1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Product Description

Terephthalic acid (TPA) ranks 25th in total tonnage of produced chemicals. This type of
mass production was seen after World War II. DuPont was originally the sole producer of
TPA in the United States (Sheen 2000). Over 90% of the TPA produced is used to make
poly(ethylene terephthalate), known from here on as PET. PET is a co-polymer with a
variety of uses, including woven and knitted fabrics for clothing and draperies,
upholstery, and carpeting. Another prevalent use is packaging. Bottles made of PET are
used for carbonated drinks, as well as for more worldly applications (Park 2000). PET
bottles are needed for the SODIS method, solar water disinfection, which is used by many
people in the developing world to purify their water. A recent initiative in the slums of
Yaoundé, Cameroon has resulted in over 50,000 people using PET bottles

The tremendous growth in the industry involving the use of terephthalic acid may be
attributed to the growing demand for the polyester in the textile field. In the 60’s all the
terephthalic acid produced was used in the manufacture of dimethyl-terephthalate. But
due to the advancement in technology polymer grade terephthalic acids are produced in a
considerably large amount. In addition to all these factors the chemical is considerably
non toxic in nature with very few special measures to be taken during handling.

The current demand for PTA in India is approximately 500 thousand tons. It’s main
applications are textiles, PET bottles and film. Future growth is predicted to be extremely
high, with demand increasing by approximately 20% per year.

The global demand for PTA continues to grow, with especially high growth exhibited in
India and China which have high rates of economic growth. The market for PTA in India
is projected to reach 1 million tons by the end of 2002.

1.2 Market Overview

Production of TPA has declined in North America as the textile industry moved to Asia in
the 1990‟s. Until 2008, the demand for TPA rose 6-8% each year. The market took a
down turn in 2008 with the economic recession. The production was further damaged as
the recycling of PET became necessary to avoid the high cost of raw materials. Currently
in the Asian and European markets, the price of p-xylene is on the rise, currently $0.75
per pound, but the price of TPA is keeping up at $0.67 per pound (Zheng 2010). Prices in
North America are fixed due to p-xylene contracts and are not increasing as significantly
(Murray 2010).

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 TABLE NO.1.1 Some of the existing Terephthalic acid plants all over the world are listed
below:

Company Location Capacity(TPA)

Reliance Industries Patalganga, India 75,000
Reliance Industries Hazira, India 3,50,000
DuPont Kuan-Yin, Taiwan 3,50,000
PT Polyprima Karyareska Indonesia 3,50,000
Yizheng Chemical Fibre China 4,50,000

1.3 Properties of Terephthalic acid

TABLE NO.1.2 Properties of terephthalic acid

Properties

Chemical formula C8H6O4

Molar mass 166.13 g/mol

Appearance white crystals or powder

Density 1.522 g/cm³

Melting point 300 °C (572 °F; 573 K) in a sealed tube; sublimes at 402 °C (756 °F; 675 K)

Boiling point Decompose

Solubility in water 0.0015 g/100 mL at 20°C

Solubility polar organic solvents aqueous base

Acidity (pKa) 3.51, 4.82[1]

Magnetic susceptibility (χ) -83.51·10−6 cm3/mol

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SOLUBILITY

Terephthalic acid is poorly soluble in water and alcohols; consequently, until about 1970
terephthalic acid was purified as its dimethyl ester. It sublimes when heated.

Table No.1.3 Solubility (g/100g solvent)

Solubility 25°C 120°C 160°C 200°C 240°C

Methanol 0.1 - 2.9 15 -

Water 0.0019 .08 0.38 1.7 9.0

Acetic acid .035 .3 .75 1.8 4.5

Formic acid .5 - - - -

Sulphuric acid 2 - - - -

Dimethyl 6.7 - - - -
Formamide
Dimethyl 20 - - - -
sulfoxide

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 [Link] PROCESSES

2.1 Henkel Rearrangement of Benzoic acid and Phthalic anhydride:

Henkel technology is based on the conversion of benzene carboxylic acids to their

potassium salts. The salts are rearranged in the presence of carbon dioxide and a catalyst
usually cadmium or zinc oxide to form dipotassium terephthalate, which is later
converted to Terephthalic acid. This technology has become obsolete. The process
involved the oxidation of naphthalene to phthalic anhydride, which was the starting
material for Henkel process. The phthalic anhydride was converted sequentially to
monopotassium o – phthalate and dipotassium o – phthalate by aqueous recycle streams
of mono and di potassium terephthalate. The dipotassium o – terephthalate was
recovered, spray dried and isomerised at a carbondioxide pressure of 1000-5000Kpa at
350-450 ºC, product from the isomerisation was dissolved in water and recycled to the
beginning of the process. Here crystals, which formed during the production of
monopotassium o– phthalate were recovered by filtration, dried and conveyed and stored.

2.2 Henkel II:

The Henkel II process involved the use of toluene to produce benzoic acid as a feed stock.
The acid reacted with potassium hydroxide with consequent production of potassium
benzoate. Dipotassium terephthalate was produced by a disproportionation reaction. The
reaction conditions for this rearrangement were similar to those used in Henkel I process.
Dipotassium terephthalate reacted with sulfuric acid and the resulting Terephthalic acid
was recovered, filtered and dried. Benzene was a by-product and of the
disproportionation and dipotassium sulfate was produced in product recovery. The
terephthalic acid from this process typically contained trace amounts of potassium, sulfur
and benzoic acid.

2.3 Polymer Grade Terephthalic acid (Purification):

Polymer grade Terephthalic acid is produced by a separate purification process. The

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Terephthalic acid produced by the above mentioned methods cannot be used in the
manufacture of polymers.

2.4 Amoco Process

This process is used to purify Terephthalic acid produced by bromine promoted air
oxidation of p-Xylene. The product contains less than 25ppm of 4-formylbenzoic acid,
which is main impurity in the feed. Crude Terephthalic acid and water are fed
continuously fed into a mixing tank to give a slurry containing at least 10 wt% of
Terephthalic acid. The slurry is pumped through a preheater and into a dissolver, which
operates at _ ºC. The effluent from the dissolver is a solution and it flows through the
hydrogenation reactor which contains noble-metal catalyst on a carbon support. The
pressure in the reactor is maintained above the partial pressure of steam to maintain a
liquid phase and to ensure an adequate supply of hydrogen.

2.5 Mitsubishi Decarbonylation Process:

In this process is used to purify Terephthalic acid produced by t liquid phase air oxidation
of p-Xylene. Crude PTA dissolves in a solvent and the solution is passed into a reactor
where the structures of principal organic impurities are altered. The solvent is usually
water and the reaction step is usually the decarbonylation of 4-formylbenzoic acid, which
takes place at 250-300ºC in the presence of palladium on carbon catalyst. After the
reaction Terephthalic acid is recovered by continuous crystallization and filtration.

2.6 Modification of Henkel Processes:

The Henkel processes can be modified to yield polymer grade Terephthalic acid. Henkel
II process begins with the crystallization of dipottasium terephthalate from an aqueous
solution. After recovery the crystals are redissolved in water and treated with alkali
permanganate at 40-100ºC and then passed through a bed of activated carbon for removal
of colored impurities. Sulfuric acid is added to form very fine crystals of Terephthalic
acid.

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 [Link] OF PROCESS

3.1 CATALYTIC, LIQUID PHASE-AIR OXIDATION OF p-XYLENE:

This method is most widely used all over the world to produce technical grade
Terephthalic acid. This method was developed by Mid –Century Corp. The process
generally uses acetic acid as the solvent and a catalyst to oxidize p-Xylene in liquid phase
by air oxidation. The process is also called as the Amoco process.
This uses a catalyst usually a heavy metal eg. Cobalt. The process may use typically
multivalent metals like manganese as catalyst for oxidation and bromine serves as the
renewable source of free radicals.
Advantages of using this process:
• The reaction is very simple with a single step.
• The raw materials used in this process are easily available since it is a byproduct of a
petroleum industry.
• The Terephthalic acid produced in this process has a yield of almost 100% with the
presence of 4-formylbenzoic acid in trace amount.
• The oxidation process is highly efficient when compared to the other methods it
brings about a conversion of about 95 wt%.
• The product purity is very high 99%.
• The process has very few pollution problems.
• The solvent and the catalyst can be recovered and reused. The recovery of solvent is
possible till 90%.
3.1.1Process Description:
The process can be divided into different units:
• Reactor Unit
• Separation and Drying Unit
• Recovery Unit.

