Appendix F

ICSI Classification for Seasonal Snow on the Ground

Morphological classification Additional information on physical processes and strength
Dependence on most Common effect on
Basic classification Subclass Shape Code Place of formation Physical process
important parameters strength
Precipitation
PP
Particles
Columns Prismatic crystal, PPco Cloud; Growth from water vapour at –3
solid or hollow temperature inversion to –8 °C and below–30 °C
a j layer (clear sky)

Needles Needle-like, PPnd Cloud Growth from water vapour at

approximately high supersaturation at –3 to –5 °
k cylindrical C and below –60 °C
Plates Plate-like, PPpl Cloud; Growth from water vapour at 0 to
mostly hexagonal temperature inversion –3 °C and –8 to –70 °C
l layer (clear sky)

Stellars, Six-fold star-like, PPsd Cloud; Growth from water vapour at

Dendrites planar or spatial temperature inversion high supersaturation at 0 to –3 °
layer (clear sky) C and at –12 to
m –16 °C
Irregular Clusters of very small PPir Cloud Polycrystals growing in varying
crystals crystals environmental conditions
n
Graupel Heavily rimed PPgp Cloud Heavy riming of particles by
particles, accretion of supercooled water
o spherical, conical, droplets
hexagonal, or irregular Size: ≤ 5 mm
in shape
Hail Laminar internal PPhl Cloud Growth by accretion of
structure, translucent supercooled water
p or milky glazed surface Size: > 5 mm

Ice pellets Transparent, PPip Cloud Freezing of raindrops or

mostly small spheroids refreezing of largely melted snow
q crystals or snowflakes (sleet)
Graupel or snow pellets encased
in thin ice layer (small hail)
Size: both ≤ 5 mm

Rime Irregular deposits or PPrm Onto surface as well as Accretion of small, supercooled Increase with fog density
longer cones and on freely exposed fog droplets frozen in place. and exposure to wind
r needles pointing into objects Thin breakable crust forms on
the wind snow surface if process
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continues long enough

Notes: Diamond dust is a further type of precipitation often observed in polar regions (see Appendix E).
Hard rime is more compact and amorphous than soft rime and may build out as glazed cones or ice feathers (AMS, 2000).
The above subclasses do not cover all types of particles and crystals one may observe in the atmosphere. See the references below for a more comprehensive coverage.
References: Magono & Lee, 1966; Bailey & Hallett, 2004; Dovgaluk & Pershina. 2005; Libbrecht, 2005
 Morphological classification Additional information on physical processes and strength
Common
Dependence on most
Basic classification Subclass Shape Code Place of formation Physical process effect on
important parameters
strength
Machine Made
MM
snow
Round polycrystalline Small spherical MMrp Atmosphere, near surface Machined snow, i.e., freezing of Liquid water content In dry
particles particles, very small water droplets from the depends mainly on air conditions,
often showing surface inward temperature and humidity quick sintering
s protrusions, a result of but also on snow density results in
b the freezing process; and grain size rapid strength
may be partially hollow increase
Crushed Ice plates, shard-like MMci Ice generators Machined ice, i.e., production of All weather safe
ice particles flake ice, subsequent crushing,
and pneumatic distribution
t
References: Fauve et al., 2002
Decomposing DF
and Fragmented
precipitation
particles
Partly decomposed Characteristic shapes of DFdc Within the snowpack; Decrease of surface area to Speed of decomposition Regains
c precipitation particles precipitation particles recently deposited snow reduce surface free energy; also decreases with decreasing cohesion by
still recognizable; often near the surface, usually fragmentation due to light winds snow temperatures and sintering after
u partly rounded. dry lead to initial break up decreasing temperature initial strength
gradients decreased
due to
decomposition
process
Wind-broken Shards or fragments of DFbk Surface layer, mostly Saltation particles are Fragmentation and packing Quick
precipitation particles precipitation particles recently deposited snow fragmented and packed by wind, increase with wind speed sintering
often closely; fragmentation often results in rapid
v followed by rounding strength
increase
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 Morphological classification Additional information on physical processes and strength

Basic classification Subclass Shape Code Place of formation Physical process Dependence on most Common effect on
important parameters strength

