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2 Sustainable clean coal power generation within a European

3 context – The view in 2006

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4 A.J. Minchener *, J.T. McMullan

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5 EC Powerclean Thematic Network, IEA Clean Coal Centre, Briarfield, Station Close, Churchdown, Glos SGL3 2JW, United Kingdom
6 Received 11 October 2006; received in revised form 12 January 2007; accepted 16 January 2007
7

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8 Abstract

9 The future use of coal will require strict environmental compliance with an increasing need to minimise emissions of CO2, particularly
10 from power plants. A pan-European approach is being established to ensure that EU industry can have available, by 2020, fossil fuel
11 power plants that are either capable of capturing almost all their CO2 emissions in an economically viable manner, or are designed
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12 to include CO2 capture systems (‘‘capture-ready’’). The overall aim is to provide a significant impetus to research, development, dem-
13 onstration and deployment activities such that coal and other fossil fuels can be used in a sustainable manner.
14  2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

15 Keywords: Coal; CCT; CCS

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16

17 1. Introduction technology for achieving significant Green House Gas 36

(GHG) reductions. 37
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18 Global coal use is growing significantly and it is pro- The proposed way forward is via the twin track 38
19 jected that by 2030 this could double from current levels approach to CO2abatement, i.e.: 39
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20 to reach a level of more than 4500 million tonnes oil equiv-

21 alent [1]. Many countries that are members of the Organi- • efficiency and environmental improvements in the short 40
22 sation for Economic Cooperation and Development see to medium term, 41
23 coal as an indispensable component of their energy mix • carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) in the longer 42
24 while recognising that there is a need to ensure its optimum term. 43
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25 usage with minimised environmental impact. Environmen- 44

26 tal standards will continue to tighten, and it will be neces- This approach offers the vision of maintaining coal- 45
27 sary to achieve ever-lower levels of SO2 and NOx based technologies for which there will be the benefit of 46
28 emissions. Control of micro-pollutants such as mercury, efficiency and environmental improvements plus lower 47
29 is likely to be a further requirement. The other dominant costs compared with the existing technology options. At 48
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30 consideration is the need to reduce CO2 emissions to meet the same time, it will provide the framework on 49
31 Europe’s obligations regarding climate change. Short-term which the related near-zero emissions technologies can sub- 50
32 commitments can be met through replacement of inefficient sequently be established in a cost effective, credible 51
33 aging plant and by emphasis on more efficient energy use. manner. 52
34 For the longer term, however, carbon dioxide capture
35 and storage (CCS) has been recognised as an important
2. EU energy issues, challenges and opportunities 53

*
Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +44 1452 857559. The European Commission has emphasised that the 54
E-mail address: andrew@[Link] (A.J. Minchener). over-riding objectives of EU energy policy have to be the 55

0016-2361/$ - see front matter  2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/[Link].2007.01.022

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56 sustainability, competitiveness and security of supply [2]. those undergoing rapid industrialisation, development 96
57 This offers the EU energy industry a series of challenges: and economic growth. 97
Reducing CO2 emissions in the energy sector has there- 98
58 • ensuring security of energy supplies on a sustainable fore become a major priority for national governments 99
59 basis, within the European Union, using various approaches. 100
60 • implementing technologies that can achieve deep reduc- For example, measures to reduce energy consumption are 101
61 tions in GHG emissions from fossil fuel power plants, cost effective now and will deliver useful reductions in emis- 102
62 • maintaining EU industrial competitiveness to meet the sions. Enhancing natural sinks such as forests could make a 103
63 global market challenge for advanced fossil energy contribution in the short term but the capacity of the sinks 104
64 power plants with integrated CCS. is limited and carbon stored in them is not always secure. 105

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65 In the longer term, large reductions in emissions could, in 106
66 In particular, there is a pressing need to address the cli- theory, be achieved through a widespread switch to non- 107

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67 mate change issue. Thus, the United Nations Intergovern- fossil fuel energy sources, providing that they are safe 108
68 mental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has concluded and affordable. However, adopting such fuel switching to 109
69 that global warming must not exceed 2 C above the pre- non-fossil sources, and introducing efficiency measures, at 110
70 industrial average and that atmospheric CO2 concentra- a realistic pace will not be enough to meet the currently 111
71 tions must be stabilised at 450 parts per million by volume required CO2 reduction requirements. 112