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[Link] Reactor Unit:
The reactor unit comprises of a reactor, a condenser and a G-L separator. The raw
materials p-Xylene, air, acetic acid (solvent) and the catalyst (cobalt) are fed continuously
into the reactor. The reactor is maintained at a temperature of 150ºC and a pressure of
1500 kPa – 3000kPa. The air is added in greater stoichiometric ratio to minimize the
formation of byproducts. The heat of reaction is removed by condensing and refluxing
acetic acid. The reflux stream passes through the G-L separator where the excess air is
removed and the liquid refluxed back into the reactor. The residence time of this reaction
varies from 30 minutes to 3 hours. More than 95% of p-Xylene is converted to product.
The outlet from the reactor is a slurry, since it is soluble to a limited extent in the solvent
used.
[Link] Separation And Drying Unit:
The separation and drying unit consists of a surge vessel, a centrifuge and a rotary drier.
The surge vessel is maintained at a low temperature and pressure when compared to the
reactor. The cooled slurry from the surge vessel is fed to a centrifuge. In the centrifuge
most of the water content is removed from the product (Terephthalic acid). There are two
streams leaving the centrifuge. One stream is sent to the recovery unit. And the other is
sent to the rotary drier. The solid stream is sent to the drier. Preheated air is sent to the
through the drier to remove the moisture present in the final product. The product from
the drier is 99% pure Terephthalic acid.
[Link] Recovery Unit:
The recovery unit comprises of two set of distillation columns, condensers and reboiler.
The mother liquor from the centrifuge consists of three components p-Xylene
(unreacted), catalyst, Acetic acid and water. This stream is fed to the residue still. The
residue from the still contains acetic acid, p-xylene , water and the catalyst. The catalyst
can be recovered from this residue. The distillate from the still has trace amount of p-
Xylene, acetic acid and water. This is fed to a dehydration tower where the water is
removed from acetic acid. Acetic acid is recycled back to the reactor in addition with a
makeup acetic acid stream.
The process flow diagram is as shown below

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 Figure no. 3.1: Process Flow Diagram

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 [Link] BALANCE

4.1 OVERALL BALANCE:

Basis: 750 x 103 Kg of Terephthalic acid

Given:
Purity of Product - 99%
Conversion - 95%
Solvent - 0.05 Kg / Kg of product
O2 - 5 – 15 % excess from theoretical value
4.1.1 For 1 Day
Product:
From data product is 99% pure assume rest 1% is water.
Therefore amount of product (Terephthalic acid) = 742500 Kg = 4472.89 Kmoles
Water associated with it = 7500 Kg = 416.67 Kmoles
Feed:
From the chemical equation 1 Kmole of p-Xylene = 1 Kmole of
Product But given that conversion is 95%
Therefore 1 Kg mole of p- xylene = 0.95 of Terephthalic acid
Therefore amount of p-Xylene reqd. = 4472.89/0.95 = 4708.31Kmoles = 499080.86
Kg Unconverted Feed = 0.05 x 4708.31 = 235.41 Kmoles =24953.46 Kg
Air:
1 Kmole of p-Xylene = 3 Kmoles of Oxygen
Therefore theoretical amount of Oxygen reqd. = 4708.31 x 3 = 14124.92 Kmoles

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 An excess of 15 % is used to inhibit the formation of byproducts
Excess amount of oxygen = 14124.92 x 0.15 = 2118.74 Kmoles
Total amount of Oxygen = 16243.66 Kmoles
Nitrogen associated = (79/21) x 16243.66 = 61107.1 Kmoles
Total Air required = 77350.76 Kmoles = 2229.79 x 103 Kg
Water:
1 Kmole of PTA = 2 Kmole of H2O
Amount of water formed = 4472.89 x 2 = 8945.78 Kmoles = 161.02x103 Kg
Oxygen in outlet:
Amount of oxygen leaving the system = 5% unreacted + 15%
excess Amount of oxygen leaving = 2824.99 Kmoles = 90.399x103
Kg
Solvent Required:
Given that solvent required = 0.05 Kg/Kg of PTA
Amount of Acetic Acid required = 625 Kmoles = 37.5 x 103 Kg
4.2Balance across each equipment:
4.2.1 Reactor & G-L separator:
Basis : 1 Day operation
Table No. 4.1 INLET COMPOSITION:

Component Kmoles Kg x 10-3

p-Xylene 4708.31 499.01

Acetic Acid 625 37.5

Air 77350.76 2229.79

Total : 2766.3 x 103 Kg

TABLE NO.4.2 OUTLET

COMPOSITION:

Component Kmoles Kg x 10-3

p-Xylene 235.41 24.95

Acetic Acid 625 37.5

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 Water Formed 8945.78 161.02

Air 63932.09 1800.39

Terephthalic acid 4472.89 742.5

Total: 2766.3 x 103 Kg

4.2.2 Surge Tank:
TABLE NO.4.3 INLET COMPOSITIONS:

Component Kmoles Kg x 10-3

p-Xylene 235.41 24.95

Acetic Acid 625 37.5

Water Formed 8945.78 161.02

Air 63932.09 1800.39

Terephthalic acid 4472.89 742.5

Total: 2766.3 x 103 Kg

TABLE NO. 4.4 OUTLET
COMPOSITION:

Component Kmoles Kg x 10-3

p-Xylene 235.41 24.95

Acetic Acid 625 37.5

Water Formed 8945.78 161.02

Air 63932.09 1800.39

Terephthalic acid 4472.89 742.5

Total: 2766.3 x 103 Kg

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 4.2.3 Centrifuge:
TABLE NO. 4.5 INLET
COMPOSITION:

Component Kmoles Kg x 10-3

p-Xylene 235.41 24.95

Acetic Acid 625 37.5

Water Formed 8945.78 161.02

Air 63932.09 1800.39

Terephthalic acid 4472.89 742.5

Total: 2766.3 x 103 Kg

In the centrifuge two streams separate out
• Stream to the Rotary Drier (solid + moisture)
• Stream to the Residue Still

To Estimate the amount of water entering the Drier:

Assume the drier is capable of removing 60% moisture entering.
We have outlet from the drier as
Terephthalic acid solid = 4472.89 Kmoles.
Water associated with it = 416.67 Kmoles.
Let y be the amount of water in inlet of the drier.
y – 0.6 y = 416.67 Kmoles.
Therefore the inlet to the drier y = 416.67/0.4 = 1041.68 Kmoles = 18.75 x 103Kgs.
Water removed in the drier (60%) = 11.25 x 103 Kgs.
Water to the residue still = 142.3 x 103 Kgs.

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 4.2.4 Drier:
TABLE NO. 4.6 INLET COMPOSITION:
Acetic acid enters the drier in a negligible amount and hence can be neglected

Component Kmoles Kg x 10-3

Water 1041.67 18.75

Terephthalic acid 4472.89 742.5

Total: 761.25 x 103 Kg

TABLE NO. 4.7 OUTLET
COMPOSITION:

Component Kmoles Kg x 10-3

Water 416.67 7.5

Terephthalic acid 4472.89 742.5

Water Lost (evaporated) : 11.25 x 103 Kgs

Total : 761.25 x 103 Kgs
Residue Still:
TABLE NO. 4.8 INLET
COMPOSITION:

Component Kmoles Kg x 10-3

p-Xylene 235.41 24.95

Acetic Acid 625 37.5

Water Formed 7905.56 142.3

Total : 204.75 x 103 Kgs

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 TABLE NO. 4.9 OUTLET COMPOSITION :
p-Xylene is a heavy key and hence in trace amounts in the distillate.
From the date it is given that about 80 – 95 % of acetic acid is recovered hence assume
that 20%(mole) goes in the residue stream and about 10%(mole) of water entering goes in
the residue.