Rounded RG
Grains
Small rounded Rounded, usually RGsr Within the snowpack; Decrease of specific Growth rate increases Strength due to
d particles elongated particles of
size < 0.25 mm;
dry snow surface area by slow
decrease of number
with increasing
temperature; growth
sintering of the snow
grains [1]. Strength
w highly sintered of grains and increase slower in high density increases with time,
of mean grain snow with smaller settlement and
diameter. Small pores decreasing grain size
equilibrium growth
form

Large rounded Rounded, usually RGlr Within the snowpack; Grain-to-grain vapour Same as above Same as above
particles elongated particles of dry snow diffusion due to low
size ≥ 0.25 mm; well temperature
x sintered gradients, i.e., mean
excess vapour density
remains below critical
value for kinetic
growth. Large
equilibrium growth
form

Wind packed Small, broken or RGwp Surface layer; Packing and Hardness increases High number of
abraded, closely- dry snow fragmentation of wind with wind speed, contact points and
y packed particles; transported snow decreasing particle small size causes
well sintered particles that round off size and moderate rapid strength
by interaction with temperature increase through
each other in the sintering
saltation layer.
Evolves into either a
hard but usually
breakable wind crust
or a thicker wind slab.
(see notes)

Faceted Rounded, usually RGxf Within the snowpack; Growth regime Grains are changing Reduction in number
rounded particles elongated particles dry snow changes if mean in response to an of bonds may
with developing facets excess vapour density increasing decrease strength
z is larger than critical temperature gradient
value for kinetic
growth. Accordingly,
this transitional form
develops facets as
temperature gradient
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increases
Notes: Both wind crusts and wind slabs are layers of small, broken or abraded, closely packed and well-sintered particles. The former are thin irregular layers whereas the latter are thicker, often dense layers, usually
found on lee slopes. Both types of layers can be represented either as sub-class RGwp or as RGsr along with proper grain size, hardness and/or density. If the grains are smaller than about 1 mm, an observer will need
to consider the process at work to differentiate RGxf from FCxr.

References: [1] Colbeck, 1997

 Morphological classification Additional information on physical processes and strength
Basic classification Subclass Shape Code Place of formation Physical process Dependence on most Common effect on
important parameters strength
Faceted FC Grain-to-grain vapour
diffusion driven by
Crystals large enough
temperature gradient,
i.e., excess vapour
density is above
critical value for
kinetic growth
Solid faceted Solid faceted crystals; FCso Within the snowpack; Solid kinetic growth Growth rate increases Strength decreases
e particles usually hexagonal dry snow form, i.e., a solid with temperature, with increasing growth
prisms crystal with sharp increasing rate and grain size
A edges and corners as temperature gradient,
well as glassy, and decreasing
smooth faces density; may not grow
to larger grains in high
density snow because
of small pores
Near surface faceted Faceted crystals in FCsf Within the snowpack May develop directly Temperature gradient Low strength snow
particles surface layer but right beneath the from Precipitation may periodically
surface; dry snow Particles (PP) or change sign but
B Decomposing and remains at a high
Fragmented particles absolute value
(DFdc) due to large,
near-surface
temperature gradients
[1]
Solid kinetic growth
form (see FCso
above) at early stage
Rounding faceted Faceted crystals with FCxr Within the snowpack; Trend to a transitional Grains are rounding
particles rounding facets and dry snow form reducing its off in response to a
corners specific surface area; decreasing
C corners and edges of temperature gradient
the crystals are
rounding off
Notes: Once buried, FCsf are hard to distinguish from FCso unless the observer is familiar with the evolution of the snowpack.
FCxr can usually be clearly identified for crystals larger than about 1 mm. In case of smaller grains, however, an observer will need to consider the process at work to differentiate FCxr from RGxf.
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References: [1] Birkeland, 1998

 Morphological classification Additional information on physical processes and strength

Basic classification Subclass Shape Code Place of formation Physical process Dependence on most Common effect on
important parameters strength

Depth Hoar DH Grain-to-grain vapour

diffusion driven by large
temperature gradient,
i.e., excess vapour
density is well above
critical value for kinetic
growth.
Hollow cups Striated, hollow DHcp Within the Formation of hollow or See FCso. Usually fragile but
f D skeleton type crystals;
usually cup-shaped
snowpack;
dry snow
partly solid cup-shaped
kinetic growth crystals
strength increases
with density
[1]
Hollow prisms Prismatic, hollow DHpr Within the Snow has completely High recrystallization May be very poorly
skeleton type crystals snowpack; recrystallized; high rate for long period bonded
E with glassy faces but dry snow temperature gradient in and low density snow
few striations low density snow, most facilitates formation
often prolonged [2]

