System Analysis and Design

Systems development is systematic process which includes phases such

as planning, analysis, design, deployment, and maintenance. we will
primarily focus on −

 Systems analysis

 Systems design

Systems Analysis
It is a process of collecting and interpreting facts, identifying the
problems, and decomposition of a system into its components.

System analysis is conducted for the purpose of studying a system or its

parts in order to identify its objectives. It is a problem solving technique
that improves the system and ensures that all the components of the
system work efficiently to accomplish their purpose.

Analysis specifies what the system should do.

Systems Design
It is a process of planning a new business system or replacing an existing
system by defining its components or modules to satisfy the specific
requirements. Before planning, you need to understand the old system
thoroughly and determine how computers can best be used in order to
operate efficiently.

System Design focuses on how to accomplish the objective of the

system.

System Analysis and Design (SAD) mainly focuses on −

 Systems

 Processes

 Technology

What is a System?
The word System is derived from Greek word Systema, which means an
organized relationship between any set of components to achieve some
common cause or objective.
A system is “an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked
together according to a plan to achieve a specific goal.”

Constraints of a System
A system must have three basic constraints −

 A system must have some structure and behavior which is designed to

achieve a predefined objective.

 Interconnectivity and interdependence must exist among the system

components.

 The objectives of the organization have a higher priority than the

objectives of its subsystems.

For example, traffic management system, payroll system, automatic

library system, human resources information system.

Properties of a System
A system has the following properties −

Organization
Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of
components that helps to achieve predetermined objectives.

Interaction
It is defined by the manner in which the components operate with each
other.

For example, in an organization, purchasing department must interact

with production department and payroll with personnel department.

Interdependence
Interdependence means how the components of a system depend on one
another. For proper functioning, the components are coordinated and
linked together according to a specified plan. The output of one
subsystem is the required by other subsystem as input.

Integration
Integration is concerned with how system components are connected
together. It means that the parts of the system work together within the
system even if each part performs a unique function.

Central Objective
The objective of system must be central. It may be real or stated. It is
not uncommon for an organization to state an objective and operate to
achieve another.

The users must know the main objective of a computer application early
in the analysis for a successful design and conversion.

Elements of a System
The following diagram shows the elements of a system −

Outputs and Inputs

 The main aim of a system is to produce an output which is useful for its user.

 Inputs are the information that enters into the system for processing.

 Output is the outcome of processing.

Processor(s)
 The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual
transformation of input into output.
  It is the operational component of a system. Processors may modify the input
either totally or partially, depending on the output specification.

 As the output specifications change, so does the processing. In some cases,

input is also modified to enable the processor for handling the
transformation.

Control
 The control element guides the system.

 It is the decision–making subsystem that controls the pattern of activities

governing input, processing, and output.

 The behaviour of a computer System is controlled by the Operating System

and software. In order to keep system in balance, what and how much input
is needed is determined by Output Specifications.

Feedback
 Feedback provides the control in a dynamic system.

 Positive feedback is routine in nature that encourages the performance of the

system.

 Negative feedback is informational in nature that provides the controller with

information for action.

Environment
 The environment is the “supersystem” within which an organization operates.

 It is the source of external elements that strike on the system.

 It determines how a system must function. For example, vendors and

competitors of organization’s environment, may provide constraints that
affect the actual performance of the business.

Boundaries and Interface

 A system should be defined by its boundaries. Boundaries are the limits that
identify its components, processes, and interrelationship when it interfaces
with another system.

 Each system has boundaries that determine its sphere of influence and
control.
  The knowledge of the boundaries of a given system is crucial in determining
the nature of its interface with other systems for successful design.

Types of Systems
The systems can be divided into the following types −

Physical or Abstract Systems

 Physical systems are tangible entities. We can touch and feel them.

 Physical System may be static or dynamic in nature. For example, desks and
chairs are the physical parts of computer center which are static. A
programmed computer is a dynamic system in which programs, data, and
applications can change according to the user's needs.

 Abstract systems are non-physical entities or conceptual that may be

formulas, representation or model of a real system.

Open or Closed Systems

 An open system must interact with its environment. It receives inputs from
and delivers outputs to the outside of the system. For example, an
information system which must adapt to the changing environmental
conditions.

 A closed system does not interact with its environment. It is isolated from
environmental influences. A completely closed system is rare in reality.

Adaptive and Non Adaptive System

 Adaptive System responds to the change in the environment in a way to
improve their performance and to survive. For example, human beings,
animals.

 Non Adaptive System is the system which does not respond to the
environment. For example, machines.

Permanent or Temporary System

 Permanent System persists for long time. For example, business policies.

 Temporary System is made for specified time and after that they are
demolished. For example, A DJ system is set up for a program and it is
dissembled after the program.
Natural and Manufactured System
 Natural systems are created by the nature. For example, Solar system,
seasonal system.

 Manufactured System is the man-made system. For example, Rockets, dams,

trains.

Deterministic or Probabilistic System

 Deterministic system operates in a predictable manner and the interaction
between system components is known with certainty. For example, two
molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen makes water.

 Probabilistic System shows uncertain behavior. The exact output is not

known. For example, Weather forecasting, mail delivery.

Social, Human-Machine, Machine System

 Social System is made up of people. For example, social clubs, societies.

 In Human-Machine System, both human and machines are involved to

perform a particular task. For example, Computer programming.

 Machine System is where human interference is neglected. All the tasks are
performed by the machine. For example, an autonomous robot.

Man–Made Information Systems

 It is an interconnected set of information resources to manage data for
particular organization, under Direct Management Control (DMC).

 This system includes hardware, software, communication, data, and

application for producing information according to the need of an
organization.

Man-made information systems are divided into three types −

 Formal Information System − It is based on the flow of information in the

form of memos, instructions, etc., from top level to lower levels of
management.

 Informal Information System − This is employee based system which

solves the day to day work related problems.
  Computer Based System − This system is directly dependent on the
computer for managing business applications. For example, automatic library
system, railway reservation system, banking system, etc.

Systems Models
Schematic Models
 A schematic model is a 2-D chart that shows system elements and their
linkages.

 Different arrows are used to show information flow, material flow, and
information feedback.

Flow System Models

 A flow system model shows the orderly flow of the material, energy, and
information that hold the system together.

 Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), for example, is used to

abstract a real world system in model form.

Static System Models

 They represent one pair of relationships such as activity–time or cost–
quantity.

 The Gantt chart, for example, gives a static picture of an activity-time

relationship.

Dynamic System Models

 Business organizations are dynamic systems. A dynamic model approximates
the type of organization or application that analysts deal with.

 It shows an ongoing, constantly changing status of the system. It consists of

−

o Inputs that enter the system

o The processor through which transformation takes place

o The program(s) required for processing

o The output(s) that result from processing.

Categories of Information
There are three categories of information related to managerial levels
and the decision managers make.

Strategic Information
 This information is required by topmost management for long range planning
policies for next few years. For example, trends in revenues, financial
investment, and human resources, and population growth.

 This type of information is achieved with the aid of Decision Support System
(DSS).

Managerial Information
 This type of Information is required by middle management for short and
intermediate range planning which is in terms of months. For example, sales
analysis, cash flow projection, and annual financial statements.

 It is achieved with the aid of Management Information Systems (MIS).

Operational information
 This type of information is required by low management for daily and short
term planning to enforce day-to-day operational activities. For example,
keeping employee attendance records, overdue purchase orders, and current
stocks available.

 It is achieved with the aid of Data Processing Systems (DPS).

 System Development Life Cycle
An effective System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) should result in a
high quality system that meets customer expectations, reaches
completion within time and cost evaluations, and works effectively and
efficiently in the current and planned Information Technology
infrastructure.

System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual model which

includes policies and procedures for developing or altering systems
throughout their life cycles.

