Polar Coordinates

Definition. A polar coordinate system in a plane consists of a fixed point O, called the pole or origin, and a ray emanating
from the pole, called the polar axis. In such a coordinate system we associate with each point P in the plane a pair of polar
coordinates (r, θ), where r is the directed distance from P to the pole and θ is the measure of the angle from the polar axis
to the ray OP . The number r is called the radial coordinate of P and the number θ the angular coordinate or polar angle of P .
Remark.
(1) The polar axis is usually drawn horizontally and extending to the right.
(2) The polar plane is composed of concentric circles with center at the pole and lines passing through the pole.
(3) When an angle is measured in the counter-clockwise direction then the angle measure is positive and if an angle
is measured in the clockwise direction then the angle measure is negative.
(4) If r > 0 then P (r, θ) is the point r units from the pole and on the terminal side of the angle with measure θ.
(5) If r < 0 then P (r, θ) is the point r units from the pole and on the terminal side of the angle with measure θ + π. The
point is r units from the pole and on the extension of the terminal side of the angle with measure θ.
Example. Plot the following points.

(1) (1, π/6) (4) (2, 120◦) (7) (7, 225◦) (10) (−4, π/3)
(2) (−3, 345◦) (5) (−3, π/4) (8) (−5, −2π/3) (11) (0, −35π/2)
(3) (1, π) (6) (−2, −5π/4) (9) (−6, −7π/4) (12) (8, −π/2)

Π
7Π 5Π
2
2Π 12 12 Π
10.
3 3
3Π Π
8.
4 4

5Π 6. Π

6 6

4.
11 Π Π

12 12
2.

Π 0. 0

13 Π 23 Π

12 12

7Π 11 Π

6 6

5Π 7Π

4 4
4Π 5Π

3 17 Π 19 Π 3
3Π
12 12
2

Remark.
(1) Ever pair of polar coordinates (r, θ) is associated with a unique point on the polar coordinate system. However,
every point on the polar coordinate system is associated with infinitely many pairs of polar coordinates, i.e., the
polar coordinates of a point are not unique.
(2) The polar coordinates (0, θ) represent the pole for all choices of θ.
(3) In general, if a point P has polar coordinates (r, θ), then (r, θ + 2nπ) or (−r, θ + (2n + 1)π) are also polar coordinates
of P for any integer n.
(4) If we restrict r > 0 and 0 ≤ θ < 2π then a point P on the polar coordinate system will have a unique set of polar
coordinates.
(5) In problems involving differentiation or integration formulas, angles must be in radians because those formulas
were derived under that assumption. We will use radian measure for polar angles, except in applications where
degree measure is more convenient and radian measure is not required.

F M ATHEMATICS 54 TWHFV AND TWHFW2 F P OLAR C URVES

1
 2

R ELATIONSHIP BETWEEN P OLAR AND R ECTANGULAR C OORDINATES

If we superimpose a rectangular xy-coordinate system on top of the polar coordinate system with the positive x-axis
coinciding with the polar axis, then every point P will have both rectangular coordinates (x, y) and polar coordinates
(r, θ). These coordinates are related by the following equations:
p y
r = ± x2 + y 2 , tan θ =
x
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ
Example. Find the rectangular coordinates of the points whose polar coordinates are given.

(1) (6, 2π/3) (3) (2, −π/6) (5) (−2,

√ π/2) (7) (−2, −5π/6) (9) (−1, 2π)
(2) (4, π/3) (4) (3, 5π/4) (6) ( 20, −π/4) (8) (−1, 7π/4) (10) (−2, 15π/2)

Example. Find polar coordinates of the points whose rectangular coordinates are given. Assume r > 0 and 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
√ √ √ √
(1) (−2, 2 3) (3) (−1, − 3) (5) (− 3, 1) (7) (2, 2 √3) (9) (−1/5, 1/5)
(2) (1, −1) (4) (−3, 4) (6) (−1, −1) (8) (3, − 3) (10) (1, 0)

G RAPHS IN P OLAR C OORDINATES

In a polar coordinate system, points have infinitely many different pairs of polar coordinates, so that a given point may
have some polar coordinates that satisfy an equation and others that do not. Given an equation in r and θ, we define
its graph in polar coordinates to consist of all points with at least one pair of coordinates (r, θ) that satisfy the equation.
Meanwhile, a polar equation of a graph is an equation that is satisfied by at least one pair of polar coordinates of each point
of the graph.
Remark. A graph may have more than one polar equation.
Example. Determine if the following points are on the graph of the given polar equation.