Component Distillate (Kgs) x 10-3 Residue (Kg) x 10-3

p-Xylene - 24.95

Acetic Acid 35.68 1.82

Water Formed 128 14.3

Total : 204.75 x 103 Kgs

4.2.55 Condenser
Considering the reflux for the still reflux is taken as 0.6
The vapor entering the condenser = 1.6 x 163.68 x 103 Kgs = 261.89 x 103 Kgs.
Reflux to the Still = 98.21 x 103 Kgs.
Feed to the dehydration tower = 163.68 x 103 Kgs.
Dehydration Tower:
INLET:
Acetic Acid : 24.738 Kmole/Hr
Water : 296.25 Kmoles/Hr
Feed : 321 Kmoles/Hr
XF = 0.93
F XF = D XD + W XW
W (Residue) = 22.134 Kmoles/Hr
D (Distillate) = 298.866 Kmoles/Hr
XD = 0.998, XW = 0.012
Assume reflux ratio is 0.6
Condenser:
Feed to the condenser = 1.6 x 5.379 x 103 Kgs/Hr = 8.61 x 103 Kgs/Hr
Reflux to the dehydration tower = 3.23 x 103 Kgs/Hr Distillate (water)
= 5.379 x 103 Kg/Hr

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 5. ENERGY BALANCE

5.1 Heat Balance across the Reactor – G-L Separator Envelope:

The raw materials enter at a temperature of 30ºC into the reactor. The reactor is
maintained at a temperature of 200º and a pressure of 1500 KPa. The product leaving the
reactor is at the same temperature as that of the reactor. The heat of reaction is
maintained by refluxing the liquid in the reactor. The Vapors leave the reactor and get
condensed in the condenser and then moves to the G-L Separator where the air and other
uncondensed gases are let of to the stack.

Heat of Reaction = 217.762 Kcal/mole

Enthalpy of feed = 20.79 x 103 x 0.397 x 30 + 1562 x 0.52 x 30 + 2.23 x 106 x 0.24 x 30
= 16.33 x 106 Kcal/hr

Enthalpy of the liquid leaving out = 1039.58 x 0.397 x 200 + 30937.5 x 0.287 x 200
6709.17 x 200 + 1562.5 x 0.52 x 200
• 3.362 x 106 Kcal/hr
Enthalpy of air leaving from the G-L separator = 75.01 x 103 x 0.24 x 200
= 3.6 x 106 Kcal/hr
Heat of reaction = 217.76 x 186.35 x 106
= 40.57 x 106 Kcal/hr

Enthalpy of feed + Heat of Reaction = Enthalpy of Liquid out + Enthalpy of air leaving
+ Heat lost in the Condenser
16.33 x 106 + 40.57 x 106 = 3.362 x 106 + 3.6 x 106 + Q
Heat Load on the Condenser = Q = 49.938 x 106 Kcal/hr
= 58039.04 KW

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 5.2 Heat Balance Across the Surge Vessel:
The Liquid outlet from the reactor is fed to the surge vessel operating at atmospheric
pressure and a temperature of 90 ºC. The liquid stream is cooled by passing water around
the jacket.
Enthalpy of the liquid Entering = 1039.58 x 0.397 x 200 + 30937.5 x 0.287 x 200
+ 6709.17 x 200 + 1562.5 x 0.52 x 200
= 3.362 x 106 Kcal/hr
Enthalpy of the liquid leaving out = 1039.58 x 0.397 x 80 + 30937.5 x 0.287 x 80
6709.17 x 80 + 1562.5 x 0.52 x 80
• 1.3448 x 106 Kcal/hr
Enthalpy of Liquid Entering = Enthalpy of liquid leaving + Heat
Lost Heat Lost = 3.362 x 106 - 1.3448 x 106
= 2.0172 x 106 Kcal/hr
= 2344.43 KW

5.3 Heat Balance Across the Drier:

The Solid enters the drier at a temperature of 176 ºF and leaves the drier at a temperature
of 251.5 ºF. The air is entering the drier at a temperature of 313 ºC and leaves the drier at
a temperature of 190 ºC.
Enthalpy of feed = 68205.51 x 0.2871 x 176 + 1722.38 x
176 = 3.749 x 106 Btu/hr
Enthalpy of the product = 68205.51 x 0.2871 x 251.5 + 1722.38 x 251.5
= 5.098 x 106 Btu/hr
Enthalpy of air entering = 71000 x 0.2485 x 313
= 5.098 x 106 Btu/hr
Enthalpy of air out = 71000 x 0.265 x 190
= 3.57 x 106 Btu/hr
Enthalpy of feed + Enthalpy of air entering = Enthalpy of product + Enthalpy of air
out + Losses

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 Losses = 3.749 x 106 + 5.52 x 106 - 5.098 x 106 - 3.57 x 106
= 3.31 x 105 Btu/hr
= 97.006 KW

5.4 Heat Balance Across the Residue Still:

The outlet from the centrifuge is fed to the residue still the feed is at a temperature
of 80ºC and the tower is maintained at a temperature of 101.4 ºC which is the
saturation temperature of the mixture. Reflux of the still is assumed as 0.6

Enthalpy of the feed = 1039.58 x 0.397 x 80 + 1562.5 x 0.52 x 80 + 5929.17 x 80

= 5.724 x 105 Kcal/hr
Enthalpy of the distillate = 1486.7 x 0.52 x 101.4 + 5333.3 x 101.4
= 6.192 x 105 Kcal/hr
Enthalpy of the residue = 1039.58 x 0.397 x 101.4 + 75.8 x 0.52 x 101.4 + 595.87 x
101.4 = 1.063 x 105 Kcal/hr
Heat Removed by the condenser = 10912.08 x 478.34
= 5.219 x 106 Kcal/hr
Heat Supplied by the reboiler = Enthalpy of distillate + Enthalpy of residue
+ Heat removed by condenser - Enthalpy of feed
= 6.192 x 105 + 1.063 x 105 + 5.219 x 106 - 5.724 x 105
= 5.3721 x 106 Kcal/hr
= 6243.57 KW

5.5 Heat Balance across the dehydration Tower:

The product from the residue still essentially has water associated with acetic acid. The
dehydration tower is operated at 101.4ºC. and feed enters the tower at the same
temperature. The reflux ratio is assumed to be 0.6 Enthalpy of feed = 1486.7 x 0.52 x
101.4 + 5333.3 x 101.4
= 6.192 x 105 Kcal/hr
Enthalpy of Distillate = 5397.588 x 101.4
= 5.4732 x 105 Kcal/hr

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 Enthalpy of residue = 1328.04 x 0.397 x 101.4
= 5.3461 x 104 Kcal/hr
Heat removed by the condenser = 8636.14 x 538.3
= 4.649 x 106 Kcal/hr
Heat Supplied by the reboiler = Enthalpy of distillate + Enthalpy of residue
+ Heat removed by condenser - Enthalpy of feed
= 5.4732 x 105 + 5.3461 x 104 + 4.649 x 106 - 6.192 x 105
= 4.6306 x 106 Kcal/hr
= 5381.76 KW

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 [Link] DESIGN
6.1 ROTARY DRIER
The rotary drier forms an important part of the plant. The drier has a capability of removing
about 60% of the water entering the feed. The drier is a counter current drier, with air as the
heating medium. The RH of the air entering is 10%. The air entering is heated to a temperature
of 156ºC. The slurry is fed into the drier at a temperature of 80ºC.

Feed to the drier:

Water in feed = 1722.38 lb/Hr
Dry Solid in feed = 68205.5 lb/Hr
Water Content in Product = 688.94 lb/Hr
Water removed by the drier = 1033.44 lb/Hr

Condition of inlet air:

Ambient temperature of air = 30ºC
RH = 10%
Wet bulb temperature = 22ºC
Humidity WG = 0.002 lb water/lb dry air.
Inlet temperature of air = 156ºC

To find the wet bulb temperature of inlet air:

WG – WH = hG (tG –tW )/(mλWPKG)

WG Humidity of air at temperature tG ºF
Ww Humidity of air at temperature tw ºF
tG Temperature of inlet air ºF
tW Wet bulb temperature ºF
M Molecular wt of air
λW Latent Heat of vaporization at twºF
hG /(m PkG) = 0.26 for air at tw.

Trial 1: assume wet bulb temperature is 90ºC = 194ºF

Ww = 0.046
WG – Ww = 0.044
Φ =( 0.26( 313- 194)/547.3) = 0.056
Φ > WG - W W
Therefore the temperature assumed is high

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Trial 2:
Assume a wet bulb temperature of 180ºF
Ww = 0.065
WG – Ww = 0.063
Φ =(0.26(313- 180)/532) = 0.063

Therefore wet bulb temperature assumed is true.

