GENERAL CHEMISTRY II

CHAPTER I
KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL: explains the properties of solids and liquids in terms of the intermolecular
forces of attraction and the kinetic energy of the individual particles.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES: attractive forces between neighboring particles of one or more substances.
Pull the particles together while K.E keeps the particles at a distance moving around.

Characteristics of Solids and Liquids

SOLIDS LIQUIDS

PROPERTIES  Have definite shape  Have no definite shape

 Do not flow  Flow and take the shape of
 Virtually incompressible the container
 Expand when heated but to  Very difficult to compress
a lesser extent that liquids  Slightly expand when
and gases heated
PARTICLES  Strongly attracted to each  Weakly attracted to each
other other and break the
 Vibrate a little but not attraction easily
much compared to liquids  Vibrate and move than
and gases those in a solid
 Vibrate faster when heated  Move faster when heated

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION

1. Dipole-dipole Forces: exist between polar molecules

POLAR SUBSTANCES – possess a permanent dipole moment attributed to the difference in

electronegativities of their component atoms

2. Hydrogen Bonds: exist only in molecules that contain a hydrogen atom bonded to a small highly
electronegative atom such as O, N, F
3. Ion-Dipole forces: act between an ion (either positive or negative) and a polar molecule.

4. London Dispersion Force (weakest force): exist between all atoms and molecules / only forces acting in
nonpolar molecules

TEMPORARY DIPOLE – the result when the electrons have some freedom around the molecule
acquiring a non-uniform electron density

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS

 Surface Tension: resist and external force and assume a lesser surface area
Adhesive Force/Adhesion – attractive forces between unlike substances / causes the liquid to cling to the
surface to which it rest
Cohesive Force/Cohesion – exist between molecules of the same substance / resisting separation

 Viscosity: resistance of a liquid to flow and defined as the thickness of a liquid

 Vapor Pressure: pressure exerted by its vapor when in equilibrium with its liquid or solid
EXAMPLES: at 25°C , water (hydrogen bonding) has a vapor pressure of 0.03 atm ; ethyl ether (C4H10O dipole-
pordipole and London dispersion forces) has a vapor pressure of 0.68atm

 Boiling Point: temperature at which its vapor pressure is equal to the external pressure.
The temperature at which a liquid boils under an atmospheric pressure of 760 mmHg (1atm) is called the
normal boiling point

 Heat of Vaporization: amount of heat required to vaporize one mole of a substance at its boiling point
Molar Heats of Vaporization for Selected Liquids

SUBSTANCE BOILING POINT MOLAR HEAT OF VAPORIZATION

Argon (Ar) -186 6.3

Methane (CH4) -164 9.2

Diethyl Ether (C2H5OC2H5) 34.6 26.0

Ethanol (C2H5OH) 78.3 39.3

Water (H2O) 100 40.8

 STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF WATER
As temperature increases, the number of linked molecules decreases because the increased kinetic energy
of some of the molecules make the intermolecular forces break and difficult to establish
At 0°C , the density of ice 0.917g/cm3 ; liquid water is 0.99984g/cm3

TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF SOLID

Classification of Solids

 Amorphous: have considerable disorder in their structure / particles do not have time to align or
organize into a more definite crystalline lattice
EXAMPLES: glass ; silicon used in solar cells and thin film transistors ; quartz
AMORPHOUS POLYMERS – tough enough to be used as armor polymers (like polycarbonate &
polymethylmethacrylate)

 Crystalline: have a highly regular arrangement of particles / have a well-defined crystal lattice
LATTICE – three dimensional system of points designating the positions of the components that make
up a crystal
UNIT CELL – smallest repeating unit of a lattice

Different Types of Crystalline Solids

*Ionic Solids: have ions at different points of the lattice and held together by strong coloumbic forces (like
NaCl)
*Molecular Solids: have discrete covalently bonded molecules at each of its lattice points and held together by
strong intermolecular forces (C12H22O11 & H20)
NaCl solution conducts electricity while sugar solution does not. NaCl can dissociate into is Na + and Cl- ions
in polar solvent such as H2O and the ions are distributed throughout the solvent and they move freely
*Metallic Solids: composed of metal atoms bonded together by metallic bonds (gold, copper, bronze)
*Network Solids: covalently bonded atoms that form a continuous network (silicon dioxide & some forms of
carbon like graphite and diamond)
*Group 8A Solids: consist of atoms of noble gases held together by London dispersion force (solid krypton,
argon)
PHASE CHANGES AND PHASE DIAGRAMS
Phase Changes: occur with increased temperature
When heat is supplied to the solid, the increased kinetic energy intensifies the vibration of the particles
--Further increase in heat can overcome the intermolecular forces between liquid particles causing them to
begin moving independently and colliding with other particles, forming a gas or vapor
Sublimation – process that solids undergo from being solid to vapor
Phase Diagram: graphical representation of the pressure-temperature relationships