(1) r = 1 − 2 sin θ (3) r = 2 cos 3θ

• P (−2, 5π/6) • pole
3 • P (1, 11π/9)
(2) r =
cos θ − 1 • P (−2, −2π/3)
• P (3, π/2)

Example. Express the given equations in polar coordinates.

(1) x = 3 (3) x2 + y 2 = 9 (5) 2x2 + 3y 2 = 4

(2) y 2 = 2x (4) 9xy = 4 (6) x2 (x2 + y 2 ) = y 2

Example. Transform the given polar equations to rectangular coordinates.

(1) θ = π/2 (3) r = 3 cos θ (5) r = a cos θ + b sin θ

(2) r = 1 (4) r2 = 9 cos 2θ 1
(6) r =
2 + 3 sin θ
Example. Sketch the graphs of the following in polar coordinates.

(1) r = 1 (2) θ = π/4 (3) r = sin θ

Families of lines and rays through the pole. The equation θ = θ0 where θ0 ∈ R represents the line that passes through the
pole and makes an angle of θ0 with the polar axis, i.e., the line has slope equal to tan θ0 . If r is restricted to be nonnegative,
then the graph of the equation θ = θ0 is the ray that emanates from the pole and makes an angle of θ0 with the polar axis.
Thus, as θ0 varies, the equation θ = θ0 produces either a family of lines through the pole or a family of rays through the
pole, depending on the restrictions on r.
Example. Sketch the graph of the following polar equations:

(1) θ = π/3 (2) θ = 5π/6

Remark.
(1) An equation of the polar axis is θ = 0 and an equation of the π/2-axis is θ = π/2.
(2) The graph of the polar equation θ = θ0 is the same as the graphs of the equations θ = θ0 ± nπ where n ∈ Z. For
example, the line with polar equation θ = π/3 can also have equations θ = 4π/3, −2π/3, etc.
The graph of r cos θ = a is a line parallel to the π/2-axis and intersecting the polar axis at the point with polar coordinate
(a, 0). Similarly, the graph of r sin θ = b is a line parallel to the polar axis and intersecting the π/2-axis at the point with
polar coordinates (b, π/2).
F M ATHEMATICS 54 TWHFV AND TWHFW2 F P OLAR C URVES
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Remark.
(1) The line with polar equation r cos θ = a is to the right of the π/2-axis if a > 0 and to the left of the π/2 axis if a < 0.
(2) The line with polar equation r sin θ = b is above the polar axis if b > 0 and below the polar axis if b < 0.
Example. Sketch the graph of the following polar equations.

(1) r cos θ = 1 (2) r sin θ = −3

The graph of m(r cos θ) − r sin θ + b = 0 is a line with slope m passing through (b, π/2) and (−b/m, 0).
Example. Sketch the graph of the equation 2 cos θ − 2 sin θ = 1.
Π

3 3 2 3 3
3

2 2 2 2
2

1 1 1 1
1

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3
0
-4 -2 2 4
-1 -1 -1 -1

-1
-2 -2 -2 -2

-2
-3 -3 -3 -3

-3

r cos θ = a, a < 0 r cos θ = a, a > 0 θ = θ0 r sin θ = b, b < 0 r sin θ = b, b > 0

Families of Circles. The graph of the polar equation r = a where a ∈ R is a circle with center at the pole and radius of
length |a|.
Example. Sketch the graph of the following polar equations.

(1) r = 3 (2) r = −2

Remark. The graph of the polar equation r = a can also have polar equation r = −a.
The graph of the polar equation r = 2a cos θ is a circle with center on the polar axis or its extension (point with polar
coordinates (a, 0)), with radius |a|, passing through the pole and tangent to the π/2-axis. Similarly, the graph of the polar
equation r = 2b sin θ is a circle with center on the π/2-axis or its extension (point with polar coordinates (b, π/2)), with
radius |b|, passing through the pole and tangent to the polar axis.
Example. Sketch the graph of the following polar equations.