SDLC is used by analysts to develop an information system. SDLC

includes the following activities −

 requirements

 design

 implementation

 testing

 deployment

 operations

 maintenance

Phases of SDLC
Systems Development Life Cycle is a systematic approach which
explicitly breaks down the work into phases that are required to
implement either new or modified Information System.
Feasibility Study or Planning
 Define the problem and scope of existing system.

 Overview the new system and determine its objectives.

 Confirm project feasibility and produce the project Schedule.

 During this phase, threats, constraints, integration and security of system are
also considered.

 A feasibility report for the entire project is created at the end of this phase.

Analysis and Specification

 Gather, analyze, and validate the information.

 Define the requirements and prototypes for new system.

 Evaluate the alternatives and prioritize the requirements.

  Examine the information needs of end-user and enhances the system goal.

 A Software Requirement Specification (SRS) document, which specifies the

software, hardware, functional, and network requirements of the system is
prepared at the end of this phase.

System Design
 Includes the design of application, network, databases, user interfaces, and
system interfaces.

 Transform the SRS document into logical structure, which contains detailed
and complete set of specifications that can be implemented in a
programming language.

 Create a contingency, training, maintenance, and operation plan.

 Review the proposed design. Ensure that the final design must meet the
requirements stated in SRS document.

 Finally, prepare a design document which will be used during next phases.

Implementation
 Implement the design into source code through coding.

 Combine all the modules together into training environment that detects
errors and defects.

 A test report which contains errors is prepared through test plan that
includes test related tasks such as test case generation, testing criteria, and
resource allocation for testing.

 Integrate the information system into its environment and install the new
system.

Maintenance/Support
 Include all the activities such as phone support or physical on-site support for
users that is required once the system is installing.

 Implement the changes that software might undergo over a period of time,
or implement any new requirements after the software is deployed at the
customer location.
  It also includes handling the residual errors and resolve any issues that may
exist in the system even after the testing phase.

 Maintenance and support may be needed for a longer time for large systems
and for a short time for smaller systems.

Life Cycle of System Analysis and Design

The following diagram shows the complete life cycle of the system during
analysis and design phase.

Role of System Analyst

The system analyst is a person who is thoroughly aware of the system
and guides the system development project by giving proper directions.
He is an expert having technical and interpersonal skills to carry out
development tasks required at each phase.

He pursues to match the objectives of information system with the

organization goal.

Main Roles
 Defining and understanding the requirement of user through various Fact
finding techniques.

 Prioritizing the requirements by obtaining user consensus.

  Gathering the facts or information and acquires the opinions of users.

 Maintains analysis and evaluation to arrive at appropriate system which is

more user friendly.

 Suggests many flexible alternative solutions, pick the best solution, and
quantify cost and benefits.

 Draw certain specifications which are easily understood by users and

programmer in precise and detailed form.

 Implemented the logical design of system which must be modular.

 Plan the periodicity for evaluation after it has been used for some time, and
modify the system as needed.

Attributes of a Systems Analyst

The following figure shows the attributes a systems analyst should
possess −
Interpersonal Skills

 Interface with users and programmer.

 Facilitate groups and lead smaller teams.

 Managing expectations.

 Good understanding, communication, selling and teaching abilities.

 Motivator having the confidence to solve queries.

Analytical Skills

 System study and organizational knowledge

 Problem identification, problem analysis, and problem solving

 Sound commonsense

 Ability to access trade-off

 Curiosity to learn about new organization

Management Skills

 Understand users jargon and practices.

 Resource & project management.

 Change & risk management.

 Understand the management functions thoroughly.

Technical Skills

 Knowledge of computers and software.

 Keep abreast of modern development.

 Know of system design tools.

 Breadth knowledge about new technologies.

System Analysis & Design - System

Planning
What is Requirements Determination?
A requirement is a vital feature of a new system which may include
processing or capturing of data, controlling the activities of business,
producing information and supporting the management.
Requirements determination involves studying the existing system and
gathering details to find out what are the requirements, how it works,
and where improvements should be made.

Major Activities in requirement Determination

Requirements Anticipation
 It predicts the characteristics of system based on previous experience which
include certain problems or features and requirements for a new system.

 It can lead to analysis of areas that would otherwise go unnoticed by

inexperienced analyst. But if shortcuts are taken and bias is introduced in
conducting the investigation, then requirement Anticipation can be half-
baked.

Requirements Investigation
 It is studying the current system and documenting its features for further
analysis.

 It is at the heart of system analysis where analyst documenting and

describing system features using fact-finding techniques, prototyping, and
computer assisted tools.

Requirements Specifications
 It includes the analysis of data which determine the requirement
specification, description of features for new system, and specifying what
information requirements will be provided.

 It includes analysis of factual data, identification of essential requirements,

and selection of Requirement-fulfilment strategies.

Information Gathering Techniques

The main aim of fact finding techniques is to determine the information
requirements of an organization used by analysts to prepare a precise
SRS understood by user.

Ideal SRS Document should −

 be complete, Unambiguous, and Jargon-free.

 specify operational, tactical, and strategic information requirements.

  solve possible disputes between users and analyst.

 use graphical aids which simplify understanding and design.

There are various information gathering techniques −

Interviewing
Systems analyst collects information from individuals or groups by
interviewing. The analyst can be formal, legalistic, play politics, or be
informal; as the success of an interview depends on the skill of analyst
as interviewer.

It can be done in two ways −

 Unstructured Interview − The system analyst conducts question-answer

session to acquire basic information of the system.

 Structured Interview − It has standard questions which user need to

respond in either close (objective) or open (descriptive) format.

Advantages of Interviewing

 This method is frequently the best source of gathering qualitative

information.

 It is useful for them, who do not communicate effectively in writing or who

may not have the time to complete questionnaire.

 Information can easily be validated and cross checked immediately.

 It can handle the complex subjects.

 It is easy to discover key problem by seeking opinions.

 It bridges the gaps in the areas of misunderstandings and minimizes future

problems.

Questionnaires
This method is used by analyst to gather information about various
issues of system from large number of persons.

There are two types of questionnaires −

  Open-ended Questionnaires − It consists of questions that can be easily
and correctly interpreted. They can explore a problem and lead to a specific
direction of answer.

 Closed-ended Questionnaires − It consists of questions that are used

when the systems analyst effectively lists all possible responses, which are
mutually exclusive.

Advantages of questionnaires

 It is very effective in surveying interests, attitudes, feelings, and beliefs of

users which are not co-located.

 It is useful in situation to know what proportion of a given group approves or

disapproves of a particular feature of the proposed system.

 It is useful to determine the overall opinion before giving any specific

direction to the system project.

 It is more reliable and provides high confidentiality of honest responses.

 It is appropriate for electing factual information and for statistical data

collection which can be emailed and sent by post.

Review of Records, Procedures, and Forms

Review of existing records, procedures, and forms helps to seek insight
into a system which describes the current system capabilities, its
operations, or activities.

Advantages

 It helps user to gain some knowledge about the organization or operations by

themselves before they impose upon others.

 It helps in documenting current operations within short span of time as the

procedure manuals and forms describe the format and functions of present
system.

 It can provide a clear understanding about the transactions that are handled
in the organization, identifying input for processing, and evaluating
performance.
  It can help an analyst to understand the system in terms of the operations
that must be supported.

 It describes the problem, its affected parts, and the proposed solution.

Observation
This is a method of gathering information by noticing and observing the
people, events, and objects. The analyst visits the organization to
observe the working of current system and understands the
requirements of the system.

Advantages

 It is a direct method for gleaning information.

 It is useful in situation where authenticity of data collected is in question or

when complexity of certain aspects of system prevents clear explanation by
end-users.

 It produces more accurate and reliable data.

 It produces all the aspect of documentation that are incomplete and

outdated.

Joint Application Development (JAD)

It is a new technique developed by IBM which brings owners, users,
analysts, designers, and builders to define and design the system using
organized and intensive workshops. JAD trained analyst act as facilitator
for workshop who has some specialized skills.