Chains of depth hoar Hollow skeleton type DHch Within the Snow has completely High recrystallization Very fragile snow
crystals arranged in snowpack; recrystallized; rate for long period
F chains dry snow intergranular and low density snow
arrangement in chains; facilitates formation
most of the lateral bonds
between columns have
disappeared during
crystal growth
Large striated Large, heavily striated DHla Within the Evolves from earlier Longer time required Regains strength
crystals crystals; either solid or snowpack; stages described above; than for any other
skeleton type dry snow some bonding occurs as snow crystal; long
G new crystals are initiated periods of large
[2] temperature gradient
in low density snow
are needed
Rounding depth hoar Hollow skeleton type DHxr Within the Trend to a form reducing Grains are rounding May regain strength
crystals with rounding snowpack; its specific surface area; off in response to a
H of sharp edges, dry snow corners and edges of the decreasing
corners, and striations crystals are rounding off; temperature gradient
faces may lose their
relief, i.e., striations and
steps disappear slowly.
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This process affects all

subclasses of depth
hoar
Notes: – DH and FC crystals may also grow in snow with density larger than about 300 kg m-3 such as found in polar snowpacks or wind slabs. These may then be termed ‘hard’ or ‘indurated’ depth hoar [3].
References: [1] Akitaya, 1974; Marbouty, 1980; Fukuzawa & Akitaya, 1993; Baunach et al., 2001; Sokratov, 2001; [2] Sturm & Benson, 1997; [3] Akitaya, 1974; Benson & Sturm, 1993
 Morphological classification Additional information on physical processes and strength
Basic classification Subclass Shape Code Place of formation Physical process Dependence on most Common effect on
important parameters strength
Surface Hoar SH
Surface hoar Striated, usually flat SHsu Usually on cold snow Rapid kinetic growth Both increased Fragile, extremely low
g crystals crystals; sometimes surface relative to air of crystals at the snow cooling of the snow shear strength;
needle-like temperature; surface by rapid surface below air strength may remain
I sometimes on freely transfer of water temperature as well as low for extended
exposed objects vapour from the increasing relative periods when buried in
above the surface atmosphere toward humidity of the air cold dry snow
(see notes) the snow surface; cause growth rate to
snow surface cooled increase.
to below ambient In high water vapour
temperature by gradient fields, e.g.,
radiative cooling near creeks, large
feathery crystals may
develop
Cavity or crevasse Striated, planar or SHcv Cavity hoar is found in Kinetic growth of
hoar hollow skeleton type large voids in the crystals forming
crystals grown in snow, e.g., in the anywhere where a
J cavities; orientation vicinity of tree trunks, cavity, i.e., a large
often random buried bushes [1] cooled space, is
Crevasse hoar is formed or present in
found in any large which water vapour
cooled space such as can be deposited
crevasses, cold under calm, still
storage rooms, conditions [2]
boreholes, etc.
Rounding surface Surface hoar crystal SHxr Within the snowpack; Trend to a form Grains are rounding May regain strength
hoar with rounding of sharp dry snow reducing its specific off in response to a
edges, corners and surface area; corners decreasing
K striations and edges of the temperature gradient
crystals are rounding
off; faces may loose
their relief, i.e.,
striations and steps
disappear slowly
Notes: It may be of interest to note more precisely the shape of hoar crystals, namely plates, cups, scrolls, needles and columns, dendrites, or composite forms [3]. Multi-day growth may also be specified.
Surface hoar may form by advection of nearly saturated air on both freely exposed objects and the snow surface at subfreezing temperatures. This type of hoarfrost deposit makes up a substantial part of
accumulation in the inland of Antarctica. It has been termed 'air hoar’ (see [2] and AMS, 2000).
Crevasse hoar crystals are very similar to depth hoar.
References: [1] Akitaya, 1974; [2] Seligman, 1936; [3] Jamieson & Schweizer, 2000
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 Morphological classification Additional information on physical processes and strength

Basic classification Subclass Shape Code Place of formation Physical process Dependence on most Common effect on
important parameters strength

Melt Forms MF .