(1) r = 3 cos θ (2) r = −2 sin θ

Remark.
(1) The circle with polar equation r = 2a cos θ is to the right of the π/2-axis if a > 0 and to the left of the π/2-axis if
a < 0.
(2) The circle with polar equation r = 2b sin θ is above the polar axis if b > 0 and below the polar axis if b < 0.
12
6 3
6 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6

10
4 2 -2
4

8
2 1 -4
2

6
-6
2 4 6 8 10 12 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3

4
-2 -2 -1 -8

2
-4 -4 -2 -10

-6 -6 -3 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 -12

r = 2a cos θ, a > 0 r = 2a cos θ, a < 0 r=a r = 2a sin θ, a > 0 r = 2a sin θ, a < 0

Symmetry Tests.
Theorem. A curve in polar coordinates is symmetric about the
(1) polar axis if an equivalent equation is obtained when (r, θ) is replaced by either (r, −θ) or (−r, π − θ).
(2) π/2-axis if an equivalent equation is obtained when (r, θ) is replaced by either (r, π − θ) or (−r, −θ).
(3) pole if an equivalent equation is obtained when (r, θ) is replaced by either (r, π + θ) or (−r, θ).
Remark. The converse of each part of the theorem is false.

0.5

-3 -2 -1 1 2 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0

-1

-0.5

-2

r = 2 − sin(θ/2), 0 ≤ θ ≤ 4π r = cos(θ/4), 0 ≤ θ ≤ 8π
Remark. A graph that is symmetric about both the polar axis and the π/2-axis is also symmetric about the origin.
F M ATHEMATICS 54 TWHFV AND TWHFW2 F P OLAR C URVES
 4

Example. Determine if the graph of the following polar equations is symmetric with respect to the polar axis, π/2-axis
and pole.

(1) r2 = 4 cos 2θ (2) r = 2 sin 3θ

Remark.
(1) If the polar equation r = f (θ) is
(a) a function of cos θ only, then the graph of r = f (θ) is symmetric with respect to the polar axis.
(b) a function of sin θ only, then the graph of r = f (θ) is symmetric with respect to the π/2-axis.
(2) The graph of the polar equation r2n = f (θ) where n ∈ Z is symmetric with respect to the pole.
Observe that we can define the graph of a polar equation by a pair of parametric equations:
Theorem. The graph of the polar equation r = f (θ) is defined by the parametric equations x = f (θ) cos θ and y = f (θ) sin θ.
10θ − π
Example. Express the polar equation r = 2 + sin parametrically.
4
2

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

-1

-2

-3

TANGENT L INES TO P OLAR C URVES

Theorem. Let r be a differentiable function of θ. If dx/dθ and dy/dθ are continuous and dx/dθ 6= 0, then y is a differentiable
function of x, and
dr
dy sin θ + r cos θ
= dθ .
dx dr
cos θ − r sin θ
dθ
dr/dθ tan θ + r
Corollary. If m is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of r = f (θ) at the point P (r, θ) then m = if cos θ 6= 0
dr/dθ − r tan θ
1 dr
and m = − if cos θ = 0.
r dθ
Remark. If the polar curve r = f (θ) passes through the pole at θ = θ0 , then the slope of the tangent line to the graph of
r = f (θ) at the pole is m = tan θ0 . Hence, the tangent line to the graph of r = f (θ) at the pole is the line with polar equation
θ = θ0 .
Example. Answer the following completely.
(1) Find the slope of the tangent line to the circle r = 4 cos θ at the point where θ = π/4.
(2) Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of r = 4 sin 3θ at the point where θ = π/6 and find the equation of
the tangent line at the pole.
(3) Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of r = 1 − 2 cos θ at the pole where θ = 3π/2.
Exercise. Find the Cartesian equation of the tangent line to the graph of r = 3 cos 2θ at the point with polar coordinates
(3/2, π/6).
Theorem. Let β be the radian measure of the angle between the line OP and the tangent line to the graph of r = f (θ) at the point
P (r, θ) where P is not on the π/2-axis or its extension. If angle β is measured from OP counterclockwise to the tangent line and
dr
0 ≤ β < π then tan β = r/ .
dθ
Example. Consider the polar curve r = 2 + 2 sin θ. Find the angle measures α and β described above where θ = π/6.
Exercise.
√ Use angle β to find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of r = sin θ tan θ at the point with polar coordinates
( 2/2, π/4) in rectangular coordinates.
Suggestions on How to Proceed in Sketching the Graph of a Polar Equation.
(1) Test the graph of the polar equation for symmetry with respect to the polar axis, π/2-axis and the pole.
(2) Find the polar intercepts and the π/2 intercepts of the polar equation.
(a) To find the polar intercepts of the polar equation, we let θ = 0 and θ = π.
(b) To find the π/2 intercepts of the polar equation, we let θ = π/2 and θ = 3π/2.
(3) Determine the tangent lines at the pole.
(a) The equations of the tangent lines at the pole are θ = θ1 , θ = θ2 , . . . , θ = θk where (0, θ1 ), (0, θ2 ), . . . , (0, θk ) satisfy
the polar equation.
(b) Assign one or two or even three values to θ that are between two consecutive polar tangents and plot corre-
sponding points.
(4) Draw a smooth curve connecting the points in the order of increasing θ.
F M ATHEMATICS 54 TWHFV AND TWHFW2 F P OLAR C URVES
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Families of Cardioids and Limaçons. Equations of the form r = a ± b sin θ and r = a ± b cos θ in which a > 0 and b > 0
represent polar curves called limaçons.
Example. Sketch a graph of the following polar equations.