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72 (ppmv) if major disasters are to be averted [3]. The current Within Europe, electricity generation from fossil fuels is 113
73 CO2 level is rising rapidly towards that target level and as the single largest source of CO2 emissions from any indus- 114
74 such this imposes a need for a worldwide reduction in emis- try sector, and comprises large point sources of emissions. 115
75 sions of over 50%, which for industrialised countries indi- Also, power generation from fossil fuels is dominated by a 116
76 cates a need to cut GHG emissions by a factor of 4 or 5. relatively small number of industrial companies. There is 117
77 With the signing of the Kyoto Protocol and its implemen- also an urgent need over the next 25 years to build new 118
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78 tation from 2005, 162 countries, that between them are plant and to retrofit existing power stations. Therefore this 119
79 responsible for some 62% of the emissions from developed offers an opportunity for achieving large and highly visible 120
80 countries, have signalled their commitment to reduce GHG CO2 emissions reductions in a relatively short timescale. 121
81 emissions by 2012 to 94.8% of 1990 levels [4]. Beyond that Because of this, coherent and cooperative early action 122
82 timeframe, in the post Kyoto scenario, more stringent lim- within the industry can have a large impact in meeting 123
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83 itations on CO2 emissions will be required with the IPCC the challenges. 124
84 projecting deeper cuts in emissions of over 50% by 2050 [3]. Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) is a technol- 125
85 However, current scenarios and projections to 2030 indi- ogy with the potential to reduce the GHG problem while 126
86 cate that, under a business as usual scenario, there will be allowing the continued use of fossil fuels. With CCS, the 127
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87 an increasing worldwide energy demand (Fig. 1). While a CO2 arising from fossil fuel use is captured and then stored 128
88 portfolio approach to fuel use will be adopted, there is clear in secure geological formations. This offers the prospect of 129
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89 evidence that fossil fuel resources, coal, oil and gas, will a power plant with near-zero emissions of CO2. As such, 130
90 continue to dominate [1,5]. Consequently, unless specific the adoption of CCS technologies would enable the world 131
91 policy initiatives and measures are taken, global CO2 emis- to continue to use fossil fuels with much reduced emissions 132
92 sions will rise by some 60% by 2030, which is deemed unac- of CO2, whilst preparing for the eventual switch to a fully 133
93 ceptable in view of the IPPC projections. Thus, this is a carbon neutral energy economy. However, in order for 134
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94 major challenge to address and rapid actions need to be CCS to be introduced on a commercially viable basis, there 135
95 taken, mainly by the industrialised nations but also by are still some technical issues to be overcome while a 136
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Fig. 1. World primary energy demand [1].

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137 framework and market conditions are needed that together 2,000,000 MtCO2 [7]. Although there is uncertainty and 165
138 can spur demand for these technologies These include con- debate about this issue, it seems likely that there is suffi- 166
139 forming to national and international legal requirements, cient storage capacity available. 167
140 ensuring safe and reliable storage, and, not least, gaining It is also necessary to consider the cost of this option 168
141 public acceptance. compared to alternatives. These vary greatly due to the 169
large variance in options to apply the technology; they 170
142 3. Drivers for CO2 capture and storage depend on gas and oil prices, on the type of power plant, 171
capture method, amount of CO2, the distance it needs to 172
143 The proposed way forward to achieve this is to capture be transported, and the depth of the reservoir [3]. In gen- 173
144 the CO2 arising from fossil fuel use, transport it and then eral, additional electricity costs will range from $0.01– 174

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145 store it in secure geological formations (Fig. 2). 0.05 per kWh while carbon mitigation costs for the estab- 175
lished technology in the power sector are targeted at $25– 176

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146 3.1. The need for CCS 30/tCO2. These costs are high compared to some other mit- 177
igation options, such as energy efficiency and non-CO2 178
147 According to the International Energy Agency’s World GHG reductions, but are significantly lower than most 179
148 Energy Outlook 2004, coal will account for around 22% renewable energy options. 180
149 of the world energy mix in 2030 and will remain a key glo-