Clustered rounded Clustered rounded MFcl At the surface or Wet snow at low Meltwater can drain; Ice-to-ice bonds give
h grains crystals held by large
ice-to-ice bonds;
within the snowpack;
wet snow
water content
(pendular regime),
too much water leads
to MFsl; first freezing
strength
L water in internal veins i.e., holding free liquid leads to MFpc
among three crystals water; clusters form to
or two grain minimize surface free
boundaries energy

Rounded Individual crystals are MFpc At the surface or Melt-freeze cycles Particle size increases High strength in the
polycrystals frozen into a solid within the snowpack form polycrystals with number of melt- frozen state; lower
polycrystalline when water in veins freeze cycles; strength in the wet
M particle, either wet or freezes; either wet at radiation penetration state; strength
refrozen low water content may restore MFcl; increases with
(pendular regime) or excess water leads to number of melt-freeze
refrozen MFsl cycles

Slush Separated rounded MFsl Water saturated, Wet snow at high Water drainage Little strength due to
particles completely soaked snow; found liquid water content blocked by capillary decaying bonds
N immersed in water within the snowpack, (funicular regime); barrier, impermeable
on land or ice poorly bonded, fully layer or ground; high
surfaces, but also as rounded single energy input to the
a viscous floating crystals – and snowpack by solar
mass in water after polycrystals – form as radiation, high air
heavy snowfall. ice and water are in temperature or water
thermodynamic input (rain)
equilibrium
Melt-freeze crust Crust of recognizable MFcr At the surface Crust of melt-freeze Particle size and Strength increases
melt-freeze polycrystals from a density increases with with number of melt-
Oh polycrystals surface layer of wet number of melt-freeze freeze cycles
snow that refroze after cycles
having been wetted
by melt or rainfall;
found either wet or
refrozen
Notes: Melt-freeze crusts MFcr form at the surface as layers at most a few centimetres thick, usually on top of a subfreezing snowpack. Rounded polycrystals MFpc will rather form within the snowpack. MFcr usually
contain more refrozen water than MFpc and will not return to MFcl.
Both MFcr and MFpc may contain a recognizable minority of other shapes, particularly large kinetic growth form FC and DH. See the guidelines (Appendix C) for examples on the use of the MFcr symbol.
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 Morphological classification Additional information on physical processes and strength
Basic classification Subclass Shape Code Place of formation Physical process Dependence on most Common effect on
important parameters strength
Ice IF
Formations
Ice layer Horizontal ice layer IFil Within the snowpack Rain or meltwater from the Depends on timing of Ice layers are strong
i surface percolates into cold snow percolating water and but strength decays
P where it refreezes along layer- cycles of melting and once snow is
parallel capillary barriers by heat refreezing; more likely completely wetted
conduction into surrounding to occur if a
subfreezing snow, i.e., snow at T stratification of fine
< 0 °C; ice layers usually retain over coarse-grained
some degree of permeability layers exists
Ice column Vertical ice body IFic Within snowpack Draining water within flow fingers Flow fingers more
layers freezes by heat conduction into likely to occur if snow
Q surrounding subfreezing snow, is highly stratified;
i.e., snow at T < 0 °C freezing enhanced if
snow is very cold
Basal ice Basal ice layer IFbi Base of snowpack Melt water ponds above substrate Formation enhanced if Weak slush layer may
and freezes by heat conduction substrate is form on top
R into cold substrate impermeable and very
cold, e.g., permafrost
Rain crust Thin, transparent IFrc At the surface Results from freezing rain on Droplets have to be Thin breakable crust
glaze or clear film of snow; forms a thin surface glaze supercooled but
S ice on the surface coalesce before
freezing
Sun crust, Thin, transparent and IFsc At the surface Melt water from a surface snow Builds during clear Thin breakable crust
Firnspiegel shiny glaze or clear layer refreezes at the surface due weather, air
film of ice on the to radiative cooling; decreasing temperatures below
T surface shortwave absorption in the freezing and strong
forming glaze enhances solar radiation; not to
greenhouse effect in the be confused with melt
underlying snow; additional water -freeze crust MFcr
vapour may condense below the
glaze [1]
Notes: In ice formations, pores usually do not connect and no individual grains or particles are recognizable, contrary to highly porous snow. Nevertheless, some permeability remains, in particular when wetted, but to
much a lesser degree than for porous melt forms.
Most often, rain and solar radiation cause the formation of melt-freeze crusts MFcr.
Discontinuous ice bodies such as ice lenses or refrozen flow fingers can be identified by appropriate remarks (see Appendix C.2).
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References: [1] Ozeki & Akitaya, 1998