(1) r = 1 + 2 cos θ (2) r = 1 − sin θ (3) r = 3 − 2 cos θ (4) r = 3 + sin θ

Types of Limaçons. The graph of the polar equation r = a ± b cos θ and r = a ± b sin θ where a, b > 0 is a

(1) limaçon with a loop if 0 < a/b < 1 (3) limaçon with a dent or dimpled limaçon if 1 < a/b < 2
(2) cardioid (heart-shape) if a/b = 1 (4) convex limaçon if a/b ≥ 2
1
0.5
-0.5 0.5

-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0

-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
-2 -1 1 2

-0.5 -0.5 -0.5

-1
-1.0
-1.0

-1.0 -1.5
-2
-1.5
-2.0

-1.5 -2.0 -2.5 -3

0 < a/b < 1 a/b = 1 1 < a/b < 2 a/b ≥ 2

Remark.
(1) The limaçon with a loop and the cardioid pass through the pole while the limaçon with a dent and the convex
limaçon do not intersect the pole.
(2) A limaçon with a dent has four tangent lines that is perpendicular to its axis of symmetry (either horizontal or
vertical) while a convex limaçon has only two.
Proposition. If a, b > 0, then the graphs of
(1) r = a + b cos θ is symmetric with respect to the polar axis and the limaçon points to the right.
(2) r = a − b cos θ is symmetric with respect to the polar axis and the limaçon points to the left.
(3) r = a + b sin θ is symmetric with respect to the π/2 axis and the limaçon points upward.
(4) r = a − b sin θ is symmetric with respect to the π/2 axis and the limaçon points downward.
Exercise. Find the points on the cardioid r = 1 − cos θ at which there is a horizontal tangent line, a vertical tangent line, or
a singular point.
Families of Rose Curves. Equations of the form r = a cos nθ and r = a sin nθ, where a > 0 and n is a positive integer
represent families of flower-shaped curves called roses.
The rose consists of n equally spaced petals or leaves of radius a if n is odd and 2n equally spaced petals of radius a if n
is even. A rose with an even number of petals is traced out exactly once as θ varies over the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π and a rose
with an odd number of petals is traced out exactly once as θ varies over the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
Example. Sketch the graph of the following polar equations.

(1) r = sin 2θ (2) r = 2 cos 3θ

Remark. A circle can be considered a one-petal rose since if n = 1 we obtain r = a sin θ or r = a cos θ, the graph of which is
a circle of radius a/2 passing through the pole and with center at the polar axis or on the π/2-axis.
Exercise. Determine the equations of the tangent line(s) to the rose r = sin 3θ at the pole.

n=2 n=3 n=4 n=5 n=6

1.0 1.0 1.0

0.5
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

-0.5 0.5 1.0

-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0

r = a cos nθ
-0.5 0.5 1.0

-0.5 -0.5 -0.5 -0.5

-0.5

-1.0 -1.0 -1.0

1.0
1.0

0.5

0.5
0.5
0.5 0.5

-0.5 0.5

r = a sin nθ -0.5 0.5

-0.5 0.5

-0.5 0.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0

-0.5
-0.5 -0.5

-0.5
-0.5

-1.0 -1.0

F M ATHEMATICS 54 TWHFV AND TWHFW2 F P OLAR C URVES

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Lemniscates. The graph of the polar equation of the form r2 = a cos 2θ or r2 = a sin 2θ is a lemniscate.
Example. Sketch the graph of the following polar equations.

(1) r2 = 4 cos 2θ (2) r2 = 9 sin 2θ

Remark. The lemniscate with polar equation of the form r2 = a cos 2θ is symmetric with respect to the polar axis, π/2-axis
and the pole while the lemniscate with polar equation of the form r2 = a sin 2θ is symmetric with respect to the pole.
1.0

0.5
0.5 0.5

-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0

-0.5 0.5 -0.5 0.5

0.3
0.2
0.1 -0.5

-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -0.5 -0.5

-0.1
-0.2
-1.0
-0.3

Families of Spirals. A spiral is a curve that coils around a central point.