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150 bal energy resource during the entire 21st century, espe-
151 cially with growing consumption in developing countries 3.3. Possible impact 181
152 such as China and India [1]. This continued reliance on
153 coal explains the growing interest in CCS, as highlighted, Assuming a goal of stabilising GHG concentrations, 182
154 for instance, during the Gleneagles G8 summit [6]. It will and with a package of mitigation options, such as renew- 183
155 be difficult to satisfy the world’s growing energy needs able energy, energy efficiency, CCS and nuclear energy to 184
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156 while mitigating climate change, without the availability be used by 2100, it has been calculated that CCS would 185
157 of CCS in the portfolio of mitigation options. When the account for 15% to 55% of the total emission reductions. 186
158 power plant building rate in China and India and plant Including CCS in this list of options reduces overall mit- 187
159 replacement needs in the EU and the USA are quantified, igation costs by as much as 30% compared to a mitigation 188
160 it is clear that it will be necessary to get this technology portfolio without CCS [3]. As such, CCS technology sys- 189
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161 in place as a matter of urgency. tems have the potential to achieve significant cuts in glo- 190
bal energy-related CO2 emissions, if made sufficiently 191
162 3.2. The global potential for CCS available in a timely manner and if costs can be reduced 192
as needed to attract investments for its deployment. As 193
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163 Scenario studies show that the total amount of CO2 that such, a major driver is the need to reduce costs of capture 194
164 might be stored over the century could amount to [8]. 195
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Fig. 2. Three main steps for CCS to avoid CO2 release to the atmosphere [10].

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196 3.4. Enabling steps These include liability for CO2 leaks from the storage res- 233
ervoir after the crediting time of the CDM project has 234
197 A major step to meet the environmental challenge has passed; definition of the ‘boundary’ of the project; and 235
198 been the implementation in 2005 of the European Union accounting for the emissions from extra oil recovered via 236
199 Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS). Thus, the European EOR opportunities 237
200 Commission established that mandatory emissions limits
201 are placed on all large industrial and energy intensive busi- 4. Market and regulatory issues 238
202 nesses, to be managed through an ETS that is tailored to
203 the Kyoto Protocol. About half of the total EU CO2 emis- While CCS developments represent major challenges to 239
204 sions are covered by the scheme, with 5000 firms taking the EU equipment developers and suppliers, there are also 240

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205 part. The scheme covers all greenhouse gases, but only major market opportunities, both within Europe and else- 241
206 CO2 is traded at the moment as it accounts for 80% of where. The IEA estimates that, by 2030, 4500 GW of new 242

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207 emissions in the EU. Other gases will be traded from power plant will be required, of which 40% will be coal 243
208 2008 when the scheme extends to other sectors. fired, with an investment value of €1450 billion [1]. Clean 244
209 The European Climate Change Programme (ECCP) was coal technologies, with higher efficiencies and better envi- 245
210 established to identify the most promising and cost-effec- ronmental performance, and carbon dioxide capture and 246
211 tive technological routes, with regard to the practicalities storage are crucial for this competition and for the ultimate 247

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212 of reducing GHG emissions. Phase 1 emphasised a combi- creation of near-zero emission power plants. The general 248
213 nation of more rational use of energy in all sectors, and a consensus is that such plants with CCS will need to be 249
214 switch to lower carbon fuels including higher levels of available by 2020. In the meantime, it is quite possible in 250
215 renewable energy sources. Phase 2 began in October 2005 Europe that any new coal-fired units that are proposed will 251
216 and has included a working group on CCS, with one of need to be deemed ‘‘capture-ready’’ such that the capture 252
217 its objectives being to introduce CCS to the European ETS. stage can be added at a later time. This will have certain 253
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218 The value of CO2 that is established under the EU and implications for the power sector unless a definite route 254
219 other ETSs will influence the development of the financial forward for the deployment of CCS can be discerned. 255
220 climate in which investment decisions will have to be taken In overall terms, it is clear that major capital investment 256
221 [9]. It will have a significant impact on the market and will in these new generation technologies will be required and 257
222 greatly influence the routes taken to develop and deploy the this will only be forthcoming if sustainable market condi- 258
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223 various technologies. If the price is low, the impetus to tions can be established. Therefore, the economic aspects 259
224 invest in carbon capture technologies will be limited. If of technology development management must be addressed 260
225 the value is high, interest in near-zero emission technology as, without strong regulatory policies, the investment and 261
226 and its implementation will be greater (Fig. 3). development required to deliver low carbon technologies 262
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227 The other mechanism possibly available to companies are unlikely to be realised as the private sector would not 263
228 looking to monetise CCS-related emissions reductions is have the long term certainty to commit its funds. Industry 264
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229 the clean development mechanism (CDM) for projects in will require clear, coherent and stable regulations and 265
230 developing countries. At present, while there are some frameworks to promote the adoption of carbon capture 266
231 ideas for including CCS within CDM, several methodolog- and storage projects. For example, there is a risk that an 267
232 ical problems of accounting with CCS remain unresolved. uncertain regulatory framework might lead to such high 268
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Key issue will be value of CO2 `Zero Emissions`