Therefore tw = 180ºF

To Calculate the Outlet Temperature of Air:

Emperically it is found that the drier operates economically when total number of transfer
units (NTU) is between 1.5 to 2.5 (Badger Pg 508)
NTU = ln ((tG1 – tW )/( tG2 - tW ))
Take NTU = 2.5
tG2 = 190.92ºF

Heat Balance:

Cp(PTA) = 0.2871 Btu/lbºF , Cp(Water) = 1 Btu/lbºF

Product discharge temperature = (313 + 190)/2 = 251.5ºF
Temperature of the feed = 176ºF
Heat required to raise the product to discharge temp. = 68205.51x 0.2871 (251.5-176) +
688.94 (251.5 – 176)
= 1.53 x 103 Btu/Hr
Heat reuired to remove water = 1033.44((180-176) + 0.45 (190-180) + 550
= 5.771 x 105 Btu/Hr
Total Heat = 2.107 x 106 Btu/hr

Air Required:
S1 - Humid Heat of inlet air
S1 = 0.24 = 0.45 x 0.002
= 0.2409
Take average humid heat = 0.242
GG 1 Sx Humid Heat of air x Temp difference = Total Heat
GG 1 S (0.242)(313 - 190) = 2.107 x 106

2.107∗10 pow 6
GG 1 S =
.242∗(33−190)
GG 1 S = 70785.46 lb /Hr
Humidity of outlet air = (1033.4/70785.46) + 0.002
= 0.0145 lb water /lb dry air

Humid heat = 0.24 +0.45 x 0.014

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 = 0.247
Sav = (0.2409 + 0.246)/2 = 0.244

Therefore the average humidity taken above is valid

To Calculate the mean temperature difference acreoss the Rotary Drier:

Let qp = Heat required to preheat the feed from inlet to wet bulb temperature.
qs = Heat required to heat product from wet bulb temperature to discharge
temperature.
qv = Heat required to evaporate water at wet bulb temperature.

Preheating period:

qp = 68205.51 x 0.2871 (180-176) + 1722.38 (180 – 176)

= 8.52 x 104 Btu/Hr

Change in air temperature = 8.527 x 104x(313- 190) / (2.107x106)

= 51.85 ºF
Air temperature at the end of preheat = 190 + 51.85
= 241.85 ºF

( 190−158 )−(241.85−180)
(ΔT)P =
ln {(190−158)|(241.85−180) }

Heating period:

qs = 68205.51 x 0.2871 (251.5 – 180) + 688.94 (251.5 – 180)

= 1.449 x 106 Btu/Hr
Change in air temperature = 1.449 x 106 x (313 - 190)/(2.107 x 106)
= 81.87 ºF
Air temperature at the start of heating = 313 - 81.87
= 228.13 ºF

( 228.13−180 )−(313−251.5)
(ΔT)S = = 54.540 F
ln {(228.13−180)|(313−251.5) }

Evaporating Period:

qp = 2.107 x 106 – 1.449 x 106 - 8.52 x 104

= 5.658 x 105 Btu/Hr

( 228.13−180 )−(313−251.5)
(ΔT)S =
ln {(228.13−180)|(313−251.5) }

21 | P a g e
 = 54.70 F

We have the mean temperature difference given by (Page 510 Badger)

1 1 qp qs qv
= ( + + )
ΔTm qt ΔTp ΔTs ΔTv

= 0.0202
ΔTm = 64.180 F

NTU Check:

(T 1−T 2)
NTU =
ΔTm
= (313 -190)/64.18
= 1.916
According to the condition NTU should be between 1.5 and 2.5. Therefore the above
mean temperature value can be accepted.

TRIAL 1:

To Calculate the Diameter of the Drier:

The Design of the drier depends majorly on the amount of air entering the drier and the
velocity with which it enters the drier. The air entering the drier is 70785 lbs. for
designing the air is taken in excess so that the loss of heat from the drier is compensated.
So the air entering the drier can be taken as 71000 lb/Hr
Assume that the maximum superficial air mass velocity to be = 1000 lb/(Hr ft2)

GG S = 71000 (1 + 0.0165 x 70785 )

71000
= 72168 lb/Hr
S = 72168
1000
D = ( 4x72.168 / Π)0.5

= 9.58 ft
= 2.92 m

To Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient:

22 | P a g e
We have by empirical equation

Ua = 15 (GG)0.16
D

GG = Maximum superficial air mass velocity, lb/ft2 Hr

Ua = The Overall heat transfer coefficient (volumetric), Btu/Hr ft3 ºF
D = Diameter of the Drier in ft.

Ua = 15 (1000)0.16
9.58
= 4.75 Btu/Hr ft3 ºF

To calculate the Length of the drier:

Q = Ua SZ (¨Δ Tm)

Where,
Q = Total heat,Btu/Hr
Z = Length of the drier, ft
S = Heat transfer area,ft2

Z = 2.107 x 106
4.73 x 72.2 x 64.18
Z = 29.2 m

Z/D ratio Check:

The Z/D ratio for a drier should be between 3 – 10. The Z/D ratio in the above trial is 10.
for the drier to work efficiently it is better to reduce the ratio.

TRIAL 2:

To Calculate the Diameter of the Drier:

Assume that the maximum superficial air mass velocity to be = 800 lb/(Hr ft3)

GG S = 71000( 1 + 0.0165 x 70785 )

71000
= 72168 lb/Hr

S = 72168
800
= 90.21 ft2

23 | P a g e
D = ( 4x90.21 / Π)0.5
= 10.71 ft = 3.26 m

To Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient:

We have by empirical equation

Ua = 15 (GG)0.16
D

= 4.08 Btu/Hr ft3 ºF

To calculate the Length of the drier:

Q = Ua SZ (¨Δ Tm)

Z = 2.107 x 106
4.08 x 90.21 x 64.18

Z = 88.9 ft = 27.07m

Z/D ratio Check:

Z/D = 27.07
3.26

= 8.3
Which checks the condition that the Z/D ratio is between 3 and 10
Therefore the above diameter and length can be taken

To Calculate the Speed of rotation of the drier:

Assume the peripheral speed of rotation to be 30 ft/min

Revolutions per minute = Peripheral Speed/Diameter
RPM = 30/10.29 = 2.8
=3
The revolution of a drier varies between 2 – 5
Therefore the above value can be accepted

Flight Design:

Number of flights in the drier = 3 x D

24 | P a g e
Where D is the diameter of the drier in ft
Number of flights = 3 x 10.69 = 32

Radial height of the Flight:

The radial height of the flight is taken as 1/8th of the diameter of the drier.
The radial height of the flight = (1/8) x 10.69
= 16.03 inches

6.1.1 DRIER DETAILS:

Drier Type : Counter Current Rotary Drier

Diameter of the drier = 10.69 ft

= 3.26 m
Length of the Drier = 88.9 ft
= 27.07 m
RPM of the drier = 3 rpm

Number of Flights = 32

Radial Height of the flights = 16.03 inches

Temperature of the inlet air = 156 ºC

RH (%) of the inlet air 10%

Temperature of inlet wet solid = 90 ºC

Mean Temperature Difference = 17.88 ºC

Air mass flow rate = 71000 lb/hr

Moisture removed by the Drier = 2812.5 Kg/Hr

The Volumetric Heat transfer Coefficient of drier = 4.08 Btu/Hr ft3 ºF

25 | P a g e
6.2 CONDENDER DESIGN

The condenser is used to condense the vapor leaving the residue still. Part of the vapor
condensed is sent back to the still as reflux. Assume that the vapor entering is saturated
and the condenser removes only the latent heat. i.e. the liquid leaving is a saturated
liquid. The vapor comprises of acetic acid and water with a saturation temperature of
101.4 ºC. The cooling fluid used is treated water in the tube side.

Feed to the condenser = 10.903 x 103 Kg/Hr

m = 2.84 Kg/s
CP = 1.162 KJ/Kg K
λ = 2001.37 KJ/Kg

Heat of vapor = 2001.37 x 10.224 x 103

Q = 20.462 x 106 KJ/Hr
= 6062.81 KW

To calculate the amount of Cooling water Required:

Cooling water is treated water and assume that the water leaves the condenser at a
temperature of 40 ºC.