Example. Sketch the graph of r = a(1 − cos θ) in polar coordinates, assuming a to be a positive constant.
Exercise. Sketch the graph of r = θ, where θ ≥ 0.
Remark. The graph of the polar equation r = θ where θ ≥ 0 is called the Spiral of Archimedes.
4

20

0.3

10 2 10

0.2

5 -30 -20 -10 10 20

0.1
-4 -2 2 4
-10

-15 -10 -5 5 10
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3
-20
-2
-5
-0.1

-30

-10 -4 -0.2

Archimidean Parabolic Hyperbolic Logarithmic

A RC L ENGTH OF A P OLAR C URVE
Theorem. If no segment of the polar curve r = f (θ) is traced more than once as θ increases from α to β, and if dr/dθ is continuous
for α ≤ θ ≤ β, then the arc length L from θ = α to θ = β is
s  2
ˆ βp ˆ β
dr
L= [f (θ)]2 + [f 0 (θ)]2 dθ = r2 + dθ
α α dθ
Example. Find the total arc length of

(1) the Spiral of Archimedes where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π. (2) the cardioid with equation r = 1 + cos θ.

Exercise. Set-up the integral equal to the length of

(1) the limaçon with equation r = 3 − 2 sin θ (2) the inner loop of the limaçon r = 2 − 4 cos θ

Exercise. Show that the circumference of a circle of radius a is equal to 2πa by considering the length of arc of the graph
of the polar equation r = 2a sin θ.
Intersection of Graphs of Polar Equations. Let P be a point with polar coordinates (r, θ). Then P can also have polar coor-
dinates (r, θ + 2nπ) or (−r, θ + (2n + 1)π) where n ∈ Z, that is, P can also have polar coordinates ((−1)n r, θ + nπ) where
n ∈ Z.
Theorem. If r = f (θ) is a polar equation of a graph then other polar equations of the graph are of the form (−1)n r = f (θ + nπ)
where n ∈ Z.
General Method for finding the coordinates of all points of intersection of the graphs of the polar equations r = f (θ) and r = g(θ):
(1) Test if the pole is a point of intersection.
• The pole is on both curves if we set r = 0 and the equations f (θ) = 0 and g(θ) = 0 both have solutions not
necessarily the same.
(2) Determine all the distinct polar equations of the graphs of r = f (θ) and r = g(θ) obtaining r = f1 (θ), r = f2 (θ), . . . , r =
fs (θ) and r = g1 (θ), r = g2 (θ), . . . , r =(
gt (θ), respectively.
r = fi (θ)
(3) Solve the systems of polar equations for i = 1, . . . , s and j = 1, . . . , t.
r = gj (θ)
F M ATHEMATICS 54 TWHFV AND TWHFW2 F P OLAR C URVES
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Example. Determine all points of intersection of the following.

(1) r = 2 sin θ and r = 2 cos θ (3) r = 1 and r = 2 cos 2θ

(2) r = 1 and r2 2 sin 2θ

A REA IN P OLAR C OORDINATES

Theorem. Let α and β be angle measures that satisfy the condition α < β ≤ α + 2π. If the function r = f (θ) is continuous and
either nonnegative or nonpositive for every θ ∈ [α, β], then the area A of the region enclosed by the polar curve r = f (θ) and the lines
θ = α and θ = β is
1 β 1 β 2
ˆ ˆ
A= [f (θ)]2 dθ = r dθ.
2 α 2 α
Example. Find the exact area of the region
(1) in the first quadrant that is within the cardioid r = 1 − cos θ.
(2) within the cardioid r = 1 − cos θ.
(3) enclosed by the rose r = cos 2θ.
(4) that is inside of the cardioid r = 4 + 4 cos θ and outside of the circle r = 6.
Example. Setup the integral that is equal to the area of the
(1) region bounded by the graph of r = 2 + 2 sin θ
(2) the inner loop of the graph of r = 2 − 4 cos θ
Example. Setup the integral that is equal to the area of the
(1) of the region outside the graph of r = 1 and inside the graph of r2 = 2 sin 2θ
(2) of the region outside the graph of r = 1 and inside the graph of r = 2 cos 2θ
(3) of the region inside the graph of r = 2 and outside the graph of r = 2 − 2 cos θ
(4) of the region outside the graph of r = 1 but inside the graph of r = 2 sin θ
(5) of the region inside the graphs of r = 1 and r = 2 sin θ
(6) of the region enclosed by the graphs of r = 2 sin 2θ and r = 2 cos 2θ
Exercise. Setup the integral equal to the area
(1) of the region bounded by the graphs of r = 3 + cos θ √
(2) of the region outside the graph of r = 1 + cos θ and inside the graph of r = 3 sin θ
(3) of the region common to the interior of the graphs of r = 4 sin θ and r = 4 cos θ
(4) of the region enclosed by the graphs of r = 2 and r = 3 − 2 cos θ
(5) of the region outside the inner loop but inside the limaçon r = 1 + 2 cos θ