Carbon Trajectory
Reduction
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`Increased
Efficiency`
Trajectory

Zero emissions will need the most efficient plant

Near-term Mid-term Long-term Time

Fig. 3. Strategic considerations for carbon capture and storage.

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269 volatility of CO2 prices that this increases the risk and pre-
270 vents appropriate capital investment in low carbon
271 technologies.
272 It will also be necessary to define the regulatory policies
273 that will apply to the long-term geological storage of CO2
274 particularly with regard to monitoring, leakage and liabil-
275 ity. These will need to link strongly with other EU initia-
276 tives including the European Climate Change Programme.

277 5. Carbon capture and storage considerations

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278 In recent decades, with rising energy prices and an

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279 increasing recognition of the need for better environmental
280 performance, there has been and continues to be significant
281 effort to establish higher efficiency and more environmen-
282 tally acceptable coal based power plant technologies [10].
283 A more recent driver for technology development has been Fig. 4. CO2 capture options.

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284 the need to minimise emissions of CO2 while maintaining
285 very low levels of other pollutants [11]. While efficiency
286 improvements are a key step in reducing emissions per unit ment. The key issue is the susceptibility of the solvent to 322
287 output, there is a need for additional processes to ensure impurities arising from the products of coal combustion. 323
288 the deep cut in emissions that is needed in the near future. This can mean a need for the SO2/NOx removal processes 324
289 In most OECD countries the favoured strategy is to fol- to operate at higher than normally required efficiencies in 325
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290 low the twin track approach to reducing CO2, namely order to ensure the flue gas is better conditioned for the 326
291 through efficiency improvements in the short and medium CO2 removal step. 327
292 term followed by CCS in the medium to longer term. Alongside the need to demonstrate the post-combustion 328
technique at a large enough scale that all the engineering 329
293 5.1. CO2 capture and performance challenges can be fully determined, there 330
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is a major need to develop removal schemes that are less 331

294 The purpose of CO2 capture is to produce a concen- energy intensive than amine-based chemical scrubbing sys- 332
295 trated stream of CO2 at high pressure that can readily be tems. Further emphasis also needs to be given to integra- 333
296 transported to a storage site [12]. Although, in principle, tion of the combustion process with the CO2 capture 334
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297 the entire gas stream containing low concentrations of stage in order to minimise efficiency losses and potential 335
298 CO2 could be transported and injected underground, plant flexibility/availability problems for the combustion 336
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299 energy costs and other associated costs generally make this based power plant. 337
300 approach impractical. It is therefore necessary to produce a Pre-combustion capture systems process the primary 338
301 nearly pure CO2 stream for transport and storage. Depend- fuel in a reactor with steam and air or oxygen to produce 339
302 ing on the process or power plant application in question, a mixture consisting mainly of carbon monoxide and 340
303 there are three main approaches to capturing the CO2 gen- hydrogen (‘‘synthesis gas’’). Additional hydrogen, together 341
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304 erated from a primary fossil fuel (coal, natural gas or oil), with CO2, is produced by reacting the carbon monoxide 342
305 biomass, or mixtures of these fuels, as indicated in with steam in a second reactor (a ‘‘shift reactor’’). The 343
306 Fig. [Link] are post-combustion separation, oxy-fuel fir- resulting mixture of hydrogen and CO2 can then be sepa- 344
307 ing, and pre-combustion separation. rated into a CO2 gas stream, and a stream of hydrogen 345
308 In the post-combustion capture process, the CO2 is sep- [12,13]. If the CO2 is stored, the hydrogen is a carbon-free 346
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309 arated from the flue gases after combustion has taken energy carrier that can be used in many applications, such 347
310 place. Instead of being discharged directly to the atmo- as boilers, furnaces, gas turbines, engines and fuel cells. 348
311 sphere, the flue gas is compressed then passed through an Although the initial fuel conversion steps are more elabo- 349
312 absorbent or a selective membrane, which separates most rate and costly than in post-combustion systems, the high 350
313 of the CO2. This CO2 is fed to a storage reservoir and concentrations of CO2 produced by the shift reactor (typi- 351
314 the remaining flue gas is discharged to the atmosphere. cally 15–60% by volume on a dry basis) and the high pres- 352
315 Such capture processes have been used to obtain commer- sures often encountered in these applications are more 353
316 cially useful amounts of CO2 from flue gas streams gener- favourable for CO2 separation. Pre-combustion would be 354
317 ated by the combustion of coal or natural gas. To date, used at power plants that either use integrated gasification 355
318 however, there have been no applications of CO2 capture combined cycle (IGCC) technology or natural gas com- 356
319 at large power plants (e.g. 500 MWe). Consequently, there bined cycle technology (gas reforming). 357
320 is now a need to take the more promising developments IGCC, as noted previously, should be highly suited to 358
321 forward through large-scale demonstrations and deploy- integrated CO2 separation as it produces a fuel gas that 359