Advantages of JAD

 It saves time and cost by replacing months of traditional interviews and

follow-up meetings.

 It is useful in organizational culture which supports joint problem solving.

 Fosters formal relationships among multiple levels of employees.

 It can lead to development of design creatively.

 It Allows rapid development and improves ownership of information system.

Secondary Research or Background Reading
This method is widely used for information gathering by accessing the
gleaned information. It includes any previously gathered information
used by the marketer from any internal or external source.

Advantages

 It is more openly accessed with the availability of internet.

 It provides valuable information with low cost and time.

 It act as forerunner to primary research and aligns the focus of primary

research.

 It is used by the researcher to conclude if the research is worth it as it is

available with procedures used and issues in collecting them.

Feasibility Study
Feasibility Study can be considered as preliminary investigation that
helps the management to take decision about whether study of system
should be feasible for development or not.

 It identifies the possibility of improving an existing system, developing a new

system, and produce refined estimates for further development of system.

 It is used to obtain the outline of the problem and decide whether feasible or
appropriate solution exists or not.

 The main objective of a feasibility study is to acquire problem scope instead

of solving the problem.

 The output of a feasibility study is a formal system proposal act as decision

document which includes the complete nature and scope of the proposed
system.

Steps Involved in Feasibility Analysis

The following steps are to be followed while performing feasibility
analysis −

 Form a project team and appoint a project leader.

  Develop system flowcharts.

 Identify the deficiencies of current system and set goals.

 Enumerate the alternative solution or potential candidate system to meet

goals.

 Determine the feasibility of each alternative such as technical feasibility,

operational feasibility, etc.

 Weight the performance and cost effectiveness of each candidate system.

 Rank the other alternatives and select the best candidate system.

 Prepare a system proposal of final project directive to management for

approval.

Types of Feasibilities
Economic Feasibility
 It is evaluating the effectiveness of candidate system by using cost/benefit
analysis method.

 It demonstrates the net benefit from the candidate system in terms of

benefits and costs to the organization.

 The main aim of Economic Feasibility Analysis (EFS) is to estimate the

economic requirements of candidate system before investments funds are
committed to proposal.

 It prefers the alternative which will maximize the net worth of organization
by earliest and highest return of funds along with lowest level of risk
involved in developing the candidate system.
Technical Feasibility
 It investigates the technical feasibility of each implementation alternative.

 It analyzes and determines whether the solution can be supported by existing

technology or not.

 The analyst determines whether current technical resources be upgraded or

added it that fulfil the new requirements.

 It ensures that the candidate system provides appropriate responses to what

extent it can support the technical enhancement.

Operational Feasibility
 It determines whether the system is operating effectively once it is developed
and implemented.

 It ensures that the management should support the proposed system and its
working feasible in the current organizational environment.

 It analyzes whether the users will be affected and they accept the modified
or new business methods that affect the possible system benefits.

 It also ensures that the computer resources and network architecture of

candidate system are workable.

Behavioural Feasibility
 It evaluates and estimates the user attitude or behaviour towards the
development of new system.

 It helps in determining if the system requires special effort to educate,

retrain, transfer, and changes in employee’s job status on new ways of
conducting business.

Schedule Feasibility
 It ensures that the project should be completed within given time constraint
or schedule.

 It also verifies and validates whether the deadlines of project are reasonable
or not.

Structured Analysis
Analysts use various tools to understand and describe the information
system. One of the ways is using structured analysis.

What is Structured Analysis?

Structured Analysis is a development method that allows the analyst to
understand the system and its activities in a logical way.

It is a systematic approach, which uses graphical tools that analyze and

refine the objectives of an existing system and develop a new system
specification which can be easily understandable by user.

It has following attributes −

 It is graphic which specifies the presentation of application.

 It divides the processes so that it gives a clear picture of system flow.

 It is logical rather than physical i.e., the elements of system do not depend
on vendor or hardware.

 It is an approach that works from high-level overviews to lower-level details.

Structured Analysis Tools

During Structured Analysis, various tools and techniques are used for
system development. They are −

 Data Flow Diagrams

 Data Dictionary

 Decision Trees

 Decision Tables

 Structured English

 Pseudocode
Data Flow Diagrams (DFD) or Bubble Chart
It is a technique developed by Larry Constantine to express the
requirements of system in a graphical form.

 It shows the flow of data between various functions of system and specifies
how the current system is implemented.

 It is an initial stage of design phase that functionally divides the requirement

specifications down to the lowest level of detail.

 Its graphical nature makes it a good communication tool between user and
analyst or analyst and system designer.

 It gives an overview of what data a system processes, what transformations

are performed, what data are stored, what results are produced and where
they flow.

Basic Elements of DFD

DFD is easy to understand and quite effective when the required design
is not clear and the user wants a notational language for communication.
However, it requires a large number of iterations for obtaining the most
accurate and complete solution.

The following table shows the symbols used in designing a DFD and their
significance −
 Symbol Name Symbol Meaning

Square Source or Destination of Data

Arrow Data flow

Circle Process transforming data flow

Open Rectangle Data Store

Types of DFD
DFDs are of two types: Physical DFD and Logical DFD. The following table
lists the points that differentiate a physical DFD from a logical DFD.

Physical DFD Logical DFD

It is implementation dependent. It It is implementation independent. It

shows which functions are performed. focuses only on the flow of data between
processes.

It provides low level details of It explains events of systems and data

hardware, software, files, and people. required by each event.

It depicts how the current system It shows how business operates; not how
operates and how a system will be the system can be implemented.
implemented.

Context Diagram
A context diagram helps in understanding the entire system by one DFD
which gives the overview of a system. It starts with mentioning major
processes with little details and then goes onto giving more details of the
processes with the top-down approach.

The context diagram of mess management is shown below.

Data Dictionary
A data dictionary is a structured repository of data elements in the
system. It stores the descriptions of all DFD data elements that is, details
and definitions of data flows, data stores, data stored in data stores, and
the processes.

A data dictionary improves the communication between the analyst and

the user. It plays an important role in building a database. Most DBMSs
have a data dictionary as a standard feature. For example, refer the
following table −

[Link]. Data Name Description No. of Characters

1 ISBN ISBN Number 10

2 TITLE title 60

3 SUB Book Subjects 80

4 ANAME Author Name 15

Decision Trees
Decision trees are a method for defining complex relationships by
describing decisions and avoiding the problems in communication. A
decision tree is a diagram that shows alternative actions and conditions
within horizontal tree framework. Thus, it depicts which conditions to
consider first, second, and so on.

Decision trees depict the relationship of each condition and their

permissible actions. A square node indicates an action and a circle
indicates a condition. It forces analysts to consider the sequence of
decisions and identifies the actual decision that must be made.

The major limitation of a decision tree is that it lacks information in its

format to describe what other combinations of conditions you can take
for testing. It is a single representation of the relationships between
conditions and actions.

For example, refer the following decision tree −

Decision Tables
Decision tables are a method of describing the complex logical
relationship in a precise manner which is easily understandable.

 It is useful in situations where the resulting actions depend on the occurrence

of one or several combinations of independent conditions.

 It is a matrix containing row or columns for defining a problem and the

actions.

Components of a Decision Table

 Condition Stub − It is in the upper left quadrant which lists all the condition
to be checked.

 Action Stub − It is in the lower left quadrant which outlines all the action to
be carried out to meet such condition.

 Condition Entry − It is in upper right quadrant which provides answers to

questions asked in condition stub quadrant.

 Action Entry − It is in lower right quadrant which indicates the appropriate

action resulting from the answers to the conditions in the condition entry
quadrant.

The entries in decision table are given by Decision Rules which define the
relationships between combinations of conditions and courses of action.
In rules section,

 Y shows the existence of a condition.

 N represents the condition, which is not satisfied.

 A blank - against action states it is to be ignored.

 X (or a check mark will do) against action states it is to be carried out.