A U NIFIED T REATMENT OF C ONIC S ECTIONS

Theorem. Suppose that a point P moves in the plane determined by a fixed point and a fixed line, where the focus does not lie on
the directrix. If the point moves in such a way that the ratio of its undirected distance to the focus to its undirected distance to the
directrix is some positive constant e, then the curve traced by the point is a conic section. Moreover, if e = 1, the conic is a parabola; if
0 < e < 1 the conic is an ellipse and if e > 1 the conic is a hyperbola.
Remark.
(1) In the theorem above, the fixed point is called a focus of the conic, the fixed line is called a directrix of the conic and
e is called the eccentricity of the conic.
(2) A conic with e 6= 1 is called a central conic (ellipse and hyperbola).
Theorem. Suppose the focus of a conic of eccentricity e is at the pole. If d is the undirected distance of the pole to its corresponding
directrix that is
ed
(1) perpendicular to the polar axis then a polar equation of the conic is r = where the plus sign is taken when the
1 ± e cos θ
directrix corresponding to the pole is to the right of the pole and the minus sign is taken when it is to the left of the pole.
ed
(2) parallel to the polar axis then a polar equation of the conic is r = where the plus sign is taken when the directrix
1 ± e sin θ
corresponding to the pole is above the pole and the minus sign is taken when it is below the pole.
Example. Identify the following conics and sketch their graphs.
2 6
(1) r = (3) r =
1 − cos θ 2 − sin θ
4 12
(2) r = (4) r =
1 + cos θ 3 + 6 sin θ

Remark. If r is undefined when θ = θ1 and θ = θ2 , θ1 , θ2 ∈ [0, 2π), then the asymptotes of the hyperbola are the lines passing
through the center of the hyperbola and parallel to the line with equation θ = θ1 and θ = θ2 .
F M ATHEMATICS 54 TWHFV AND TWHFW2 F P OLAR C URVES
 8

Exercise. Identify the following conics and sketch their graphs.

1 4 7 6
(1) r = (2) r = (3) r = (4) r =
2 + sin θ 2 − 2 sin θ 2 + 4 cos θ 4 − cos θ

Example. Find a polar equation of the conic having a focus at the pole and satisfying the given conditions:
(1) parabola; vertex at V (2, 3π/2)
(2) e = 0.5; corresponding directrix to the focus at the pole has polar equation r cos θ = 10
(3) e = 1; point with polar coordinate (2, π/3) on the conic, vertex is on the extension of the polar axis
(4) vertices at points with polar coordinates (1, π/2) and (3, π/2)
Exercise. Find a polar equation of the conic having a focus at the pole and satisfying the given conditions:
(1) parabola; vertex at V (1.5, 0)
(2) point with polar coordinates (8/3, π/6) on conic, equation of directrix corresponding to focus at pole is r sin θ = −4
(3) other focus has polar coordinates (−8, π), a vertex at V (2, 0) and d = 3

1.0

10

0.5

-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0

-10 -5 5 10

-0.5
-5

-10 -1.0

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

-1

-2

F M ATHEMATICS 54 TWHFV AND TWHFW2 F P OLAR C URVES

 Π Π
7Π 5Π 7Π 5Π
2 2
2Π 12 12 Π 2Π 12 12 Π
10. 10.
3 3 3 3
3Π Π 3Π Π
8. 8.
4 4 4 4

5Π 6. Π 5Π 6. Π

6 6 6 6

4. 4.
11 Π Π 11 Π Π

12 12 12 12
2. 2.