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412
360 can be converted to H2 and CO2 using the water shift reac- Depleted oil and gas fields offer a significant potential for 413
361 tion. The higher-pressure operation and greater concentra- CO2 storage, with European capacities estimated at 14.5 414
362 tion of CO2 would facilitate its separation and capture. The billion tonnes offshore and 13.1 billion tonnes onshore. 415
363 same technologies as would be used for pre-combustion As an intermediate step, there is considerable potential to 416
364 capture are used for the large-scale production of hydrogen inject CO2 into mature fields to improve the recovery of 417
365 (which is used mainly for ammonia and fertilizer manufac- oil (and gas) through enhanced oil recovery (EOR), increas- 418
366 ture, and for petroleum refinery operations). However, as ing production by 4–20%. The JRC has estimated the EOR 419
367 yet there are none at power plant scale. There is also a need storage capacity of the North Sea in major economically 420
368 to ensure that the gas turbines can utilise hydrogen as the viable projects to range between 200 and 1800 million ton- 421
369 fuel gas while still meeting all necessary performance nes of CO2 over the next 25-year period, depending on the 422

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370 requirements. oil and CO2 credit prices and the actual oil recovery rates 423
371 The aim of the third option, oxy-fuel combustion is to Deep saline aquifers constitute by far the greatest poten- 424

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372 establish a more concentrated stream of CO2. Such systems tial for storage of CO2, globally as well as in Europe. Such 425
373 would use oxygen instead of air for combustion of the pri- aquifers are sedimentary rocks (usually sandstone and less 426
374 mary fuel to produce a flue gas that is mainly water vapour frequently limestone or other rocks), which are porous 427
375 and CO2 [14]. This would result in a flue gas with high CO2 enough to store great volumes of CO2and permeable 428
376 concentrations (greater than 80% by volume). The water enough to allow the flow of fluids. Storage of CO2 will take 429