For example, refer the following table −

CONDITIONS Rule 1 Rule 2 Rule 3 Rule 4

Advance payment made Y N N N

Purchase amount = Rs - Y Y N
10,000/-
 Regular Customer - Y N -

ACTIONS

Give 5% discount X X - -

Give no discount - - X X

Structured English
Structure English is derived from structured programming language
which gives more understandable and precise description of process. It is
based on procedural logic that uses construction and imperative
sentences designed to perform operation for action.

 It is best used when sequences and loops in a program must be considered

and the problem needs sequences of actions with decisions.

 It does not have strict syntax rule. It expresses all logic in terms of
sequential decision structures and iterations.

For example, see the following sequence of actions −

if customer pays advance

then
Give 5% Discount
else
if purchase amount >=10,000
then
if the customer is a regular customer
then Give 5% Discount
else No Discount
end if
else No Discount
end if
end if

Pseudocode
A pseudocode does not conform to any programming language and
expresses logic in plain English.

 It may specify the physical programming logic without actual coding during
and after the physical design.

 It is used in conjunction with structured programming.

 It replaces the flowcharts of a program.

Guidelines for Selecting Appropriate Tools

Use the following guidelines for selecting the most appropriate tool that
would suit your requirements −

 Use DFD at high or low level analysis for providing good system
documentations.

 Use data dictionary to simplify the structure for meeting the data
requirement of the system.

 Use structured English if there are many loops and actions are complex.

 Use decision tables when there are a large number of conditions to check and
logic is complex.

 Use decision trees when sequencing of conditions is important and if there

are few conditions to be tested.

System Analysis & Design - System

Design
System design is the phase that bridges the gap between problem
domain and the existing system in a manageable way. This phase
focuses on the solution domain, i.e. “how to implement?”

It is the phase where the SRS document is converted into a format that
can be implemented and decides how the system will operate.

In this phase, the complex activity of system development is divided into

several smaller sub-activities, which coordinate with each other to
achieve the main objective of system development.
Inputs to System Design
System design takes the following inputs −

 Statement of work

 Requirement determination plan

 Current situation analysis

 Proposed system requirements including a conceptual data model, modified

DFDs, and Metadata (data about data).

Outputs for System Design

System design gives the following outputs −

 Infrastructure and organizational changes for the proposed system.

 A data schema, often a relational schema.

 Metadata to define the tables/files and columns/data-items.

 A function hierarchy diagram or web page map that graphically describes the
program structure.

 Actual or pseudocode for each module in the program.

  A prototype for the proposed system.

Types of System Design

Logical Design
Logical design pertains to an abstract representation of the data flow,
inputs, and outputs of the system. It describes the inputs (sources),
outputs (destinations), databases (data stores), procedures (data flows)
all in a format that meets the user requirements.

While preparing the logical design of a system, the system analyst

specifies the user needs at level of detail that virtually determines the
information flow into and out of the system and the required data
sources. Data flow diagram, E-R diagram modeling are used.

Physical Design
Physical design relates to the actual input and output processes of the
system. It focuses on how data is entered into a system, verified,
processed, and displayed as output.

It produces the working system by defining the design specification that

specifies exactly what the candidate system does. It is concerned with
user interface design, process design, and data design.

It consists of the following steps −

 Specifying the input/output media, designing the database, and specifying

backup procedures.

 Planning system implementation.

 Devising a test and implementation plan, and specifying any new hardware
and software.

 Updating costs, benefits, conversion dates, and system constraints.

Architectural Design
It is also known as high level design that focuses on the design of system
architecture. It describes the structure and behaviour of the system. It
defines the structure and relationship between various modules of
system development process.
Detailed Design
It follows Architectural design and focuses on development of each
module.

Conceptual Data Modelling

It is representation of organizational data which includes all the major
entities and relationship. System analysts develop a conceptual data
model for the current system that supports the scope and requirement
for the proposed system.

The main aim of conceptual data modelling is to capture as much

meaning of data as possible. Most organization today use conceptual
data modelling using E-R model which uses special notation to represent
as much meaning about data as possible.

Entity Relationship Model

It is a technique used in database design that helps describe the
relationship between various entities of an organization.

Terms used in E-R model

 ENTITY − It specifies distinct real world items in an application. For
example: vendor, item, student, course, teachers, etc.

 RELATIONSHIP − They are the meaningful dependencies between entities.

For example, vendor supplies items, teacher teaches courses, then supplies
and course are relationship.

 ATTRIBUTES − It specifies the properties of relationships. For example,

vendor code, student name. Symbols used in E-R model and their respective
meanings −

The following table shows the symbols used in E-R model and their
significance −

Symbol Meaning

Entity
 Weak Entity

Relationship

Identity Relationship

Attributes

Key Attributes

Multivalued

Composite Attribute

Derived Attributes
 Total Participation of E2 in R

Cardinality Ratio 1:N for E1:E2

in R

Three types of relationships can exist between two sets of data: one-to-
one, one-to-many, and many-to-many.

File Organization
It describes how records are stored within a file.

There are four file organization methods −

 Serial − Records are stored in chronological order (in order as they are input
or occur). Examples − Recording of telephone charges, ATM transactions,
Telephone queues.

 Sequential − Records are stored in order based on a key field which

contains a value that uniquely identifies a record. Examples − Phone
directories.

 Direct (relative) − Each record is stored based on a physical address or

location on the device. Address is calculated from the value stored in the
record’s key field. Randomizing routine or hashing algorithm does the
conversion.

 Indexed − Records can be processed both sequentially and non-sequentially

using indexes.

Comparison
File Access
One can access a file using either Sequential Access or Random Access.
File Access methods allow computer programs read or write records in a
file.

Sequential Access
Every record on the file is processed starting with the first record until
End of File (EOF) is reached. It is efficient when a large number of the
records on the file need to be accessed at any given time. Data stored on
a tape (sequential access) can be accessed only sequentially.

Direct (Random) Access

Records are located by knowing their physical locations or addresses on
the device rather than their positions relative to other records. Data
stored on a CD device (direct-access) can be accessed either sequentially
or randomly.

Types of Files used in an Organization System

Following are the types of files used in an organization system −

 Master file − It contains the current information for a system. For example,
customer file, student file, telephone directory.
  Table file − It is a type of master file that changes infrequently and stored
in a tabular format. For example, storing Zip code.

 Transaction file − It contains the day-to-day information generated from

business activities. It is used to update or process the master file. For
example, Addresses of the employees.

 Temporary file − It is created and used whenever needed by a system.

 Mirror file − They are the exact duplicates of other files. Help minimize the
risk of downtime in cases when the original becomes unusable. They must be
modified each time the original file is changed.

 Log files − They contain copies of master and transaction records in order to
chronicle any changes that are made to the master file. It facilitates auditing
and provides mechanism for recovery in case of system failure.

 Archive files − Backup files that contain historical versions of other files.

Documentation Control
Documentation is a process of recording the information for any
reference or operational purpose. It helps users, managers, and IT staff,
who require it. It is important that prepared document must be updated
on regular basis to trace the progress of the system easily.

After the implementation of system if the system is working improperly,

then documentation helps the administrator to understand the flow of
data in the system to correct the flaws and get the system working.

Programmers or systems analysts usually create program and system

documentation. Systems analysts usually are responsible for preparing
documentation to help users learn the system. In large companies, a
technical support team that includes technical writers might assist in the
preparation of user documentation and training materials.

Advantages
 It can reduce system downtime, cut costs, and speed up maintenance tasks.

 It provides the clear description of formal flow of present system and helps to
understand the type of input data and how the output can be produced.
  It provides effective and efficient way of communication between technical
and nontechnical users about system.

 It facilitates the training of new user so that he can easily understand the
flow of system.

 It helps the user to solve the problems such as troubleshooting and helps the
manager to take better final decisions of the organization system.

 It provides better control to the internal or external working of the system.

Types of Documentations
When it comes to System Design, there are following four main
documentations −

 Program documentation

 System documentation

 Operations documentation

 User documentation

Program Documentation
 It describes inputs, outputs, and processing logic for all the program
modules.

