The earliest references for vertical flight came from China.
Since around 400
BC,[2] Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys.[3][4][5] This bamboo-copter is
spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor between one's hands. The spinning creates lift,
and the toy flies when released.[2] The 4th-century AD Daoist book Baopuzi by Ge
Hong (抱朴子 "Master who Embraces Simplicity") reportedly describes some of the ideas
inherent to rotary wing aircraft.[6]
Designs similar to the Chinese helicopter toy appeared in Renaissance paintings and other
works.[7]
da Vinci's "aerial screw"
It was not until the early 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci created a design for a machine
that could be described as an "aerial screw", that any recorded advancement was made
towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built small flying models, but there were
no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate.[8][9] As
scientific knowledge increased and became more accepted, man continued to pursue the
idea of vertical flight. Many of these later models and machines would more closely
resemble the ancient bamboo flying top with spinning wings, rather than Leonardo's screw.
In July 1754, Russian Mikhail Lomonosov had developed a small coaxial modeled after
the Chinese top but powered by a wound-up spring device [10] and demonstrated it to
the Russian Academy of Sciences. It was powered by a spring, and was suggested as a
method to lift meteorological instruments. In 1783, Christian de Launoy, and his mechanic,
Bienvenu, used a coaxial version of the Chinese top in a model consisting of
contrarotating turkey flight feathers [10] as rotor blades, and in 1784, demonstrated it to
the French Academy of Sciences. A dirigible airship was described by Jean Baptiste Marie
Meusnier presented in 1783. The drawings depict a 260-foot-long (79 m) streamlined
envelope with internal ballonets that could be used for regulating lift. The airship was
designed to be driven by three propellers. In 1784 Jean-Pierre Blanchard fitted a hand-
powered propeller to a balloon, the first recorded means of propulsion carried aloft.[11] Sir
George Cayley, influenced by a childhood fascination with the Chinese flying top,
developed a model of feathers, similar to that of Launoy and Bienvenu, but powered by
rubber bands. By the end of the century, he had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor
blades and springs for power. His writings on his experiments and models would become
influential on future aviation pioneers.[8]
Prototype created by Mikhail Lomonosov, 1754
William Bland sent designs for his "Atmotic Airship" to the Great Exhibition held in London
in 1851, where a model was displayed. This was an elongated balloon with a steam engine
driving twin propellers suspended underneath.[12][13] Alphonse Pénaud developed coaxial
rotor model helicopter toys in 1870, also powered by rubber bands. In 1872 Dupuy de
Lome launched a large navigable balloon, which was driven by a large propeller turned by
eight men.[14] Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110-foot (34-meter)
wingspan that was powered by two 360-horsepower (270-kW) steam engines driving two
propellers. In 1894, his machine was tested with overhead rails to prevent it from rising.
The test showed that it had enough lift to take off.[15] One of Pénaud's toys, given as a gift
by their father, inspired the Wright brothers to pursue the dream of flight.[16] The
twisted airfoil (aerofoil) shape of an aircraft propeller was pioneered by the Wright brothers.
While some earlier engineers had attempted to model air propellers on marine propellers,
the Wright Brothers realized that a propeller is essentially the same as a wing, and were
able to use data from their earlier wind tunnel experiments on wings, introducing a twist
along the length of the blades. This was necessary to maintain a more uniform angle of
attack of the blade along its length.[17] Their original propeller blades had an efficiency of
about 82%,[18] compared to 90% for a modern (2010) small general aviation propeller, the 3-
blade McCauley used on a Bonanza aircraft.[19] Roper[20] quotes 90% for a propeller for a
human-powered aircraft.
Mahogany was the wood preferred for propellers through World War I, but wartime
shortages encouraged use of walnut, oak, cherry and ash.[21] Alberto Santos Dumont was
another early pioneer, having designed propellers before the Wright Brothers (albeit not as
efficient)[22] for his airships. He applied the knowledge he gained from experiences with
airships to make a propeller with a steel shaft and aluminium blades for his 14 bis
biplane in 1906. Some of his designs used a bent aluminium sheet for blades, thus creating
an airfoil shape. They were heavily undercambered, and this plus the absence of
lengthwise twist made them less efficient than the Wright propellers.[23] Even so, this was
perhaps the first use of aluminium in the construction of an airscrew. Originally, a rotating
airfoil behind the aircraft, which pushes it, was called a propeller, while one which pulled
from the front was a tractor.[24] Later the term 'pusher' became adopted for the rear-mounted
device in contrast to the tractor configuration and both became referred to as 'propellers' or
'airscrews'. The understanding of low speed propeller aerodynamics was fairly complete by
the 1920s, but later requirements to handle more power in a smaller diameter have made
the problem more complex.