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377 vapour would then be removed by cooling and compress- place at depths below some 7–800 m where CO2 behaves as 430
378 ing the gas stream. Further treatment of the flue gas may a fluid, and where the pores of the sediments are filled with 431
379 be needed to remove air pollutants and non-condensed salt water. The European storage potential for CO2 in sal- 432
380 gases (such as nitrogen) from the flue gas before the CO2 ine aquifers is huge. The GESTCO project reported the 433
381 is sent to storage. Unlike with post-combustion capture, potential for 80–100 billion tonnes of CO2in structural 434
382 the oxy-fuel process is very closely integrated within the traps of 8 EU countries alone, and much more in the 435
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383 coal-fired plant. Oxy-fuel combustion requires the unconfined aquifers. 436
384 upstream separation of oxygen from air (as does the pre- Unmineable coal seams offer another opportunity to 437
385 combustion process), with a purity of 95–99% oxygen store CO2 at a low net cost. In Enhanced Coal Bed Meth- 438
386 assumed in most current designs. ane (ECBM) projects if a production well is opened, the 439
387 This technique is not yet proven either technically or coal adsorbs CO2 and N2 and methane is displaced, 440
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388 economically, and currently, the technique is at the pilot enhancing its production. While this approach is still in 441
389 scale phase. Issues include combustion control, the effects its early stages and needs more research, it is considered 442
390 of a concentrated CO2 gas stream on corrosion of boiler a promising concept due to the added value of the pro- 443
391 heat transfer surfaces, slagging and fouling. The develop- duced methane. 444
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392 ment of lower cost, less energy consuming oxygen separa- To date, although some of these sites have been used for 445
393 tion systems is also a key requirement (that is also analogous purposes, e.g., storage of natural gas and dis- 446
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394 applicable to IGCC). posal of acid gases, the long-term storage of CO2 in order 447
to mitigate climate change would be a new use for them. 448
395 5.2. CO2 transport This presents challenges such as obtaining credible evi- 449
dence about the security of storage, accurately estimating 450
396 Transport of CO2 is routinely done today using road, storage capacity, verifying the amount of CO2 stored, 451
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397 rail and ship tankers as well as pipelines. Road tankers and confirming the safety of this approach. In order to pro- 452
398 are most suitable for small quantities (i.e. tens to hundreds vide information to policy makers and the public about the 453
399 of tonnes per day), whilst rail and ship tankers and pipe- safety and security of this method of addressing climate 454
400 lines can handle progressively larger amounts [15]. change, several demonstration and research projects have 455
been established around the world [18]. 456
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401 5.3. CO2 storage

6. R,D,D&D priorities 457
402 Currently 24 Gt of CO2 are emitted each year from fossil
403 fuel combustion and, for CCS to make a useful contribu- The critical questions to be answered by any R,D,D&D 458
404 tion to reducing global emissions of CO2, the storage facil- programme include: 459
405 ities will need to have sufficient capacity to cope with a
406 significant fraction of these global emissions. The only res- • Can CO2 from the plant be captured effectively? 460
407 ervoirs that have sufficient capacity for this are natural res- • How can captured CO2 be transported to the storage 461
408 ervoirs, in particular geological formations, namely [16,17]: site? 462
• Can the capture and long-term storage of CO2 be 463
409 • gas or oil fields, either operational or depleted, 466
achieved at reasonable cost? 464
410 • deep saline aquifers, 467
• Is CO2 storage safe? 465
411 • unmineable coal beds.

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468 6.1. Overview efficiency losses and potential plant flexibility/availability 521
problems for the (primarily PC) combustion plant. 522
469 There is a need to consider all aspects of CO2 capture, For oxy-fuel combustion, R&D issues include combus- 523
470 transport and storage for both combustion and gasification tion control, the effects of a concentrated CO2 gas stream 524
471 based power generation technologies. The approach to on corrosion of boiler heat transfer surfaces, slagging and 525
472 date has focussed on a range of options, all of which either fouling. The development of lower cost, less energy con- 526
473 need to be optimised and/or have some major technical suming oxygen separation systems is also a key require- 527
474 issues to be resolved. There is also a need to take the more ment (that is also applicable to IGCC). Again, overall 528
475 promising developments forward through large-scale dem- system integration and related issues will need to be consid- 529
476 onstrations and deployment. At this stage, there is no clear ered for both PF and CFBC applications. If the R&D 530

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477 technology winner and so the near-term objective must be shows sufficient promise, there will be a need for a demon- 531
478 to develop a diversified portfolio of advanced CO2 capture stration of CO2 capture from an advanced combustion 532

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479 technologies to be combined with various storage plant. This could be on either a new unit or on a retrofit 533
480 possibilities. to include advanced steam conditions together with a 534
481 In overall terms, CCS is a critical component for the CO2 capture stage. 535
482 development of zero emissions power plant but it is impor- IGCC, as noted previously, should be highly suited to 536
483 tant to consider it within the overall process. Thus a coher- integrated CO2 separation as it produces a fuel gas that 537