 The program documentation process starts in the system analysis phase and
continues during implementation.

 This documentation guides programmers, who construct modules that are

well supported by internal and external comments and descriptions that can
be understood and maintained easily.

Operations Documentation
Operations documentation contains all the information needed for
processing and distributing online and printed output. Operations
documentation should be clear, concise, and available online if possible.

It includes the following information −

 Program, systems analyst, programmer, and system identification.

  Scheduling information for printed output, such as report, execution
frequency, and deadlines.

 Input files, their source, output files, and their destinations.

 E-mail and report distribution lists.

 Special forms required, including online forms.

 Error and informational messages to operators and restart procedures.

 Special instructions, such as security requirements.

User Documentation
It includes instructions and information to the users who will interact with
the system. For example, user manuals, help guides, and tutorials. User
documentation is valuable in training users and for reference purpose. It
must be clear, understandable, and readily accessible to users at all
levels.

The users, system owners, analysts, and programmers, all put combined
efforts to develop a user’s guide.

A user documentation should include −

 A system overview that clearly describes all major system features,

capabilities, and limitations.

 Description of source document content, preparation, processing, and,

samples.

 Overview of menu and data entry screen options, contents, and processing
instructions.

 Examples of reports that are produced regularly or available at the user’s

request, including samples.

 Security and audit trail information.

 Explanation of responsibility for specific input, output, or processing

requirements.

 Procedures for requesting changes and reporting problems.

  Examples of exceptions and error situations.

 Frequently asked questions (FAQs).

 Explanation of how to get help and procedures for updating the user manual.

System Documentation
System documentation serves as the technical specifications for the IS
and how the objectives of the IS are accomplished. Users, managers and
IS owners need never reference system documentation. System
documentation provides the basis for understanding the technical aspects
of the IS when modifications are made.

 It describes each program within the IS and the entire IS itself.

 It describes the system’s functions, the way they are implemented, each
program's purpose within the entire IS with respect to the order of
execution, information passed to and from programs, and overall system
flow.

 It includes data dictionary entries, data flow diagrams, object models, screen
layouts, source documents, and the systems request that initiated the
project.

 Most of the system documentation is prepared during the system analysis

and system design phases.

 During systems implementation, an analyst must review system

documentation to verify that it is complete, accurate, and up-to-date, and
including any changes made during the implementation process.

Design Strategies
Top-Down Strategy
The top-down strategy uses the modular approach to develop the design
of a system. It is called so because it starts from the top or the highest-
level module and moves towards the lowest level modules.

In this technique, the highest-level module or main module for

developing the software is identified. The main module is divided into
several smaller and simpler submodules or segments based on the task
performed by each module. Then, each sub module is further subdivided
into several sub modules of next lower level. This process of dividing
each module into several sub modules continues until the lowest level
modules, which cannot be further subdivided, are not identified.

Bottom-Up Strategy
Bottom-Up Strategy follows the modular approach to develop the design
of the system. It is called so because it starts from the bottom or the
most basic level modules and moves towards the highest level modules.

In this technique,

 The modules at the most basic or the lowest level are identified.

 These modules are then grouped together based on the function performed
by each module to form the next higher-level modules.

 Then, these modules are further combined to form the next higher-level
modules.

 This process of grouping several simpler modules to form higher level

modules continues until the main module of system development process is
achieved.
Structured Design
Structured design is a data-flow based methodology that helps in
identifying the input and output of the developing system. The main
objective of structured design is to minimize the complexity and increase
the modularity of a program. Structured design also helps in describing
the functional aspects of the system.

In structured designing, the system specifications act as a basis for

graphically representing the flow of data and sequence of processes
involved in a software development with the help of DFDs. After
developing the DFDs for the software system, the next step is to develop
the structure chart.

Modularization
Structured design partitions the program into small and independent
modules. These are organized in top down manner with the details
shown in bottom.
Thus, structured design uses an approach called Modularization or
decomposition to minimize the complexity and to manage the problem by
subdividing it into smaller segments.

Advantages

 Critical interfaces are tested first.

 It provide abstraction.

 It allows multiple programmers to work simultaneously.

 It allows code reuse.

 It provides control and improves morale.

 It makes identifying structure easier.

Structured Charts
Structured charts are a recommended tool for designing a modular, top
down systems which define the various modules of system development
and the relationship between each module. It shows the system module
and their relationship between them.

It consists of diagram consisting of rectangular boxes that represent the

modules, connecting arrows, or lines.

 Control Module − It is a higher-level module that directs lower-level

modules, called subordinate modules.

 Library Module − It is a reusable module and can be invoked from more

than one point in the chart.

We have two different approaches to design a structured chart −

  Transform-Centered Structured Charts − They are used when all the
transactions follow same path.

 Transaction–Centered Structured Charts − They are used when all the

transactions do not follow the same path.

Objectives of Using Structure Flowcharts

 To encourage a top-down design.

 To support the concept of modules and identify the appropriate modules.

 To show the size and complexity of the system.

 To identify the number of readily identifiable functions and modules within

each function.

 To depict whether each identifiable function is a manageable entity or should

be broken down into smaller components.

Factors Affecting System Complexity

To develop good quality of system software, it is necessary to develop a
good design. Therefore, the main focus on while developing the design of
the system is the quality of the software design. A good quality software
design is the one, which minimizes the complexity and cost expenditure
in software development.

The two important concepts related to the system development that help
in determining the complexity of a system are coupling and cohesion.

Coupling
Coupling is the measure of the independence of components. It defines
the degree of dependency of each module of system development on the
other. In practice, this means the stronger the coupling between the
modules in a system, the more difficult it is to implement and maintain
the system.

Each module should have simple, clean interface with other modules, and
that the minimum number of data elements should be shared between
modules.

High Coupling
These type of systems have interconnections with program units
dependent on each other. Changes to one subsystem leads to high
impact on the other subsystem.

Low Coupling
These type of systems are made up of components which are
independent or almost independent. A change in one subsystem does not
affect any other subsystem.

Coupling Measures
 Content Coupling − When one component actually modifies another,then
the modified component is completely dependent on modifying one.

 Common Coupling − When amount of coupling is reduced somewhat by

organizing system design so that data are accessible from a common data
store.
  Control Coupling − When one component passes parameters to control the
activity of another component.

 Stamp Coupling − When data structures is used to pass information from

one component to another.

 Data Coupling − When only data is passed then components are connected
by this coupling.

Cohesion
Cohesion is the measure of closeness of the relationship between its
components. It defines the amount of dependency of the components of
a module on one another. In practice, this means the systems designer
must ensure that −

 They do not split essential processes into fragmented modules.

 They do not gather together unrelated processes represented as processes

on the DFD into meaningless modules.

The best modules are those that are functionally cohesive. The worst
modules are those that are coincidentally cohesive.

The worst degree of cohesion

Coincidental cohesion is found in a component whose parts are unrelated
to another.

 Logical Cohesion − It is where several logically related functions or data

elements are placed in same component.

 Temporal Cohesion − It is when a component that is used to initialize a

system or set variables performs several functions in sequence, but the
functions are related by timing involved.

 Procedurally Cohesion − It is when functions are grouped together in a

component just to ensure this order.

 Sequential Cohesion − It is when the output from one part of a component

is the input to the next part of it.
 Input / Output & Forms Design
Input Design
In an information system, input is the raw data that is processed to
produce output. During the input design, the developers must consider
the input devices such as PC, MICR, OMR, etc.

Therefore, the quality of system input determines the quality of system

output. Welldesigned input forms and screens have following properties
−

 It should serve specific purpose effectively such as storing, recording, and

retrieving the information.

 It ensures proper completion with accuracy.

 It should be easy to fill and straightforward.

 It should focus on user’s attention, consistency, and simplicity.

 All these objectives are obtained using the knowledge of basic design
principles regarding −

o What are the inputs needed for the system?

o How end users respond to different elements of forms and screens.