Propeller research for National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was directed
by William F. Durand from 1916. Parameters measured included propeller
efficiency, thrust developed, and power absorbed. While a propeller may be tested in
a wind tunnel, its performance in free-flight might differ. At the Langley Memorial
Aeronautical Laboratory, E. P. Leslie used Vought VE-7s with Wright E-4 engines for data
on free-flight, while Durand used reduced size, with similar shape, for wind tunnel data.
Their results were published in 1926 as NACA report #220.[25]
The earliest references for vertical flight came from China. Since around 400
BC,[2] Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys.[3][4][5] This bamboo-copter is
spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor between one's hands. The spinning creates lift,
and the toy flies when released.[2] The 4th-century AD Daoist book Baopuzi by Ge
Hong (抱朴子 "Master who Embraces Simplicity") reportedly describes some of the ideas
inherent to rotary wing aircraft.[6]
Designs similar to the Chinese helicopter toy appeared in Renaissance paintings and other
works.[7]
da Vinci's "aerial screw"
It was not until the early 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci created a design for a machine
that could be described as an "aerial screw", that any recorded advancement was made
towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built small flying models, but there were
no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate.[8][9] As
scientific knowledge increased and became more accepted, man continued to pursue the
idea of vertical flight. Many of these later models and machines would more closely
resemble the ancient bamboo flying top with spinning wings, rather than Leonardo's screw.
In July 1754, Russian Mikhail Lomonosov had developed a small coaxial modeled after
the Chinese top but powered by a wound-up spring device [10] and demonstrated it to
the Russian Academy of Sciences. It was powered by a spring, and was suggested as a
method to lift meteorological instruments. In 1783, Christian de Launoy, and his mechanic,
Bienvenu, used a coaxial version of the Chinese top in a model consisting of
contrarotating turkey flight feathers [10] as rotor blades, and in 1784, demonstrated it to
the French Academy of Sciences. A dirigible airship was described by Jean Baptiste Marie
Meusnier presented in 1783. The drawings depict a 260-foot-long (79 m) streamlined
envelope with internal ballonets that could be used for regulating lift. The airship was
designed to be driven by three propellers. In 1784 Jean-Pierre Blanchard fitted a hand-
powered propeller to a balloon, the first recorded means of propulsion carried aloft.[11] Sir
George Cayley, influenced by a childhood fascination with the Chinese flying top,
developed a model of feathers, similar to that of Launoy and Bienvenu, but powered by
rubber bands. By the end of the century, he had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor
blades and springs for power. His writings on his experiments and models would become
influential on future aviation pioneers.[8]
Prototype created by Mikhail Lomonosov, 1754
William Bland sent designs for his "Atmotic Airship" to the Great Exhibition held in London
in 1851, where a model was displayed. This was an elongated balloon with a steam engine
driving twin propellers suspended underneath.[12][13] Alphonse Pénaud developed coaxial
rotor model helicopter toys in 1870, also powered by rubber bands. In 1872 Dupuy de
Lome launched a large navigable balloon, which was driven by a large propeller turned by
eight men.[14] Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110-foot (34-meter)
wingspan that was powered by two 360-horsepower (270-kW) steam engines driving two
propellers. In 1894, his machine was tested with overhead rails to prevent it from rising.
The test showed that it had enough lift to take off.[15] One of Pénaud's toys, given as a gift
by their father, inspired the Wright brothers to pursue the dream of flight.[16] The
twisted airfoil (aerofoil) shape of an aircraft propeller was pioneered by the Wright brothers.
