks in a reinforced concrete tension member
(ACI-224.2R-92)
[Link] Allowable Crack Widths
To minimize the adverse effects of cracks on reinforced concrete slabs, the design of a
reinforced concrete structure must ensure that the crack widths under normal service conditions
are within allowable limits. The cracking of a reinforced concrete slabs at service loads should
not impact the appearance of the structure or lead to corrosion of the embedded reinforcement.
According to ACI Committee report 224 (ACI 224R-01, 2008), crack widths equal to or greater
than 0.007 in. can cause deterioration related to durability when slabs are exposed to de-icing
chemicals. According to these guidelines, crack widths in the range 0.01 to 0.016 in. are
acceptable from aesthetic considerations. Table 2.1 shows a summary of the maximum
allowable crack widths as suggested in the ACI 224 report.
Table 2.8: Allowable Crack Widths (Table 4.1, ACI 224R-01 08)
Crack width
Exposure condition
In. mm
Dry air or protective membrane 0.016 0.41

Humidity, moist air, soil 0.012 0.30

Deicing chemicals 0.007 0.18

Seawater and seawater spray, wetting and drying 0.006 0.15

Water-retaining structures† 0.004 0.10

* It should be expected that a portion of the cracks in the structure will exceed these values. With
time, a significant portion can exceed these values. These are general guidelines for design to be used
in conjunction with sound engineering judgement.
†Exclusing nonpressure pipes

2.17 Reinforcement
Reinforcement, usually in the form of steel bars, is placed in the concrete member, mainly in
the tensioned zone, to resist the tensile forces resulting from external load on the member.
Reinforcement is also used to increase the member’s compression resistance. Steel costs more
than concrete but it has a yield strength about 10 times the compressive strength of concrete.

Longitudinal bars taking either tensile or compressive forces in a concrete member are called
main reinforcement. Additional reinforcement in slabs, in a direction perpendicular to the main
reinforcement is called secondary or distribution reinforcement.
2.17.1 Reinforcement Strength Requirement in Code Documents
[Link] ASTM Code
High Strength Reinforcements (HSR) need to meet the requirements of ASTM A 615, standard
specification for deformed and plain carbon-steel bars for concrete reinforcements (ASTM,
2009), ASTM A 706, standard specification for low-allow steel deformed and plain bars for
concrete reinforcement (ASTM, 2009) and ASTM A 1035, standard specification for deformed
and plain, low-carbon, chromium, steel bars for concrete reinforcement (ASTM, 2014). These
ASTM standards specify the various grades of HSR as mentioned in Table 2.9.

Table 2.9: Strength Requirements of ASTM

Yield Strength (ksi) Ultimate Strength (ksi) ++

Standard Grade Ratio of /
Minimum Maximum Minimum
40 40 N.S 60

60 60 N.S 90
ASTM A 615 N.S
75 75 N.S 100

80 80 N.S 105

60 60 78 80
ASTM A 706 Minimum 1.25
80 80 98 100

100 100* N.S 150

ASTM A 1035 N.S
*
120 120 N.S 150
*
0.2% offset
++
ACI 318-14 requires that / at least 1.25 for special seismic structures.
N.S Not Specified

[Link] ISO Code

Reinforcement strength needs to meet the requirements of ISO 6935. This part of ISO 6935
specifies technical requirements for ribbed bars to be used as reinforcement in concrete.

This part of ISO 6935 is applicable to steel delivered in the form of bars, coils and de-coiled
products. It includes both weldable and non-weldable steels. These ISO standards specify the
various grades of reinforcements as mentioned in Table 2.10.
Table 2.10: Strength Requirements of ISO (Table 6, ISO 6935-2:2015(E))

Ductility properties
Specified characteristic value Specified
of upper yield strength characteristic Specified characteristic
ReH value of value of elongation a
Ductility MPa c %
Steel grade Rm/ReH
class
A Agt
Minimum Maximum Minimum
Minimum Minimum
B300A-R 300 — 16
B400A-R
400 —
B400AWR 1,02 2
14
A B500A-R
500 —
B500AWR
B600A-R 600 — 10
B450AwR 450 1,25×ReH(min.) 1,05 - 2,5
300B-R 300 — 16
B400B-R
400 —
B400BWR
B 1,08 14 5
B500B-R
500 —
B500BWR
B600B-R 600 — 10
B300C-R 300 — 16
B400C-R
400 —
B400CWR
14 7
C B500C-R 1,15
500 —
B500CWR
B600C-R 600 — 10
B450CWR 450 1,25 × ReH(min.) - 7,5
B300D-R —
300
B300DWR
17 b
B350DWR 350
D 1,25 8
B400DWR 400 1,3 × ReH(min.)
B420DWR 420 16 b
B500DWR 500 13 b
a By agreement between the manufacturer and purchaser, the type of elongation shall be selected between A and Agt. If
the type of elongation is not specified by agreement, Agt should be used.
b In the case of the bars with diameter 32 mm or more in ductility class D, the minimum specified characteristic
value for A may be decreased by 2 % for each 3 mm increase in diameter. However, the maximum diminution from the
minimum specified characteristic value stated in Table 6 is limited to 4 %.
c 1 MPa = 1 N/mm2