Objectives for Input Design

The objectives of input design are −

 To design data entry and input procedures

 To reduce input volume

 To design source documents for data capture or devise other data capture
methods

 To design input data records, data entry screens, user interface screens, etc.

 To use validation checks and develop effective input controls.

Data Input Methods
It is important to design appropriate data input methods to prevent
errors while entering data. These methods depend on whether the data is
entered by customers in forms manually and later entered by data entry
operators, or data is directly entered by users on the PCs.

A system should prevent user from making mistakes by −

 Clear form design by leaving enough space for writing legibly.

 Clear instructions to fill form.

 Clear form design.

 Reducing key strokes.

 Immediate error feedback.

Some of the popular data input methods are −

 Batch input method (Offline data input method)

 Online data input method

 Computer readable forms

 Interactive data input

Input Integrity Controls

Input integrity controls include a number of methods to eliminate
common input errors by end-users. They also include checks on the
value of individual fields; both for format and the completeness of all
inputs.

Audit trails for data entry and other system operations are created using
transaction logs which gives a record of all changes introduced in the
database to provide security and means of recovery in case of any
failure.

Output Design
The design of output is the most important task of any system. During
output design, developers identify the type of outputs needed, and
consider the necessary output controls and prototype report layouts.

Objectives of Output Design

The objectives of input design are −
  To develop output design that serves the intended purpose and eliminates
the production of unwanted output.

 To develop the output design that meets the end users requirements.

 To deliver the appropriate quantity of output.

 To form the output in appropriate format and direct it to the right person.

 To make the output available on time for making good decisions.

Let us now go through various types of outputs −

External Outputs
Manufacturers create and design external outputs for printers. External
outputs enable the system to leave the trigger actions on the part of
their recipients or confirm actions to their recipients.

Some of the external outputs are designed as turnaround outputs, which

are implemented as a form and re-enter the system as an input.

Internal outputs
Internal outputs are present inside the system, and used by end-users
and managers. They support the management in decision making and
reporting.

There are three types of reports produced by management information −

 Detailed Reports − They contain present information which has almost no

filtering or restriction generated to assist management planning and control.

 Summary Reports − They contain trends and potential problems which are
categorized and summarized that are generated for managers who do not
want details.

 Exception Reports − They contain exceptions, filtered data to some

condition or standard before presenting it to the manager, as information.

Output Integrity Controls

Output integrity controls include routing codes to identify the receiving
system, and verification messages to confirm successful receipt of
messages that are handled by network protocol.
Printed or screen-format reports should include a date/time for report
printing and the data. Multipage reports contain report title or
description, and pagination. Pre-printed forms usually include a version
number and effective date.

Forms Design
Both forms and reports are the product of input and output design and
are business document consisting of specified data. The main difference
is that forms provide fields for data input but reports are purely used for
reading. For example, order forms, employment and credit application,
etc.

 During form designing, the designers should know −

o who will use them

o where would they be delivered

o the purpose of the form or report

 During form design, automated design tools enhance the developer’s ability
to prototype forms and reports and present them to end users for
evaluation.

Objectives of Good Form Design

A good form design is necessary to ensure the following −

 To keep the screen simple by giving proper sequence, information, and clear
captions.

 To meet the intended purpose by using appropriate forms.

 To ensure the completion of form with accuracy.

 To keep the forms attractive by using icons, inverse video, or blinking cursors
etc.

 To facilitate navigation.

Types of Forms
Flat Forms
  It is a single copy form prepared manually or by a machine and printed on a
paper. For additional copies of the original, carbon papers are inserted
between copies.

 It is a simplest and inexpensive form to design, print, and reproduce, which

uses less volume.

Unit Set/Snap out Forms

 These are papers with one-time carbons interleaved into unit sets for either
handwritten or machine use.

 Carbons may be either blue or black, standard grade medium intensity.

Generally, blue carbons are best for handwritten forms while black carbons
are best for machine use.

Continuous strip/Fanfold Forms

 These are multiple unit forms joined in a continuous strip with perforations
between each pair of forms.

 It is a less expensive method for large volume use.

No Carbon Required (NCR) Paper

 They use carbonless papers which have two chemical coatings (capsules),
one on the face and the other on the back of a sheet of paper.

 When pressure is applied, the two capsules interact and create an image.

Testing and Quality Assurance

The software system needs to be checked for its intended behavior and
direction of progress at each development stage to avoid duplication of
efforts, time and cost overruns, and to assure completion of the system
within stipulated [Link] software system needs to be checked for its
intended behavior and direction of progress at each development stage
to avoid duplication of efforts, time and cost overruns, and to assure
completion of the system within stipulated time.

System testing and quality assurance come to aid for checking the
system. It includes −
  Product level quality (Testing)

 Process level quality.

Let us go through them briefly −

Testing
Testing is the process or activity that checks the functionality and
correctness of software according to specified user requirements in order
to improve the quality and reliability of system. It is an expensive, time
consuming, and critical approach in system development which requires
proper planning of overall testing process.

A successful test is one that finds the errors. It executes the program
with explicit intention of finding error, i.e., making the program fail. It is
a process of evaluating system with an intention of creating a strong
system and mainly focuses on the weak areas of the system or software.

Characteristics of System Testing

System testing begins at the module level and proceeds towards the
integration of the entire software system. Different testing techniques
are used at different times while testing the system. It is conducted by
the developer for small projects and by independent testing groups for
large projects.

Stages of System Testing

The following stages are involved in testing −

Test Strategy

It is a statement that provides information about the various levels,

methods, tools, and techniques used for testing the system. It should
satisfy all the needs of an organization.

Test Plan

It provides a plan for testing the system and verifies that the system
under testing fulfils all the design and functional specifications. The test
plan provides the following information −

 Objectives of each test phase

 Approaches and tools used for testing

  Responsibilities and time required for each testing activity

 Availability of tools, facilities, and test libraries

 Procedures and standards required for planning and conducting the tests

 Factors responsible for successful completion of testing process

Test Case Design

 Test cases are used to uncover as many errors as possible in the system.

 A number of test cases are identified for each module of the system to be
tested.

 Each test case will specify how the implementation of a particular

requirement or design decision is to be tested and the criteria for the success
of the test.

 The test cases along with the test plan are documented as a part of a system
specification document or in a separate document called test
specification or test description.

Test Procedures

It consists of the steps that should be followed to execute each of the

test cases. These procedures are specified in a separate document called
test procedure specification. This document also specifies any special
requirements and formats for reporting the result of testing.

Test Result Documentation

Test result file contains brief information about the total number of test
cases executed, the number of errors, and nature of errors. These results
are then assessed against criteria in the test specification to determine
the overall outcome of the test.

Types of Testing
Testing can be of various types and different types of tests are conducted
depending on the kind of bugs one seeks to discover −

Unit Testing
Also known as Program Testing, it is a type of testing where the analyst
tests or focuses on each program or module independently. It is carried
out with the intention of executing each statement of the module at least
once.

 In unit testing, accuracy of program cannot be assured and it is difficult to

conduct testing of various input combination in detail.

 It identifies maximum errors in a program as compared to other testing

techniques.

Integration Testing
In Integration Testing, the analyst tests multiple module working
together. It is used to find discrepancies between the system and its
original objective, current specifications, and systems documentation.

 Here the analysts are try to find areas where modules have been designed
with different specifications for data length, type, and data element name.

 It verifies that file sizes are adequate and that indices have been built
properly.

Functional Testing
Function testing determines whether the system is functioning correctly
according to its specifications and relevant standards documentation.
Functional testing typically starts with the implementation of the system,
which is very critical for the success of the system.

Functional testing is divided into two categories −

 Positive Functional Testing − It involves testing the system with valid

inputs to verify that the outputs produced are correct.

 Negative Functional Testing − It involves testing the software with invalid

inputs and undesired operating conditions.