While some earlier engineers had attempted to model air propellers on marine propellers,
the Wright Brothers realized that a propeller is essentially the same as a wing, and were
able to use data from their earlier wind tunnel experiments on wings, introducing a twist
along the length of the blades. This was necessary to maintain a more uniform angle of
attack of the blade along its length.[17] Their original propeller blades had an efficiency of
about 82%,[18] compared to 90% for a modern (2010) small general aviation propeller, the 3-
blade McCauley used on a Bonanza aircraft.[19] Roper[20] quotes 90% for a propeller for a
human-powered aircraft.
Mahogany was the wood preferred for propellers through World War I, but wartime
shortages encouraged use of walnut, oak, cherry and ash.[21] Alberto Santos Dumont was
another early pioneer, having designed propellers before the Wright Brothers (albeit not as
efficient)[22] for his airships. He applied the knowledge he gained from experiences with
airships to make a propeller with a steel shaft and aluminium blades for his 14 bis
biplane in 1906. Some of his designs used a bent aluminium sheet for blades, thus creating
an airfoil shape. They were heavily undercambered, and this plus the absence of
lengthwise twist made them less efficient than the Wright propellers.[23] Even so, this was
perhaps the first use of aluminium in the construction of an airscrew. Originally, a rotating
airfoil behind the aircraft, which pushes it, was called a propeller, while one which pulled
from the front was a tractor.[24] Later the term 'pusher' became adopted for the rear-mounted
device in contrast to the tractor configuration and both became referred to as 'propellers' or
'airscrews'. The understanding of low speed propeller aerodynamics was fairly complete by
the 1920s, but later requirements to handle more power in a smaller diameter have made
the problem more complex.
Propeller research for National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was directed
by William F. Durand from 1916. Parameters measured included propeller
efficiency, thrust developed, and power absorbed. While a propeller may be tested in
a wind tunnel, its performance in free-flight might differ. At the Langley Memorial
Aeronautical Laboratory, E. P. Leslie used Vought VE-7s with Wright E-4 engines for data
on free-flight, while Durand used reduced size, with similar shape, for wind tunnel data.
Their results were published in 1926 as NACA report #220.[25]
The earliest references for vertical flight came from China. Since around 400
BC,[2] Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys.[3][4][5] This bamboo-copter is
spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor between one's hands. The spinning creates lift,
and the toy flies when released.[2] The 4th-century AD Daoist book Baopuzi by Ge
Hong (抱朴子 "Master who Embraces Simplicity") reportedly describes some of the ideas
inherent to rotary wing aircraft.[6]
Designs similar to the Chinese helicopter toy appeared in Renaissance paintings and other
works.[7]
da Vinci's "aerial screw"
It was not until the early 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci created a design for a machine
that could be described as an "aerial screw", that any recorded advancement was made
towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built small flying models, but there were
no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate.[8][9] As
scientific knowledge increased and became more accepted, man continued to pursue the
idea of vertical flight. Many of these later models and machines would more closely
resemble the ancient bamboo flying top with spinning wings, rather than Leonardo's screw.
In July 1754, Russian Mikhail Lomonosov had developed a small coaxial modeled after
the Chinese top but powered by a wound-up spring device [10] and demonstrated it to
the Russian Academy of Sciences. It was powered by a spring, and was suggested as a
method to lift meteorological instruments. In 1783, Christian de Launoy, and his mechanic,
Bienvenu, used a coaxial version of the Chinese top in a model consisting of
contrarotating turkey flight feathers [10] as rotor blades, and in 1784, demonstrated it to
the French Academy of Sciences. A dirigible airship was described by Jean Baptiste Marie
Meusnier presented in 1783. The drawings depict a 260-foot-long (79 m) streamlined
envelope with internal ballonets that could be used for regulating lift. The airship was
designed to be driven by three propellers. In 1784 Jean-Pierre Blanchard fitted a hand-
powered propeller to a balloon, the first recorded means of propulsion carried aloft.[11] Sir
George Cayley, influenced by a childhood fascination with the Chinese flying top,
developed a model of feathers, similar to that of Launoy and Bienvenu, but powered by
rubber bands. By the end of the century, he had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor
blades and springs for power. His writings on his experiments and models would become
influential on future aviation pioneers.[8]
Prototype created by Mikhail Lomonosov, 1754
William Bland sent designs for his "Atmotic Airship" to the Great Exhibition held in London
in 1851, where a model was displayed. This was an elongated balloon with a steam engine
driving twin propellers suspended underneath.[12][13] Alphonse Pénaud developed coaxial
rotor model helicopter toys in 1870, also powered by rubber bands. In 1872 Dupuy de
Lome launched a large navigable balloon, which was driven by a large propeller turned by
eight men.[14] Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110-foot (34-meter)
wingspan that was powered by two 360-horsepower (270-kW) steam engines driving two
propellers. In 1894, his machine was tested with overhead rails to prevent it from rising.