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484 ent, integrated fossil fuel based power generation R,D&D can be converted to H2 and CO2 using the water shift reac- 538
485 programme will need to focus on: tion. However, there is then a need to ensure that the gas 539
turbines can utilise hydrogen as the fuel gas while still 540
486 • use of coal and gas, with co-utilisation of biomass and meeting all necessary performance requirements. The 541
487 wastes where appropriate, underlying need is for IGCC to become established, which 542
488 • achieving significant process efficiency improvements of will be difficult under current market conditions even 543
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489 the power plant, though ultimately it appears the more promising route 544
490 • integrating fuel switching/co-firing and retrofitting of for CO2 capture. That said, coal gasification is already an 545
491 improvements, established route for producing hydrogen and there is con- 546
492 • achieving effective and integrated CO2 capture and siderable potential for multi-faceted hydrogen-producing 547
493 storage, IGCC plants. If high efficiency units can be established 548
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494 • development of key enabling technologies such as gas with integral CO2 capture and storage, they would repre- 549
495 and steam turbines, sent a major step towards introducing hydrogen into 550
496 • production of hydrogen as a step towards a more diverse national energy systems. 551
497 transport fuel system and H2-based power production.
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498
499 The general view worldwide is that zero emissions power
6.3. CO2 transport and infrastructure 552
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500 plants need to be available on a commercial basis by 2020.

501 This means demonstration activities need to start in the
As noted above, CO2 transport in pipelines is already a 553
502 very near future.
large-scale reality although work is still needed to clarify 554
the properties that are required for the captured CO2 in a 555
503 6.2. CO2 capture
zero emissions power plant context. Additionally, research 556
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must identify the technology and market mechanisms 557

504 With foreseeable power plant designs, the cost of cap-
required to transport CO2 from a range of sources where 558
505 ture dominates the cost of the entire CCS chain (>80%)
it is produced to where it can be used either for commercial 559
506 and so is a critical link for the commercial viability of the
processes or for safe long-term storage. It must also iden- 560
507 overall process. The most pressing aims for R,D&D are
tify the impact that such an infrastructure will have on 561
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508 to reduce the cost of capture by at least 50%, enhance

the environment. 562
509 the integration of CCS in power plant designs, increase
510 capture efficiency, size-up installations to demonstration
511 and commercial scales, and achieve technical feasibility,
512 operational reliability and commercial viability. 6.4. CO2 storage 563
513 For post-combustion capture for combustion based sys-
514 tems, the R,D&D priorities include the need to demon- In contrast to CO2 capture, the options for CO2 geolog- 564
515 strate the removal of CO2 from a combustion plant at a ical storage are already generally understood [11]. How- 565
516 significant scale. At the same time, there is a need to ever, there is still a range of specific requirements to be 566
517 develop removal schemes that are less energy intensive than addressed, which includes studies to guide the selection of 567
518 amine-based chemical scrubbing systems. Further empha- suitable storage sites, specification of operating conditions, 568
519 sis also needs to be given to integration of the combustion and establishment of high integrity methods for final clo- 569
520 process with the CO2 capture stage in order to minimise sure of an injection site, including: 570

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571 • For CO2 storage in oil and gas reservoirs, there is a need dations and ideas on regulations and policies that will 626
572 to define ways to provide economic optimisation, and to establish a successful commercial business environment 627
573 maximise the value of produced hydrocarbon resources for CCS technology deployment. 628
574 and CO2 storage.
575 • Injection and separation facilities for use in offshore 8. High profile initiatives underway in Europe 629
576 applications need to be lower in weight and cheaper.
577 • Corrosion control, the integrity of old well stock and Recently, there has been a series of announcements from 630
578 long-term well sealing all need to be investigated both EU industry of plans to take various CCS options forward, 631
579 to prevent CO2 leakage and to cope with ultimate cessa- recognising that large-scale demonstrations are needed, 632
580 tion of well activities. both to prove the commercial viability of the technologies 633

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581 • Subsurface modelling, to better understand phase and to create public confidence that these approaches are 634
582 behaviour in storage locations is needed. acceptable. The options include both natural gas and 635

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583 • Sensitive and cost-effective long-term monitoring tech- coal-based projects, Examples of the coal-based projects, 636
584 niques are required to confirm that the stored CO2 is which cover post-combustion, pre-combustion and oxy- 637
585 behaving as expected. fuel technologies, are given below. 638
586 Thus RWE, as part of its climate strategy, has 639
587 However, while such essential R&D remains to be done, announced plans to establish a demonstration of CO2 640