Q = mCP ΔT
m = 6062 .
4.187 (40 -25)
The Cooling water required = 96.52 Kg/s

(ΔT )lmtd = (101.4 – 40) – (101.4 -25)

ln 101.4- 40
101.4-25
(ΔT )lmtd = 68.62 ºC

To Calculate the Heat Transfer Area:

From the table assume the heat transfer coefficient = 576.8 W/m2K
Q = Ua A (ΔT )lmtd
A = 6062.81 x 10 3
576.8 x 68.62

= 153.178 m2

26 | P a g e
To Calculate the Number of Tubes:

Take the pipe to be a 16 BWG pipe with 0.75”

O.D. = 0.75” , I.D. = 0.745” , Length = 3.66 m , a = 0.0598 m2
Number of tubes Nt = A/(a x L)
Nt = ( 153.178/(0.0598 x 3.66))
= 699

To find the dimensions of the Shell:

From the table 11-3 (Perry – 11-14)

Triangular pitch 1”, 1-2 pass Heat Exchanger
Nt = 716
Shell ID = 787 mm
Corrected Heat transfer Area = 716 x 0.5987 x 3.66
= 156.7 m2
Corrected Heat transfer coefficient = Uo = Q = 6062.81 x 10 3
A x ΔT 156.7x68.62

(Uo)assumed = 563.8 W/m2K

Calculation Of Film Transfer Coefficient:

Tw = ( 101.4 + (40+25)/2)/2 = 66.95 ºC

Tf = (101.4 + 66.95)/2 = 84.13 ºC

Properties:
ρ 1 = 962.81 Kg/m3
μ1= 0.778 x 10-3 N-s/m2
k = 0.1979 W/m2K

Shell Side FTC:

NRe = 4 W
μD0NtΠ
= 4 x 2.84 . = 340.95
(0.778 x 10-3 x716xΠx1.905x10-2)
Ho = 1.51(k3 ρ2 g)1/3 (NRe)-1/3
μ2
ho = 1.51 (0.19793 962.812 9.81) 1/3 (340.95)-1/3 = 1055.7 W/m2
27 | P a g e
 (0.778 x 10 -3)2

Tube Side FTC:

Properties:

ρ = 1000 Kg/m3
μ = 1x10-3 N-s/m2
k = 0.578 W/m2K
Cp = 4.187 KJ/Kg ºC
Flow area = 281.24 x 10-6 m2/m
at = (716 x 281.24 x 10-6)/2
= 0.1006
Gt = 96.52/0.1006)
= 959.4 kg/m2 s
NPr = CP μ/k
= 4.187 x 103 x 1 x 10-3
0.578
= 7.244

NRe = D Gt /μ
= 959.4 x 1.8923 x 10-2
1 x 10-3
= 18151.85

hi Di = 0.023 x (NRe )0.8 (NPr)0.3

k

hi = 0.023 x (18151.85)0.8 x (7.244)0.3 x 0.578

1.8923 x 10-2
= 3249.34 W/m2K

Overall Outside Heat Transfer Coefficient:

1 = Do x 1 + 1 + 1
Uo Di hi ho hdirt

1 = 0.75 x 1 + 1 + 5.3 x 10-3

Uo 0.745 x3249.34 1055.7

Uo = 568.18 W/m2K

(Uo)calculated > (Uo)assumed

Therefore the above value of shell and tube dimension can be accepted

28 | P a g e
Pressure Drop Calculations:
Shell Side:
Tvap = 101.4 ºC
μvap = 0.0118 x 10-3 N-s/m2
ρ vap = 0.595 Kg/m3
as = (Ds x C1 x B)
PT
B = (0.15 to 1 ) Ds

Let us assume the baffle spacing is equal to Ds

Therefore B = 787 x 10-3 m

C1 = PT – Do
C1 = 1” – 0.75”
= 0.00635 m
As = (787 x 10-3 x 0.00635 x 787 x 10-3)
2.54 x 10-2
= 0.19675 m2

= 18.03 x 10-3 m

Gs = (2.84)/0.1967
= 14.438 Kg/m2s
(NRe) = Gs x De
μ vap
= 18.03 x 10-3 x 14.438
0.0118 x 10-3
= 22080.35

F = 1.87 (NRe)-0.2
= 1.87 (22080.35)-0.2
= 0.2529
29 | P a g e
Nb + 1 = 3.66/0.787 = 4.65
Nb = 3.65 = 4

Δ Ps = 4 f (Nb + 1) Ds Gs2 x 0.5

2 Deρvap

Δ Ps = 4 0.2529 x 5 x 0.787 x 14.4382 x 0.5

2 x 0.01803 x 0.595
= 19.1482KPa

Which is slightly greater than he allowed of pressure drop in the shell side which is
14 KPa value. The above value can be accepted since the number of baffles used is
minimum and the pressure drop is not very high when compared o the allowed value.

Tube Side:

f = 0.079 (Re)-0.25
= 0.079 (18151.8)-0.25
= 6.806 x 10-3

Δ P1 = 4 f L Vt2
2 g Di

Vt = 959.4/1000 = 0.959 m/s

ΔPl = 4 x 6.806 x 10-3 x 3.66 x 0.9592

2 x 9.81 x 1.823 x 10-2
= 2.424 KPa

ΔPt = 2.5(ρt Vt 2)
2
ΔPt = 2.5(1000 x 0.9592)
2

= 1.149 KPa
Δ P total = Nb (¨3l + ¨3t)
= 2 (2.424 + 1.149)
= 7.14 KPa

The Pressure drop in the tube side is also well within the allowed limit therefore the
dimensions of the tube also can be accepted.

30 | P a g e
6.2.1 CONDENSER DETAILS

Type Of Condenser : 1-2 Pass Counter Current Floating Head Condenser

Heat Load on the Condenser: 6062.81 KW

Shell Side: (Acetic Acid + Water) vapors

Tube Side: Treated Cooling Water

Mass Flow Rate on the Shell Side: 2.84 Kg/s

Mass Flow Rate on the Tube Side: 96.52 Kg/s

Temperature Difference: 68.62 ºC

Heat Transfer Area: 156.7 m2

Diameter of the Shell : 787 mm

Number of Tubes: 716

Type of Tube Used : 16BWG Tubes

Inner Diameter of the Tube: 0.745”

Outer Diameter of the Tube: 0.75”

Length of the Tube: 3.66 m

Pitch of the Tubes: 1” ¨

Heat Transfer Coefficient: 568.18 W/m2K

Number of Baffles: 4

Pressure Drop on Shell Side: 19.1482 KPa

Pressure Drop on Tube Side: 7.14 KPa

31 | P a g e
 7. MECHANICAL DESIGN

7.1 ROTARY DRIER

The drier at any point of time has a temperature of around 150 ºC. Therefore the material
used to construct the drier should withstand the high temperature. The material used to
construct the drier is mild steel. Since mild steel can withstand temperature of about
200ºC.
Working Pressure in the drier = 101.3 KPa = 0.1013 N/mm2
Design pressure = 1.5 x WP
= 1.5 x 0.1013 = 0.152 N/mm2
Permissible Stress of the material used = 124 N/mm2
Inner Diameter of the drier = 3.258 m = 3258 mm
Length of the Drier = 27m

To find the thickness of the drier shell:

ts = pD .
2fJ+p

p – Design pressure, N/mm2

D – Diameter of the drier, mm
F – permissible stress, N/mm2
J – 0.85
ts = 0.152 x 3258 …
2 x 0.85 x 124 + 0.152
= 2.34 mm

But the minimum thickness is given as 8 mm for the shell

Therefore including corrosion allowance the thickness can be taken as 10 mm
Therefore the outer Diameter = Di + 2 x 10
= 3258 + 2 x 10
= 3278 mm = 3.278 m

To Find the Thickness of the insulation:

From the heat balance it is clear that there is some amount of heat lost into the
atmosphere. To limit the heat loss to the same figure an insulation is to be given to the
drier. The insulating material can be chosen as asbestos.

Density of asbestos = 577 Kg/m3

Thermal Conductivity of asbestos = 681.4 x 10-3 W/m2 K

Material of the drier is mild steel

Thermal Conductivity = 147.6 W/m2 K
Convective Heat transfer Coefficient = 56.78 W/m2 K

32 | P a g e
From Heat Balance
Heat Loss from the Drier = 97.006 KW
D1 = 3.258 m
D2 = 3.278 m
t1 = 10 mm

Let ‘y’ be the thickness of insulation.

D3 = D2 + 2y
T1 = 122 ºC , T2 = 76 ºC

We have from the Continuity equation

Q = (T1 – T2) .
t1 + t2 + 1
k1A1 k2A2 HcA3

A1 =Π (D1 + D2) x L/ 2
= Π(3.258 + 3.278) x 27 /2
= 277.2 m2
A2 = Π(D 2 + D3) x L / 2
= Π (3.278+ 3.278 + 2y) x 27/2
= 278 + 84.82 y m2
A3 = ΠD3xL

97.006 x 103 = (122 – 76) .