Rules for System Testing

To carry out system testing successfully, you need to follow the given
rules −

 Testing should be based on the requirements of user.

  Before writing testing scripts, understand the business logic should be
understood thoroughly.

 Test plan should be done as soon as possible.

 Testing should be done by the third party.

 It should be performed on static software.

 Testing should be done for valid and invalid input conditions.

 Testing should be reviewed and examined to reduce the costs.

 Both static and dynamic testing should be conducted on the software.

 Documentation of test cases and test results should be done.

Quality Assurance
It is the review of system or software products and its documentation for
assurance that system meets the requirements and specifications.

 Purpose of QA is to provide confidence to the customers by constant delivery

of product according to specification.

 Software quality Assurance (SQA) is a techniques that includes procedures

and tools applied by the software professionals to ensure that software meet
the specified standard for its intended use and performance.

 The main aim of SQA is to provide proper and accurate visibility of software
project and its developed product to the administration.

 It reviews and audits the software product and its activities throughout the
life cycle of system development.

Objectives of Quality Assurance

The objectives of conducting quality assurance are as follows −

 To monitor the software development process and the final software

developed.

 To ensure whether the software project is implementing the standards and

procedures set by the management.
  To notify groups and individuals about the SQA activities and results of these
activities.

 To ensure that the issues, which are not solved within the software are
addressed by the upper management.

 To identify deficiencies in the product, process, or the standards, and fix

them.

Levels of Quality Assurance

There are several levels of QA and testing that need to be performed in
order to certify a software product.

Level 1 − Code Walk-through

At this level, offline software is examined or checked for any violations of

the official coding rules. In general, the emphasis is placed on
examination of the documentation and level of in-code comments.

Level 2 − Compilation and Linking

At this level, it is checked that the software can compile and link all
official platforms and operating systems.

Level 3 − Routine Running

At this level, it is checked that the software can run properly under a
variety of conditions such as certain number of events and small and
large event sizes etc.

Level 4 − Performance test

At this final level, it is checked that the performance of the software

satisfies the previously specified performance level.

System Implementation and

Maintenance
Implementation is a process of ensuring that the information system is
operational. It involves −

 Constructing a new system from scratch

  Constructing a new system from the existing one.

Implementation allows the users to take over its operation for use and
evaluation. It involves training the users to handle the system and plan
for a smooth conversion.

Training
The personnel in the system must know in detail what their roles will be,
how they can use the system, and what the system will or will not do.
The success or failure of welldesigned and technically elegant systems
can depend on the way they are operated and used.

Training Systems Operators

Systems operators must be trained properly such that they can handle all
possible operations, both routine and extraordinary. The operators
should be trained in what common malfunctions may occur, how to
recognize them, and what steps to take when they come.

Training involves creating troubleshooting lists to identify possible

problems and remedies for them, as well as the names and telephone
numbers of individuals to contact when unexpected or unusual problems
arise.

Training also involves familiarization with run procedures, which involves

working through the sequence of activities needed to use a new system.

User Training
 End-user training is an important part of the computer-based information
system development, which must be provided to employees to enable them
to do their own problem solving.

 User training involves how to operate the equipment, troubleshooting the

system problem, determining whether a problem that arose is caused by the
equipment or software.

 Most user training deals with the operation of the system itself. The training
courses must be designed to help the user with fast mobilization for the
organization.

Training Guidelines
  Establishing measurable objectives

 Using appropriate training methods

 Selecting suitable training sites

 Employing understandable training materials

Training Methods
Instructor-led training
It involves both trainers and trainees, who have to meet at the same
time, but not necessarily at the same place. The training session could be
one-on-one or collaborative. It is of two types −

Virtual Classroom

In this training, trainers must meet the trainees at the same time, but
are not required to be at the same place. The primary tools used here
are: video conferencing, text based Internet relay chat tools, or virtual
reality packages, etc.

Normal Classroom

The trainers must meet the trainees at the same time and at the same
place. They primary tools used here are blackboard, overhead projectors,
LCD projector, etc.

Self-Paced Training
It involves both trainers and trainees, who do not need to meet at the
same place or at the same time. The trainees learn the skills themselves
by accessing the courses at their own convenience. It is of two types −

Multimedia Training

In this training, courses are presented in multimedia format and stored

on CD-ROM. It minimizes the cost in developing an in-house training
course without assistance from external programmers.

Web-based Training

In this training, courses are often presented in hyper media format and
developed to support internet and intranet. It provides just–in-time
training for end users and allow organization to tailor training
requirements.
Conversion
It is a process of migrating from the old system to the new one. It
provides understandable and structured approach to improve the
communication between management and project team.

Conversion Plan
It contains description of all the activities that must occur during
implementation of the new system and put it into operation. It
anticipates possible problems and solutions to deal with them.

It includes the following activities −

 Name all files for conversions.

 Identifying the data requirements to develop new files during conversion.

 Listing all the new documents and procedures that are required.

 Identifying the controls to be used in each activity.

 Identifying the responsibility of person for each activity.

 Verifying conversion schedules.

Conversion Methods
The four methods of conversion are −

 Parallel Conversion

 Direct Cutover Conversion

 Pilot Approach

 Phase-In Method

Method Description Advantages Disadvantages

Provides fallback Causes cost

when new system overruns.
fails.
Parallel Old and new systems New system may
are used Offers greatest not get fair trail.
Conversion
simultaneously.
security and
ultimately testing
of new system.
 Forces users to No fall back if
make new system problems arise
New system is
Direct work with new system
implemented and old
Cutover
system is replaced
Conversion Immediate benefit Requires most
completely.
from new methods careful planning
and control.

Allows training and A long term

installation without phasein causes a
Supports phased
unnecessary use of problem of
approach that
Pilot resources. whether
gradually implement
Approach conversion goes
system across all
Avoid large
well or not.
users
contingencies from
risk management.

Provides Gives impression

Working version of experience and line that old system is
system implemented test before erroneous and it is
in one part of implementation not reliable.
organization based on
Phase-In
feedback, it is When preferred
Method
installed throughout new system

the organization all involves new

alone or stage by technology or

stage. drastic changes in

performance.

File Conversion
It is a process of converting one file format into another. For example,
file in WordPerfect format can be converted into Microsoft Word.

For successful conversion, a conversion plan is required, which includes

−

 Knowledge of the target system and understanding of the present system

 Teamwork
  Automated methods, testing and parallel operations

 Continuous support for correcting problems

 Updating systems/user documentation, etc

Many popular applications support opening and saving to other file

formats of the same type. For example, Microsoft Word can open and
save files in many other word processing formats.

Post-Implementation Evaluation Review (PIER)

PIER is a tool or standard approach for evaluating the outcome of the
project and determine whether the project is producing the expected
benefits to the processes, products or services. It enables the user to
verify that the project or system has achieved its desired outcome within
specified time period and planned cost.

PIER ensures that the project has met its goals by evaluating the
development and management processes of the project.

Objectives of PIER
The objectives of having a PIER are as follows −

 To determine the success of a project against the projected costs, benefits,

and timelines.

 To identify the opportunities to add additional value to the project.

 To determine strengths and weaknesses of the project for future reference

and appropriate action.

 To make recommendations on the future of the project by refining cost

estimating techniques.

The following staff members should be included in the review process −

 Project team and Management

 User staff

 Strategic Management Staff

 External users
System Maintenance / Enhancement
Maintenance means restoring something to its original conditions.
Enhancement means adding, modifying the code to support the changes
in the user specification. System maintenance conforms the system to its
original requirements and enhancement adds to system capability by
incorporating new requirements.

Thus, maintenance changes the existing system, enhancement adds

features to the existing system, and development replaces the existing
system. It is an important part of system development that includes the
activities which corrects errors in system design and implementation,
updates the documents, and tests the data.

Maintenance Types
System maintenance can be classified into three types −

 Corrective Maintenance − Enables user to carry out the repairing and

correcting leftover problems.