Triple Point – where all three phases coexist in equilibrium 0.01°C and 0.0060 atm
Critical Point – temperature-pressure condition at and above which the vapor of the substance can’t be
liquefied no matter how much pressure is applied 373.99°C and 217.75 atm
Triple Point -56.6°C and 5.11 atm
Critical Point 31°C and 73 atm
Supercritical Fluid – homogeneous phase and a substance that has a temperature above the critical
temperature and density near its liquid density
 CHAPTER II
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS: mixtures of two or more substances evenly distributed throughout a single phase
SOLUTE: substance dissolved in a solution
SOLVENT: dissolving medium

Types of Solutions
Solute Solvent Solution Examples
Gas Gas Gas O in N
Gas Liquid Liquid CO2 in H2O
Gas Solid Solid H in Pd

Liquid Liquid Liquid C2H5OH in H2O

Liquid Solid Solid Hg in Ag
Solid Liquid Liquid NaCl in H2O
Solid solid solid Cu in tin (Bronze)

Classification of Solution
*Unsaturated: contains less solute than the solvent’s capacity to dissolve meaning the solution can still dissolve
more solute
*Saturated: contains the maximum amount of solute that the solvent can dissolve at a certain temperature
*Supersaturated: contains more dissolved solute than in a saturated solution and this is unstable such that the
excess solute can crystallize in the solution by adding a seed crystal (seeding)
 ENERGY OF SOLUTION FORMATION
Formation of Liquid Solution
1. Overcoming the intermolecular forces in the solvent to give room for the solute (expanding the solvent)
2. Separating the solute into its individual components (expanding the solute)
3. Allowing the solute and the solvent to interact to form the solution

Enthalpy of Solution ΔHsoln is the enthalpy change associated with the formation of the solution.
A positive ΔHsoln signifies an endothermic process (if more energy is used when bonds are broken than is
released when new bonds are formed) while a negative ΔHsoln indicates an exothermic process (if more
energy is released when forming the new solute-solvent interactions)

CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTION: is a measure of the amount of solute in a given amount of solvent or
solution.
PERCENT BY MASS
PERCENT BY VOLUME
PERCENT BY MASS-VOLUME
MOLE FRACTION: in a solution is equal to the number of moles of that component divided
by the total number of moles of all the components present.
MOLALITY (m): the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent
MOLARITY (M): the number of moles of solute per liter of solution

SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY
 FACTOS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY
SOLUBILITY: maximum amount of a solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specific
temperature.
Different Factors Affecting Solubility
*Nature of Solute and Solvent

 Particle Size – smaller particle size of a solid means there are greater surface areas exposed to solvent\

 Stirring the Solution – disperses the solvent particles around the solute, allowing the fresh portions of
the solvent to come in contact with the solid
*Temperature – the increase in temperature raises the kinetic energy of the solution, allowing the solvent
particles to move effectively, breaking apart the solute particles held together by intermolecular forces.
*Pressure – has an appreciable effect on the solubility of gases in gas-liquid solutions but it has no effect on the
solubility of solid salts in water.

 Henry’s Law (British chemist William Henry) – the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid.

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES: depend on the number of solute particles in the solution.
Can be classified as:
*Electrolytes – particles that ionize in a solution, thus, conducting electricity.

 Strong Electrolytes – electrolytes that can completely ionize in water such as ionic compounds, strong
acids and strong bases.

 Weak Electrolytes – partially ionize in water such as weak acids and weak bases.
*Nonelectrolytes – do not ionize at all in solution, thus, don’t conduct electricity.

 VAPOR PRESSURE LOWERING

Vapor Pressure Solute – is always lower than that of pure solvent.
Raoult’s Law – states that the vapor pressure of a solvent over solution is equal to the
product of the vapor pressure of the pure solvent and the mole fraction of the solvent in
the solution.

 FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION

Freezing Point Depression Constant (Kf) – also termed as cryoscopic constant; one mole
of any nonelectrolyte that will lower the freezing point of a given amount of solvent by
this constant

 BOILING POINT ELEVATION

Molal Boiling Point Elevation Constant (Kb) – also termed as ebullioscopic constant
nonelectrolyte solute that will elevate the boiling point of a given amount of solvent by
this factor
 ELECTROLYTIC SOLUTIONS
Van’t Hoff Factor – (i) is equal to the number of ions in one formula unit of an
electrolytic solution.

 OSMOSIS AND OSMOTIC PRESSURE

Osmosis – process through which a solvent flows through a semipermeable membrane
from a less concentrated solution to a more concentrated one.
Semipermeable membrane – a selectively porous material allowing certain substances to
pass through it.
Osmotic Pressure – amount of pressure required to stop osmosis.
Isotonic – two solutions having the same osmotic pressure.
 CHAPTER III
THERMOCHEMISTRY: study of energy or heat flow that accompanies a chemical reaction and physical
transformations.
Heat (represented by q) – form of energy transfer between two objects as a result of their difference in
temperature.
Energy – generally flows from a hotter objects to a cooler one until thermal equilibrium is reached.
SYSTEM – part of the universe being studied or to which attention is focused.
SURROUNDINGS – include everything else in the universe.