10 x 10-3 + y + 1
.
47.6 x 277.2 681.4 x 10-3(278 +84.82 y) 56.78 (278 + 169.65 y)

908.59 x 106 y2 + 1.41 x 109 y -119.1 x 106 = 0

y = 0.08 m

Therefore the thickness of the insulation should be 80mm.

To find the power to drive the Drier:

From Eqn (20- 44) Perry.

Power = r ( 4.75 d w + 0.1925 D W + 0.33 W)

100000
Where r – rpm of the drier
d – shell diameter, ft
W – total rotating load, lb
w – live load, lb
D – riding ring diameter, ft (d+2)

33 | P a g e
To calculate the live load and the rotating load:

Density of mild steel = 480 lbs/ft3

We have D2 = outer diameter of the drier shell
D1 = inner diameter of the drier shell

Volume of shell material = Π(D22 –D12) L

4

= Π(10.722 –10.692)x88.6
4
= 44.695 ft3
Weight of the drier = volume of the shell material x density
= 44.695 x 480
= 21453.73 lbs

Assume Hold up = 0.1

Volume of the drier filled with material = ΠD1 Lx0.1
4
= Π x10.69 288.6 x 0.1/4
= 799.26 ft3
Weight of the material in drier at any time = Volume x density
= 799.26 x 94.07 lbs
= 75.18 x 103 lbs
Volume of insulting material = Π(D32-D22)L
4
= Π(10.982-10.722)L
4
= 392.61 ft3
Weight of the insulating material = volume x density
= 392.61 x 36
= 14133.81 lbs

W = weight of the drier + weight of the insulation + weight of the material

= 21453.73 + 75.18 x 103 + 14133.81 = 1.1076 x 105 lbs
w = weight of the material
= 75.18 x 103 lbs
D=d+2
= 10.69 + 2 = 12.69 ft
r = 3 rpm

BHP = 3x(4.75x10.69 x 75.18x103 + 0.1925 x 12.69 x 1.1076x105 + 0.33 x1.1076x105)

100000

34 | P a g e
 = 124 BHP
= 92.5 KW

To Calculate the power required by the Blower:

Temperature of inlet air = 30 ºC

Humidity = 0.002 kg/kg
Total Quantity of air handled = 32734.68 Kg/hr
Volume of the inlet air = 32734.68 x 22.4 x 303
29 x 298
= 25.70 x 103 m3/hr
From equation (6 – 34a) Perry

Power = 2.72 x 10-5 Qp

Q - fan volume, m3/hr
p – fan operating pressure, cm water column
p = 20 cm water column
Power = 2.72 x 10-5 x 25.70 x 103 x 20
= 13.98 KW

To Calculate the power required by the Exhaust fan:

Temperature of the outlet air = 87 ºC

Humidity of the outlet air = 0.065 kg/kg
Total Quantity of air handled = 34862.43 Kg/hr
Volume of the inlet air = 34862.43 x 22.4 x 363
29 x 298
= 32.80 x 103 m3/hr
Power = 2.72 x 10-5 x 32.80 x 103 x 20
= 17.84 KW

To Find the diameter of the feed pipe:

Feed Rate = (68205 +1722.38) lb/hr

Volumetric feed rate = 743 ft3/hr = 21 m3/hr
Assume the velocity of the feed to be 100 m/hr
Cross sectional area of the feed pipe = (21/100) = 0.21 m2
Diameter of the feed pipe = 0.52 m = 21”

To Find the Diameter of the air inlet and outlet pipe:

INLET:
Temperature of air = 156 ºC
Humidity = 0.002
Volumeof air = 7.14 m3/s
Assume the Velocity of the air entering = 20 m/s

35 | P a g e
Cross sectional area of the inlet air pipe = (7.14/20) = 0.357 m2
Diameter of the feed pipe = 0.674 m = 26.5”
With Corrosion allowance Diameter = 28”
OUTLET:
Temperature of air = 122 ºC
Humidity = 0.065
Volumeof air = 9.11 m3/s
Assume the Velocity of the air entering = 20 m/s
Cross sectional area of the inlet air pipe = (9.1/20) = 0.455 m2
Diameter of the feed pipe = 0.761 m = 29.96”
With Corrosion allowance Diameter = 32”

7.1.1 DRIER DETAILS

Length of the drier = 27 m

Inner Diameter of the Drier = 3.258 m

Outer Diameter of the Drier = 3.278 m

Thickness of the shell = 10mm

Thickness of insulation = 80 mm

Power Required to Drive the Drier = 92.5 KW

Power of the Blower = 13.98 KW

Power of the Exhaust Fan = 17.84 KW

Diameter of the Feed pipe = 21”

Diameter of the air inlet pipe = 28”

Diameter of the air Outlet pipe = 32”

Rotation of the Drier = 3 rpm

36 | P a g e
7.2 CONDENSER

The material chosen to build the condenser is carbon steel.

SHELL SIDE:

Number of Shells – 1
Number of passes -2
Fluid – (Acetic Acid + water) Vapors
Working Pressure – 0.1013 N/mm2
Design Pressure – 0.152 N/mm2
Temperature of inlet – 101.4 ºC
Temperature of outlet – 101.4 ºC
Segmental Baffles With 25% with tie rod and Spacers.
Permissible stress – 95 N/mm2

To calculate the Shell Thickness:

ts = pD .
2fJ+p

p – Design pressure, N/mm2

D – Diameter of the Condenser, mm
F – permissible stress, N/mm2
J – 0.85

ts = 0.152 x 787 .
2 x 0.85 x 95 + 0.152

= 0.74 mm

But the minimum thickness is given as 8 mm for the shell

Therefore including corrosion allowance the thickness can be taken as 10 mm
Therefore the outer Diameter = Di + 2 x 10
= 787 + 2 x 10
= 807 mm

Head of the Shell:

The Crown Radius is taken as the diameter of the shell = 787 mm

Knuckle radius = 0.1 x Crown Radius = 78.7 mm
Shell flange – female facing
Gasket – flat metal jacketed asbestos filled
Bolts – 5% Cr Mo Steel

37 | P a g e
To Calculate Head Thickness:
th = pRc W .
2fJ

Where W = 0.25 (3+√ ¿c/ Ri) )= 1.55

Rc = Crown Radius,mm
J=1

th = 0.152 x 787 x 1.55

2 x 9.5 x 1
= 1.488 mm

But the minimum thickness should be 8 mm with corrosion allowance

Therefore the thickness of head th = 8mm

Nozzle:

Assume the velocity of the streams – 10m/s

Inlet dia -75mm
Vent -25 mm
Drain – 25 mm
Opening relief valve -50mm

Nozzle Thickness:

ts = pD .
2fJ–p

ts = 0.152 x 75 = 0.060 mm
2 x 95 – 0.152

But the minimum is 4mm

Therefore the nozzle thickness = 4mm

Transverse Baffles:

Baffle Spacing = 787 mm

Thickness of baffles – 6mm
Number of tie rods – 10
Diameter of the Tie Rod – 10mm

38 | P a g e
Flange Thickness:

Shell OD – 807mm
Gasket width can be determined using
(do/ di) =√ ¿-pm)/(y-p(m+1))]
Where do – gasket outer dia, mm
di - gasket inner dia, mm
y – min design yield stress = 126.6 N/mm2
m – gasket factor = 4.5
The Ratio is found to be – 1.0006
Let the inner radius of the gasket be 797 mm
Gasket width is 12mm
do = 821 mm
di = 797 mm
Mean Gasket Diameter = G = (821+797)/2 = 809 mm
Basic Gasket seating width = bo = N/2 = 6mm
Effective Gasket seating width = b = bo = 6mm
Bolt Load due to gasket reaction is given by
Under atm condition:-
Wm1 = ΠbGy
Y = 53.4 N/mm2 (seating Stress)
Wm1 = Πx6x809x53.4 =814.31 KN

Under operating condition:-

Wm2 = Π2b Gmp + (Π/4)G2 p
= 20861 + 78132
= 98.99 KN
Factor k = 0.3 + 1.5 Wm hG-1
HG
Wm = total bolt load – 814.31
H – 78.132
hG = (B-G)/2
= (890 – 809)/2 = 40.5

Factor k = ( 0.3 + 1.5 x 814.31 x 40.5 )-1

78.132 x 809
= 0.9236
Flange Thickness = 809 √ (0.152/( 95 x 0.9236)) = 34mm
With Corrosion allowance of 2 mm
Flange thickness = 36 mm

39 | P a g e
Tube Side:

Tube & Tube Sheet Material – Stainless steel

Number of tubes -716
Outside diameter – 1.905 cm
Length – 3.66 m
Pitch – 25.4 mm
Fluid- Treated water
Working pressure – 5000 KPa – 5 N/mm2
Design Pressure – 7.5 N/mm2
Inlet Temperature – 25 ºC
Outlet Temperature – 40 ºC
Permissible Stress – 100 N/mm2

Tube Sheet:

The tube sheet is held between shell flange and channel.