Π 0. 0 Π 0. 0

13 Π 23 Π 13 Π 23 Π

12 12 12 12

7Π 11 Π 7Π 11 Π

6 6 6 6

5Π 7Π 5Π 7Π

4 4 4 4
4Π 5Π 4Π 5Π

3 17 Π 19 Π 3 3 17 Π 19 Π 3
3Π 3Π
12 12 12 12
2 2

Π Π
7Π 5Π 7Π 5Π
2 2
2Π 12 12 Π 2Π 12 12 Π
10. 10.
3 3 3 3
3Π Π 3Π Π
8. 8.
4 4 4 4

5Π 6. Π 5Π 6. Π

6 6 6 6

4. 4.
11 Π Π 11 Π Π

12 12 12 12
2. 2.

Π 0. 0 Π 0. 0

13 Π 23 Π 13 Π 23 Π

12 12 12 12

7Π 11 Π 7Π 11 Π

6 6 6 6

5Π 7Π 5Π 7Π

4 4 4 4
4Π 5Π 4Π 5Π

3 17 Π 19 Π 3 3 17 Π 19 Π 3
3Π 3Π
12 12 12 12
2 2

Π Π
7Π 5Π 7Π 5Π
2 2
2Π 12 12 Π 2Π 12 12 Π
10. 10.
3 3 3 3
3Π Π 3Π Π
8. 8.
4 4 4 4

5Π 6. Π 5Π 6. Π

6 6 6 6

4. 4.
11 Π Π 11 Π Π

12 12 12 12
2. 2.

Π 0. 0 Π 0. 0

13 Π 23 Π 13 Π 23 Π

12 12 12 12

7Π 11 Π 7Π 11 Π

6 6 6 6

5Π 7Π 5Π 7Π

4 4 4 4
4Π 5Π 4Π 5Π

3 17 Π 19 Π 3 3 17 Π 19 Π 3
3Π 3Π
12 12 12 12
2 2

F M ATHEMATICS 54 TWHFV AND TWHFW2 F P OLAR P LANES

 Π Π
7Π 5Π 7Π 5Π
2 2
2Π 12 12 Π 2Π 12 12 Π
5. 5.
3 3 3 3
3Π Π 3Π Π
4. 4.
4 4 4 4

5Π 3. Π 5Π 3. Π

6 6 6 6

2. 2.
11 Π Π 11 Π Π

12 12 12 12
1. 1.

Π 0. 0 Π 0. 0

13 Π 23 Π 13 Π 23 Π

12 12 12 12

7Π 11 Π 7Π 11 Π

6 6 6 6

5Π 7Π 5Π 7Π

4 4 4 4
4Π 5Π 4Π 5Π

3 17 Π 19 Π 3 3 17 Π 19 Π 3
3Π 3Π
12 12 12 12
2 2

Π Π
7Π 5Π 7Π 5Π
2 2
2Π 12 12 Π 2Π 12 12 Π
5. 5.
3 3 3 3
3Π Π 3Π Π
4. 4.
4 4 4 4

5Π 3. Π 5Π 3. Π

6 6 6 6

2. 2.
11 Π Π 11 Π Π

12 12 12 12
1. 1.

Π 0. 0 Π 0. 0

13 Π 23 Π 13 Π 23 Π

12 12 12 12

7Π 11 Π 7Π 11 Π

6 6 6 6

5Π 7Π 5Π 7Π

4 4 4 4
4Π 5Π 4Π 5Π

3 17 Π 19 Π 3 3 17 Π 19 Π 3
3Π 3Π
12 12 12 12
2 2

Π Π
7Π 5Π 7Π 5Π
2 2
2Π 12 12 Π 2Π 12 12 Π
5. 5.
3 3 3 3
3Π Π 3Π Π
4. 4.
4 4 4 4

5Π 3. Π 5Π 3. Π

6 6 6 6

2. 2.
11 Π Π 11 Π Π

12 12 12 12
1. 1.

Π 0. 0 Π 0. 0

13 Π 23 Π 13 Π 23 Π

12 12 12 12

7Π 11 Π 7Π 11 Π

6 6 6 6

5Π 7Π 5Π 7Π

4 4 4 4
4Π 5Π 4Π 5Π

3 17 Π 19 Π 3 3 17 Π 19 Π 3
3Π 3Π
12 12 12 12
2 2

F M ATHEMATICS 54 TWHFV AND TWHFW2 F P OLAR P LANES

 Π Π
7Π 5Π 7Π 5Π
2 2
2Π 12 12 Π 2Π 12 12 Π
5. 5.
3 3 3 3
3Π Π 3Π Π
4. 4.
4 4 4 4

5Π 3. Π 5Π 3. Π

6 6 6 6

2. 2.
11 Π Π 11 Π Π

12 12 12 12
1. 1.