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588 purely technical issues surrounding storage seem unlikely scrubbing technology on an existing 1000 MWe pulverised 641
589 to prove a major obstacle. Much more important is the coal power plant in the UK. At the same time, in a further 642
590 non-technical barrier of obtaining political and public reflection that no clear winning technology can yet be iden- 643
591 acceptance. This includes the need to demonstrate storage tified, RWE is also developing another CCS demonstration 644
592 to establish full public confidence in the practical applica- project, based on IGCC pre-combustion technology with 645
593 tion of the technology. CO2 storage in a local deep aquifer (Fig. 5). 646
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594 Finally, although not strictly R,D&D, there is an over- Vattenfall Europe has announced plans to build a pilot 647
595 riding need to ensure appropriate market conditions for plant for a CO2-free brown coal power station using the 648
596 commercial technology introduction oxy-fuel combustion process. This 30 MW unit will be con- 649
structed at the Schwarze Pumpe power station in Germany, 650
597 7. Means of implementation building on the results obtained from various EC sup- 651
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ported R&D projects (Fig. 6). The plant aims to store 652
598 The European Commission has encouraged the forma- CO2 from the process underground, possibly in depleted 653
599 tion of Technology Platforms as instruments to ensure crit- oil or gas reservoirs; however, no firm decision on this 654
600 ical mass is established for effective European programmes has yet been made. The pilot will not produce electricity, 655
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601 to determine and implement key aspects of energy R,D&D. only heat to be used within the plant itself. If the plant 656
602 In the fossil energy power generation sector, the formation meets its targets, Vattenfall has said it would then go on 657
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603 of the European Technology Platform for Zero Emission to build a demonstration power plant. The aim of the dem- 658
604 Fossil Fuel Power Plants (ZEP) represents the commitment onstration will be to confirm that a commercial plant with 659
605 of the European energy industry, research community, oxy-fuel technology will be economically viable. The com- 660
606 Non-Governmental Organisations, Member States and pany has said that it hopes to begin commercial use of the 661
607 the European Commission to providing a significant impe- new power stations between 2015 and 2020. 662
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608 tus for research, development, demonstration and deploy-

609 ment activities in this field. 9. The way forward 663
610 The intention is to establish an integrated R,D&D strat-
611 egy, which will set out the route by which Europe will pro- All nations face significant challenges to establish a sus- 664
612 gress towards zero-emission fossil fuel power plants for tainable energy use and management policy while meeting 665
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613 2020. This Strategic Research Agenda defines the key areas environmental standards and ensuring security of supply. 666
614 requiring specific effort and will also provide continuity to Although various possible scenarios are being considered, 667
615 the R,D&D programmes, giving industry the confidence to the expectation is that coal will have to provide a signifi- 668
616 make a long-term commitment, and giving both Member cant part of the overall energy mix. It is also evident that 669
617 State governments and the European Commission a consis- future coal use must be established on a high efficiency 670
618 tent R&D priority plan. and robust environmentally acceptable basis if it is to be 671
619 Alongside this agenda, a Strategic Deployment Docu- used. Such plants must include advanced Clean Coal Tech- 672
620 ment (SDD) has been prepared, which provides the road- nologies either with or capable of subsequently including 673
621 map with interim target points to address how the CCS technologies so that ever-tighter regulatory emissions 674
622 technology will be deployed into the market place. A key limits can be met. 675
623 aspect of this deployment plan will include the continuing It appears that CCS can be a significant, competitive 676
624 establishment of major demonstration activities to show- option to simultaneously slow the growth of CO2 emissions 677
625 case EU technology innovation, together with recommen- while promoting economic development and energy secu- 678

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Fig. 5. The proposed RWE CCS demonstration project, based on IGCC technology with CO2 storage in a local deep aquifer.
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Fig. 6. Schematic of the proposed Vattenfall 30 MW oxy-fuel combustion pilot plant.

679 rity in many countries for decades to come. On the assump- improved fuel utilisation and higher plant efficiencies, 684
680 tion that CCS would reach its full potential in the next 30– CCS would have an even greater mitigation effect, esti- 685
681 50 years, it could curb energy-related global CO2 emissions mated in the case of coal-based power generation at 50% 686
682 and concentrations by up to one third by 2050 compared by 2050. This offers the prospect that CCS could serve as 687
683 with a business-as-usual case [9]. If used together with a bridge to a future sustainable energy economy. 688

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689 Balancing these requirements of security of energy sup- References 726

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718 • [Link] Greenhouse gas control technologies. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2004. p. 766
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