Based on the design pressure of 7.5 N/mm2 and mean gasket diameter as 375 mm
Tube Sheet Thickness
tts = FG√ (0.25 p/f )
F = 1.25
tts = 1.25 x 375√ (0.25 x 7.5¿¿ 100) ¿
= 0.64mm

The Tube Sheet thickness can be taken as 70mm

Channel Cover:
Material – Carbon Steel
Permissible stress – 95 N/mm2
tc = Gc√ KP/f

for ring type K = 0.3

tc = 375 √ 0.3 x 7.5/95
= 58mm
The Channel Cover thickness is taken as = 60mm

Flange Joint (Tube Sheet And Channel ):

G = 375 mm
Ring Gasket width = 24mm
bo = W/8 = 2.75 mm2
ya = 126.6 N/mm2
m = 5.5 , b =2.75

40 | P a g e
Wm1 = Πx375x2.75x126.6 = 410KN
Wm2 = Πx 2b Gmp + (Π/4)G2p
= (267.28 + 828.35) x 103
= 1095.63 KN

CSA of the bolt:

Am1 = 410000/140.6 = 29.26 cm2

Am2 = 1095.63 /140.6 = 77.92 cm2
Number of Bolts = 375/(10 x 2.5) = 15
Diameter of the bolt = √ 77.92 x 4 /(16 x Π ) ¿ = 2.5 cm

M 48 bolts are used: Pitch diameter = 44.68 mm

Minor diameter = 41.80 mm
Actual Bolt area = 294cm2
Minimum pitch Circle diameter = 375 + 22 + 2 x 48 = 493 mm
B = 525

Flange Thickness:
factor k = (0.36 + 1.5 x 410 x 75 )-1
267.28 x 75
= 0.384
Flange Thickness = 375 √ (7.5¿¿ 95 x 0.384) ¿ = 170mm
With Corrosion allowance
Flange thickness = 180 mm

Saddle Support:

Material: Carbon Steel

Shell diameter = 787mm
R = D/2
l = 3660mm
Torispherical Head: Crown radius = 787, knuckle radius = 78.7mm
Total Head Depth = 152mm = H
Shell Thickness = Head Thickness = 8mm
ft = 95 MN/m2
Weight of the vessel = 574 Kg
Weight of Tube = 62.13 Kg
Weight of head = 648.2 Kg
Weight of Liquid = 484.96Kg
Weight of the shell and its contents = 1800 Kg
W = 1800 x 9.81 = 18000 N
Distance of saddle center line from shell end = A = 0.4 x D/2
= 158 mm
Q = 9000 N

41 | P a g e
Longitudinal Bending Moment:

M1 = QA[1-(1-A/L+(R2-H2)/(2AL))/(1+4H/(3L))]
M1 = 6.1057 x 105 Nmm
M2 = QL/4[(1+2(R2-H2)/L)/(1+4H/(3L))-4A/L]
= 7.145 x 106 Nmm

Stresses in shell at the saddle:

f1 =M1/(ΠR2 t) = 0.284 N/mm

f2 = 0.284 N/mm
f3 =M2/(ΠR2 t) = 19.99 N/mm
fp = p d/(4(ts –c)
= 4.9 N/mm2
fp + f1 = 5.184 N/mm2
fp - f2 = 4.616 N/mm2
fp + f3 = 24.89 N/mm2

All stresses are within allowable limits. Hence, the given parameters can be considered
for design.

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 8. ECONONMICS ANALYSIS

8.1 Cost of Equipments:

The cost of equipments used are given in table 25-49 Perry as follows

EQUIPMENT SIZE N COST(Rs)

REACTOR 0.38 m3 0.53 465000
SURGE TANK 3.8 m3 1 235000
CENTRIFUGE 1.86 m2 0.65 5000000
ROTARY DRIER 51.11 m3 0.64 16000000
CONDENSER 9.3 m2 0.59 1085000
DISTILLATION COLUMN 4000 (trays) 1 165000000
PUMPS 74.6 KW 0.67 220000

To calculate the cost of equipment of required size

C2 = C1 (Q2/Q1)n

Therefore the cost of the equipments are given below

EQUIPMENT NUMBER COST (Rs)

REACTOR 1 8915950
G-L SEPARATOR 1 1783190
SURGE TANK 1 3092105
CENTRIFFUGE 1 14920610
ROTARY DRIER 1 22737950
CONDENSER 3 17052312
REBOILER 2 11368208
DISTILLATION COLUMN 2 12375000
PUMPS 4 922184
STORAGE TANK 2 6184210

Total Equipment Cost (Purchased Equipment Cost) = Rs 9,93,51,719

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Other Costs (OC):

Installation Costs = 20% x PEC

= Rs19870344

Instrumentation Costs = 10% x PEC

= Rs 9935172

Piping Costs = 31% x PEC

= Rs 30799033

Electrical Costs = Rs 1300000

Building Costs = 6% x PEC

= Rs 5961103

Installed equipment cost = Rs 2463440

Insulation costs = 8% x PEC

= Rs 7948138

Total Cost = Rs 7,82,77,230

Direct Plant Cost (DPC) = PEC + OC

= Rs 177628949

Engineering supervision & Construction Expenses = 25% x PEC

= Rs 24837930

Total Direct and Indirect Plant Costs:

Contractor’s fee = 5% x DPC

= Rs 1241897
Contingency fee = 10% x DPC
= 2483793 Rs

Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) =Rs 206192570

Working Capital (WC) = 20% x PEC

= Rs 19870344

Total Capital Investment (TCI) = FCI + WC

= Rs 22,60,62,914
8.2 Manufacturing Cost Estimation:

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Direct Production Cost

Raw Material Cost

Acetic Acid : Rs 28 x 499 x 103 x 330 = 4.611 x 109 Rs/yr

p-Xylene: Rs 27 x 37.5 x 103 x 330 = 3.34125 x 108 Rs/yr

Total raw material cost = 4.945 x 109 Rs/yr

To calculate the production Cost:

Let the total production cost be Rs. Y/yr

Operating Labor = 0.1 Y/yr
Direct Supervision and clerical labor = 0.01 Y/yr
Maintenance and repair cost (Assuming a 10yr life) = 0.02 x (FCI/10)
= 412385.1/yr
Utilities = 0.1 Y/yr
Operating supplies = 0.01(FCI/10)
= 206193 Rs/yr
Patents and Royalties = 0.03 Y/yr
Laboratory Charges = 0.01 Y/yr

Fixed Charges:

Depreciation:

Assuming a 10 year life for equipment and machines,

Depreciation = Total Equipment Cost / 10

= 99351719/10
= 9935172 Rs/yr

Assuming a 50 year life for buildings,

Depreciation = Cost of Buildings/50

= 5961103/50
= 119222 Rs/yr

Total Depreciation = 10054394 Rs/yr

Plant overhead costs = 0.05 x Y/y

8.3 General Expenses

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Administration Cost = 0.02 x Y/yr
Distribution and Selling Cost = 0.05 x Y/yr
Research and Development cost = 0.02 x Y/yr

Total Production Cost (TPC)

TPC = MC + GE
Y = 0.01Y+0.01Y+412385.1+0.1Y+206193+0.03Y+0.01Y+10054394+0.05Y+0.02Y
+0.05Y+ 0.02Y + 4.945 x 109
Y = (4.9557 x 109)/(0.7)
= 7.079 x 109 Rs/yr

Selling Price = Rs 29/kg (Technical Grade)

Total Selling Price/yr = 29 x 750 x 103 x 330
= 7.178 x 109 Rs/yr
Gross Earning = 9.85 x 107 Rs/yr

8.4 Rate of Return:

Let tax rate be 45% (common)

Net profit = 9.85 x 107 (1-0.45) = 54175000 Rs/yr
Rate of Return = (54175000X100)/ 226062914 = 23.96%

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 9. PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT

9.1 PLANT LOCATION

The location of chemical plant can have a very marked effort on the success or otherwise
of a commercial venture. The guiding principle is that the plant should be located where
the cost of production and distribution of products are a minimum bearing in mind factors
such as space for future expansion and general amenities of the district. It is convenient to
list the more important factors influencing plant location as follows.
• Market Area
• Raw Materilas Supply
• Transport facilities
• Availability of labour
• Availability of utilities (water, Power, etc.)
• Availability of land
• Effluent disposal
• Climate
• Political & Strategic considerations

9.1.1 Marketing Area:

The location of the plant can be suitably selected depending on the availability of the
product in that area. If the market is close by the plant the transportaion costs can be
reduced to a large extent. Since the product is a solid the cost of transportation has to
done using trucks. If the customer is very close to the plant the product can be transported
using conveyers.