Π 0. 0 Π 0. 0

13 Π 23 Π 13 Π 23 Π

12 12 12 12

7Π 11 Π 7Π 11 Π

6 6 6 6

5Π 7Π 5Π 7Π

4 4 4 4
4Π 5Π 4Π 5Π

3 17 Π 19 Π 3 3 17 Π 19 Π 3
3Π 3Π
12 12 12 12
2 2

Π Π
7Π 5Π 7Π 5Π
2 2
2Π 12 12 Π 2Π 12 12 Π
5. 5.
3 3 3 3
3Π Π 3Π Π
4. 4.
4 4 4 4

5Π 3. Π 5Π 3. Π

6 6 6 6

2. 2.
11 Π Π 11 Π Π

12 12 12 12
1. 1.

Π 0. 0 Π 0. 0

13 Π 23 Π 13 Π 23 Π

12 12 12 12

7Π 11 Π 7Π 11 Π

6 6 6 6

5Π 7Π 5Π 7Π

4 4 4 4
4Π 5Π 4Π 5Π

3 17 Π 19 Π 3 3 17 Π 19 Π 3
3Π 3Π
12 12 12 12
2 2

Π Π
7Π 5Π 7Π 5Π
2 2
2Π 12 12 Π 2Π 12 12 Π
5. 5.
3 3 3 3
3Π Π 3Π Π
4. 4.
4 4 4 4

5Π 3. Π 5Π 3. Π

6 6 6 6

2. 2.
11 Π Π 11 Π Π

12 12 12 12
1. 1.

Π 0. 0 Π 0. 0

13 Π 23 Π 13 Π 23 Π

12 12 12 12

7Π 11 Π 7Π 11 Π

6 6 6 6

5Π 7Π 5Π 7Π

4 4 4 4
4Π 5Π 4Π 5Π

3 17 Π 19 Π 3 3 17 Π 19 Π 3
3Π 3Π
12 12 12 12
2 2

F M ATHEMATICS 54 TWHFV AND TWHFW2 F P OLAR P LANES

 Π Π
7Π 5Π 7Π 5Π
2 2
2Π 12 12 Π 2Π 12 12 Π
5. 5.
3 3 3 3
3Π Π 3Π Π
4. 4.
4 4 4 4

5Π 3. Π 5Π 3. Π

6 6 6 6

2. 2.
11 Π Π 11 Π Π

12 12 12 12
1. 1.

Π 0. 0 Π 0. 0

13 Π 23 Π 13 Π 23 Π

12 12 12 12

7Π 11 Π 7Π 11 Π

6 6 6 6

5Π 7Π 5Π 7Π

4 4 4 4
4Π 5Π 4Π 5Π

3 17 Π 19 Π 3 3 17 Π 19 Π 3
3Π 3Π
12 12 12 12
2 2

Π Π
7Π 5Π 7Π 5Π
2 2
2Π 12 12 Π 2Π 12 12 Π
5. 5.
3 3 3 3
3Π Π 3Π Π
4. 4.
4 4 4 4

5Π 3. Π 5Π 3. Π

6 6 6 6

2. 2.
11 Π Π 11 Π Π

12 12 12 12
1. 1.

Π 0. 0 Π 0. 0

13 Π 23 Π 13 Π 23 Π

12 12 12 12

7Π 11 Π 7Π 11 Π

6 6 6 6

5Π 7Π 5Π 7Π

4 4 4 4
4Π 5Π 4Π 5Π

3 17 Π 19 Π 3 3 17 Π 19 Π 3
3Π 3Π
12 12 12 12
2 2

Π Π
7Π 5Π 7Π 5Π
2 2
2Π 12 12 Π 2Π 12 12 Π
5. 5.
3 3 3 3
3Π Π 3Π Π
4. 4.
4 4 4 4

5Π 3. Π 5Π 3. Π

6 6 6 6

2. 2.
11 Π Π 11 Π Π

12 12 12 12
1. 1.

Π 0. 0 Π 0. 0

13 Π 23 Π 13 Π 23 Π

12 12 12 12

7Π 11 Π 7Π 11 Π

6 6 6 6

5Π 7Π 5Π 7Π

4 4 4 4
4Π 5Π 4Π 5Π

3 17 Π 19 Π 3 3 17 Π 19 Π 3
3Π 3Π
12 12 12 12
2 2

F M ATHEMATICS 54 TWHFV AND TWHFW2 F P OLAR P LANES