EXOTHERMIC – processes with negative q values / system that releases heat (when heat flows from its
system to the surroundings)

 Freezing because ice releases heat to its surroundings

 Combustion of gasoline because it produces heat
 Cellular respiration because it breaks glucose molecules to produce energy in the form of ATP
 The thermite reaction
 A neutralization reaction (e.g., mixing an acid and a base to form a salt and water)
 Most polymerization reactions
 Respiration
 Nuclear fission
 Corrosion of metal (an oxidation reaction)
 Dissolving an acid in water

ENDOTHERMIC – processes with positive q values / system that absorbs heat from the surroundings

 Melting of ice because the system absorbs heat from its surroundings
 Mixing barium hydroxide and ammonium chloride resulting to a cooler reaction system
 Photosynthesis in plants since it requires energy from the sun
 Dissolving ammonium chloride in water
 Cracking alkanes
 Nucleosynthesis of elements heavier than nickel in stars
 Evaporating liquid water
 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
THERMOCHEMISTRY: branch of thermodynamics which deals with the interconversion of energy between
two forms: heat and work.
Law of Conservation of Energy – energy cannot be created nor destroyed. It can only be transferred between
the system and the surroundings.

ΔEsys = -ΔEsurr (the negative sign indicates the flow of energy)

First Law of Thermodynamics – states that in any process, the change in energy of a system is equal to the heat
absorbed by the system (q) and the work (w) done on it.
ΔEsys = q + w
Positive when work is done on the system, gaining energy (+w)
Negative when the system does the work, using or transferring some of its energy (-w)

CALORIMETRY: involves the measurement of the quantity of heat exchanged between a system and its
surroundings.
q = CΔt Δt = tfinal - tinitial
Heat Capacity (J/°C) – amount of energy needed to increase the temperature of a substance by 1°C
C = mc (the heat capacity is equal to the product of its mass (m) and specific heat (c))
Therefore, q = mcΔt

Calorimeter – insulator apparatus that contains water or any liquid of known heat capacity.
 ENTHALPY OF A CHEMICAL REACTION: THERMOCHEMICAL EQUATIONS
THERMOCHEMICAL EQUATION: chemical equation that shows the value and direction of heat involved
in a reaction and it also indicates the physical state of the reactants and products involved in the reaction.
Enthalpy – form of chemical energy and amount of heat absorbed or released by a chemical reaction at a
constant atmospheric pressure.
Enthalpy of a Reaction – difference between the enthalpy of the products and reactants.
Standard Molar Enthalpy of Formation – change in enthalpy when the compound is formed from its
elements under standard conditions (1 atm, 25°C).
Standard Enthalpy of a Reaction – can be calculated by subtracting the sum of the enthalpies of
formation of the products and the sum of the enthalpies of formation of the reactants.

Hess’s Law – states that the enthalpy of a sum of series of reactions is equal to the sum of the enthalpies of
those two reactions.

RATE OF A REACTION
RATE OF A REACTION: change in the concentration of reactants or products per change in time.
Chemical Kinetics – study of the rate of chemical reactions, including the mechanism by which a reaction
occurs and the different factors that affect it.
Instantaneous Rate of Reaction – the slope changes at every point of graph, defining this at unique point of
time.

RATE LAW FOR A REACTION

RATE LAW (M/s): mathematical expression that shows how the rate of reaction depends on the
concentration of the reactants.
Order of a Reaction
1. Zero-Order Reaction (x=0) has a constant rate that is equal to its rate constant regardless of changes in the
concentration of the reactant.
2. First-Order Reaction (x=1) the rate doubles when the concentration of a reaction is doubled. A quadruple
increase in reactant concentrations means an increase of four times the original rate. In general, the rate
increases in the same order as the concentration of the reactant.
3. Second-Order Reaction (x=2) increasing the reactant concentration to twice as much as quadruples the
original reaction rate. A triple increase in concentration means a nine fold increase in reaction rate.

INTEGRATED RATE LAW

INTEGRATED RATE LAW: derived from the rate law expression for the reactions.
 Zero-Order Reaction
The graph of [A] versus time gives a line

First-Order Reaction

(a) The graph of [A] versus time for a first-order reaction gives a curve, while (b), in [A] versus time gives
straight line

Second-Order Reaction
For a second-order reaction, the
graph of the inverse of the
reactant concentration with time
gives a straight line.
 REACTION MECHANISM AND MOLECULARITY
REACTION MECHANISM: sequence of reaction steps that show how the reactants are converted into
products.
Reaction Intermediate – specie that is eventually consumed in the second step of the mechanism.
Rate-Determining Step – limits the rate of the overall reaction and dictates the rate law for the reaction.
Molecularity of the Reaction – indicates the number of molecules that are involved in the rate-determining
step.
MODELS FOR THE REACTION RATE
COLLISION THEORY: explains how reactant concentration affects the rate of a reaction.
Activation Energy – energy barrier of the transition state.

The activation energy is the difference

between the energy of the transition
state and the energy of the reactants.

Catalysts – speed up the rate of a chemical reaction by providing an alternate route for the reaction to occur
with lower activation energy.
Heterogeneous Catalysis – uses a catalyst that is of a different phase from that of the reactants and the
products.
Homogeneous Catalysis – the catalyst is of the same phase as that of the reactants and the products.