9.1.2 Raw Material Supply:

The availability and price of the raw material is also a key component to determine the
plant location. Here in this process since p-Xylene is a raw material which is a by-product
of the petrochemical industry and the price of which fluctuates to a large extent it is
preferable to locate the plant close to a refinery which deals with the petrochemical
products.

9.1.3Transport:

The transport of material to and from the plant will a prime factor to determine the
location of the plant. It is always preferred that the plant has all the facility of all the three
modes of transport (Rail, road and waterway).

9.1.4 Availability of labour:

Labour is necessary from the construction phase of the plant to the production phase. The
location of the plant should be such that there is availability of human resource around
the area. Usually the skilled labourers are picked up from outside the site area. But the
unskilled labourers are also in need.

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9.1.5 Availability of Utilities:

The process requires a large quantity of water for cooling and also for the emergency
requirements of the plant. Therefore it is always essential that there is a source of water
near the plant. Rivers are generally preferred as a source of water.
Power is another major utility. The power supply to the plant should be undisturbed. All
most all the equipments require power to work. It is always preferable to generate the
power required to run the plant.

9.1.6 Effluent Disposal:

The waste that is produced is generally in the form of liquid. The effluents are disposed
generally to the sea. Therefore there should be a provision for this kind of disposal.

9.1.7 Land:

Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant for future expansion. The
land should be ideally flat, well drained and have suitable load bearing characteristics.

9.1.8 Climate:

Adverse climate conditions at a site will increase costs. Abnormally low temperatures
will require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipments and
pipe runs. Stronger structure is necessary in locations subject to high winds.

9.1.9 Political and Strategic Considerations:

Capital grants concessions and other inducements are often given by governments to
direct new investment to preferred locations such as areas of high unemployment. The
availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site selection.
The ideal location for the plant will be any port city in the state of Gujarat or Mumbai.
The site is selected on the basis of availability of raw materials and a demanding market.

9.2 PLANT LAYOUT

A chemical plant should essentially contain the following units.

• Storage area for raw materials and products.
• Maintenance workshop
• Stores for maintenance and operating supplies
• Laboratories
• Fire Station and Security
• Utilities (Distillation column, boiler, reactor, etc)
• Effluent Disposal plant
• Offices for general administration
• Canteens, medical center, etc.
• Parking Lot

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The economic construction and efficient operation of a process unit will depend on how
well the plant and equipment specified on the process sheet is laid out.
The principle factors that have to be considered are:
• Economic Considerations
• The Process Requirements
• Convenience of operation
• Convenience of maintenance
• Safety
• Future Expansion

Costs:

The Cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest
run of connecting pipe between equipment and the least amount of structural steel work.

Process Requirements:

The height and the distance between the equipments are sometimes dictated by the
process taking place. For example it is necessary to elevate the base of columns to
provide the necessary net positive suction head to the pump. Gravity can be used in some
cases. By elevating a component the service of a pump can be avoided.

Operation:

Equipment that needs to have frequent operator attention should be located convenient to
the control room. Valves, sample points and instruments should be located at convenient
positions and heights.

Maintenance:

Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundle can be easily withdrawn for
cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require replacement of catalyst or packing
should be located on the outside the building. Equipments that require constant
dismantling should be under cover.

Safety:

Cooling towers should be situated so that under the prevailing wind conditions the plume
of condensate spray drifts away from the plant area and adjacent properties. The
hazardous chemicals should be handled away from the place where relatively large
number of people work.

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Plant expansion:
Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future
expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs and service
pipes oversized to allow future requirements.
After considering all the factors the plant layout is designed as shown in

Figure no.9.1 Plant Layout

10. Health and Safety Measures:

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Hazards Identification

Potential Acute Health Effects: Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of eye contact
(irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation (lung irritant).

Potential Chronic Health Effects:

Carcinogenic effects: Classified None.
Mutagenic Effects: Not Available.
Teratogenic Effects: Not Available.
Developmental Toxicity: Not Available.

The substance is toxic to blood, kidneys, liver, bladder, brain, cardiovascular system, eyes,
Nutritional and Gross Metabolic, ears, nose/sinuses, throat. Repeated or prolonged exposure to
the substance can produce target organs damage.

First Aid Measures:

Eye Contact: Check for and remove any contact lenses. Do not use an eye ointment. Seek
medical attention.

Skin Contact: p. 2 After contact with skin, wash immediately with plenty of water. Gently and
thoroughly wash the contaminated skin with running water and non-abrasive soap. Be
particularly careful to clean folds, crevices, creases and groin. Cover the irritated skin with an
emollient. If irritation persists, seek medical attention. Wash contaminated clothing before
reusing.

Inhalation: Allow the victim to rest in a well ventilated area. Seek immediate medical attention.
Ingestion: Do not induce vomiting. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband.
If the victim is not breathing, perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Seek immediate medical
attention.

Accidental Release Measures

Small Spill: Use appropriate tools to put the spilled solid in a convenient waste disposal
container. Finish cleaning by spreading water on the contaminated surface and dispose of
according to local and regional authority requirements.

Large Spill: Use a shovel to put the material into a convenient waste disposal container. Finish
cleaning by spreading water on the contaminated surface and allow to evacuate through the
sanitary system. Be careful that the product is not present at a concentration level above TLV.

11. CONCLUSION
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In this report, the technological and economic feasibility of producing terephthalic acid using a
novel process called Amoco process was analyzed. I have concluded from our process design,
economic, and safety analyses that this project is technologically feasible and will be very
profitable if executed. The process has been successfully adapted from the existing conventional
process to produce 750 tonnes of PTA per day.

Under the assumed economic conditions, this process is projected to have a net present value of
54175000 Rs/yr with an attractive internal rate of return of 23.96%.

Amoco process reduced the capital costs in our process design account for a large increase in the
profitability. As the potential of this project is very favorable, it is recommended that further
research be conducted.

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 12. REFFERENCES

Park, Chang-Man, et. al., Phthalic Acids and Other Benzenepolycarboxylic Acids, Kirk-Othmer
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology June 15, 2000, Amoco Chemical Company

Park, Chang-Man, et. al., Phthalic Acids and Other Benzenepolycarboxylic Acids, Kirk-Othmer
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology June 15, 2000, Amoco Chemical Company Sheehan,
Richard J., Terephthalic Acid, Dimethyl Terephthalate, and Isophthalic

“Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ handbook”, Perry, R. H., & Green, D.W., 1998 McGraw- Hill
International Editions, Chemical Engineering Series, New York, 7th edition, p-2.347

Organic Chemistry by P L Soni, p-2.159

McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C. & Harriot, P., “Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering”, McGraw
Hill International Editions, Chemical Engineering Series, NewYork, 5th edition, 1989

Treybal,R.E.“Mass Transfer Operations”McGraw Hill International Editions Chemical Engg.

Series, New York, 3rd edition, 1981

[Link]

Robert H Perry : Chemical Engineering Hand Book. (Sixth Edition)

Choapey, N.P., “Handbook of Chemical Engineering Calculations”, McGraw- Hill Publishing

Company Ltd.,

Joshi, M.V.& Mahajani, V.V. “Process Equipment Design”Macmillan India Limited, 3rd edition.

Brownell, L.E., & Young E.H. “Process equipment design-vessel design” Wiley Eastern
limited, New Delhi, 1st edition.

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