 Adaptive Maintenance − Enables user to replace the functions of the

programs.

 Perfective Maintenance − Enables user to modify or enhance the programs

according to the users’ requirements and changing needs.

System Security and Audit

System Audit
It is an investigation to review the performance of an operational system.
The objectives of conducting a system audit are as follows −

 To compare actual and planned performance.

 To verify that the stated objectives of system are still valid in current
environment.

 To evaluate the achievement of stated objectives.

 To ensure the reliability of computer based financial and other information.

 To ensure all records included while processing.

  To ensure protection from frauds.

Audit of Computer System Usage

Data processing auditors audits the usage of computer system in order
to control it. The auditor need control data which is obtained by
computer system itself.

The System Auditor

The role of auditor begins at the initial stage of system development so
that resulting system is secure. It describes an idea of utilization of
system that can be recorded which helps in load planning and deciding
on hardware and software specifications. It gives an indication of wise
use of the computer system and possible misuse of the system.

Audit Trial
An audit trial or audit log is a security record which is comprised of who
has accessed a computer system and what operations are performed
during a given period of time. Audit trials are used to do detailed tracing
of how data on the system has changed.

It provides documentary evidence of various control techniques that a

transaction is subject to during its processing. Audit trials do not exist
independently. They are carried out as a part of accounting for
recovering lost transactions.

Audit Methods
Auditing can be done in two different ways −

Auditing around the Computer

 Take sample inputs and manually apply processing rules.

 Compare outputs with computer outputs.

Auditing through the Computer

 Establish audit trial which allows examining selected intermediate results.

 Control totals provide intermediate checks.

Audit Considerations
Audit considerations examine the results of the analysis by using both
the narratives and models to identify the problems caused due to
misplaced functions, split processes or functions, broken data flows,
missing data, redundant or incomplete processing, and nonaddressed
automation opportunities.

The activities under this phase are as follows −

 Identification of the current environment problems

 Identification of problem causes

 Identification of alternative solutions

 Evaluation and feasibility analysis of each solution

 Selection and recommendation of most practical and appropriate solution

 Project cost estimation and cost benefit analysis

Security
System security refers to protecting the system from theft, unauthorized
access and modifications, and accidental or unintentional damage. In
computerized systems, security involves protecting all the parts of
computer system which includes data, software, and hardware. Systems
security includes system privacy and system integrity.

 System privacy deals with protecting individuals systems from being

accessed and used without the permission/knowledge of the concerned
individuals.

 System integrity is concerned with the quality and reliability of raw as well
as processed data in the system.

Control Measures
There are variety of control measures which can be broadly classified as
follows −

Backup
 Regular backup of databases daily/weekly depending on the time criticality
and size.

 Incremental back up at shorter intervals.

  Backup copies kept in safe remote location particularly necessary for disaster
recovery.

 Duplicate systems run and all transactions mirrored if it is a very critical

system and cannot tolerate any disruption before storing in disk.

Physical Access Control to Facilities

 Physical locks and Biometric authentication. For example, finger print

 ID cards or entry passes being checked by security staff.

 Identification of all persons who read or modify data and logging it in a file.

Using Logical or Software Control

 Password system.

 Encrypting sensitive data/programs.

 Training employees on data care/handling and security.

 Antivirus software and Firewall protection while connected to internet.

Risk Analysis
A risk is the possibility of losing something of value. Risk analysis starts
with planning for secure system by identifying the vulnerability of system
and impact of this. The plan is then made to manage the risk and cope
with disaster. It is done to accesses the probability of possible disaster
and their cost.

Risk analysis is a teamwork of experts with different backgrounds like

chemicals, human error, and process equipment.

The following steps are to be followed while conducting risk analysis −

 Identification of all the components of computer system.

 Identification of all the threats and hazards that each of the components
faces.

 Quantify risks i.e. assessment of loss in the case threats become reality.

Risk Analysis – Main Steps

As the risks or threats are changing and the potential loss are also
changing, management of risk should be performed on periodic basis by
senior managers.

Risk management is a continuous process and it involves the following

steps −

 Identification of security measures.

 Calculation of the cost of implementation of security measures.

 Comparison of the cost of security measures with the loss and probability of
threats.

 Selection and implementation of security measures.

 Review of the implementation of security measures.

Object Oriented Approach

In the object-oriented approach, the focus is on capturing the structure
and behaviour of information systems into small modules that combines
both data and process. The main aim of Object Oriented Design (OOD) is
to improve the quality and productivity of system analysis and design by
making it more usable.

In analysis phase, OO models are used to fill the gap between problem
and solution. It performs well in situation where systems are undergoing
continuous design, adaption, and maintenance. It identifies the objects in
problem domain, classifying them in terms of data and behaviour.

The OO model is beneficial in the following ways −

 It facilitates changes in the system at low cost.

 It promotes the reuse of components.

 It simplifies the problem of integrating components to configure large

system.

 It simplifies the design of distributed systems.

Elements of Object-Oriented System

Let us go through the characteristics of OO System −

 Objects − An object is something that is exists within problem domain and

can be identified by data (attribute) or behaviour. All tangible entities
(student, patient) and some intangible entities (bank account) are modelled
as object.

 Attributes − They describe information about the object.

 Behaviour − It specifies what the object can do. It defines the operation
performed on objects.

 Class − A class encapsulates the data and its behaviour. Objects with similar
meaning and purpose grouped together as class.

 Methods − Methods determine the behaviour of a class. They are nothing

more than an action that an object can perform.

 Message − A message is a function or procedure call from one object to

another. They are information sent to objects to trigger methods.
Essentially, a message is a function or procedure call from one object to
another.

Features of Object-Oriented System

An object-oriented system comes with several great features which are
discussed below.
Encapsulation
Encapsulation is a process of information hiding. It is simply the
combination of process and data into a single entity. Data of an object is
hidden from the rest of the system and available only through the
services of the class. It allows improvement or modification of methods
used by objects without affecting other parts of a system.

Abstraction
It is a process of taking or selecting necessary method and attributes to
specify the object. It focuses on essential characteristics of an object
relative to perspective of user.

Relationships
All the classes in the system are related with each other. The objects do
not exist in isolation, they exist in relationship with other objects.

There are three types of object relationships −

 Aggregation − It indicates relationship between a whole and its parts.

 Association − In this, two classes are related or connected in some way

such as one class works with another to perform a task or one class acts
upon other class.

 Generalization − The child class is based on parent class. It indicates that

two classes are similar but have some differences.

Inheritance
Inheritance is a great feature that allows to create sub-classes from an
existing class by inheriting the attributes and/or operations of existing
classes.

Polymorphism and Dynamic Binding

Polymorphism is the ability to take on many different forms. It applies to
both objects and operations. A polymorphic object is one who true type
hides within a super or parent class.

In polymorphic operation, the operation may be carried out differently by

different classes of objects. It allows us to manipulate objects of different
classes by knowing only their common properties.
Structured Approach Vs. Object-Oriented
Approach
The following table explains how the object-oriented approach differs
from the traditional structured approach −

Structured Approach Object Oriented Approach

It works with Top-down approach. It works with Bottom-up approach.

Program is divided into number of sub Program is organized by having

modules or functions. number of classes and objects.

Function call is used. Message passing is used.

Software reuse is not possible. Reusability is possible.

Structured design programming usually Object oriented design programming

left until end phases. done concurrently with other phases.

Structured Design is more suitable for It is suitable for in-house development.

off shoring.

It shows clear transition from design to Not so clear transition from design to
implementation. implementation.

It is suitable for real time system, It is suitable for most business

embedded system and projects where applications, game development
objects are not the most useful level of projects, which are expected to
abstraction. customize or extended.

DFD & E-R diagram model the data. Class diagram, sequence diagram,
state chart diagram, and use cases all
contribute.

In this, projects can be managed easily In this approach, projects can be

due to clearly identifiable phases. difficult to manage due to uncertain
transitions between phase.