The test showed that it had enough lift to take off.[15] One of Pénaud's toys, given as a gift
by their father, inspired the Wright brothers to pursue the dream of flight.[16] The
twisted airfoil (aerofoil) shape of an aircraft propeller was pioneered by the Wright brothers.
While some earlier engineers had attempted to model air propellers on marine propellers,
the Wright Brothers realized that a propeller is essentially the same as a wing, and were
able to use data from their earlier wind tunnel experiments on wings, introducing a twist
along the length of the blades. This was necessary to maintain a more uniform angle of
attack of the blade along its length.[17] Their original propeller blades had an efficiency of
about 82%,[18] compared to 90% for a modern (2010) small general aviation propeller, the 3-
blade McCauley used on a Bonanza aircraft.[19] Roper[20] quotes 90% for a propeller for a
human-powered aircraft.
Mahogany was the wood preferred for propellers through World War I, but wartime
shortages encouraged use of walnut, oak, cherry and ash.[21] Alberto Santos Dumont was
another early pioneer, having designed propellers before the Wright Brothers (albeit not as
efficient)[22] for his airships. He applied the knowledge he gained from experiences with
airships to make a propeller with a steel shaft and aluminium blades for his 14 bis
biplane in 1906. Some of his designs used a bent aluminium sheet for blades, thus creating
an airfoil shape. They were heavily undercambered, and this plus the absence of
lengthwise twist made them less efficient than the Wright propellers.[23] Even so, this was
perhaps the first use of aluminium in the construction of an airscrew. Originally, a rotating
airfoil behind the aircraft, which pushes it, was called a propeller, while one which pulled
from the front was a tractor.[24] Later the term 'pusher' became adopted for the rear-mounted
device in contrast to the tractor configuration and both became referred to as 'propellers' or
'airscrews'. The understanding of low speed propeller aerodynamics was fairly complete by
the 1920s, but later requirements to handle more power in a smaller diameter have made
the problem more complex.
Propeller research for National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was directed
by William F. Durand from 1916. Parameters measured included propeller
efficiency, thrust developed, and power absorbed. While a propeller may be tested in
a wind tunnel, its performance in free-flight might differ. At the Langley Memorial
Aeronautical Laboratory, E. P. Leslie used Vought VE-7s with Wright E-4 engines for data
on free-flight, while Durand used reduced size, with similar shape, for wind tunnel data.
Their results were published in 1926 as NACA report #220.[25]
The earliest references for vertical flight came from China. Since around 400
BC,[2] Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys.[3][4][5] This bamboo-copter is
spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor between one's hands. The spinning creates lift,
and the toy flies when released.[2] The 4th-century AD Daoist book Baopuzi by Ge
Hong (抱朴子 "Master who Embraces Simplicity") reportedly describes some of the ideas
inherent to rotary wing aircraft.[6]
Designs similar to the Chinese helicopter toy appeared in Renaissance paintings and other
works.[7]
da Vinci's "aerial screw"
It was not until the early 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci created a design for a machine
that could be described as an "aerial screw", that any recorded advancement was made
towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built small flying models, but there were
no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate.[8][9] As
scientific knowledge increased and became more accepted, man continued to pursue the
idea of vertical flight. Many of these later models and machines would more closely
resemble the ancient bamboo flying top with spinning wings, rather than Leonardo's screw.
In July 1754, Russian Mikhail Lomonosov had developed a small coaxial modeled after
the Chinese top but powered by a wound-up spring device [10] and demonstrated it to
the Russian Academy of Sciences. It was powered by a spring, and was suggested as a
method to lift meteorological instruments. In 1783, Christian de Launoy, and his mechanic,
Bienvenu, used a coaxial version of the Chinese top in a model consisting of
contrarotating turkey flight feathers [10] as rotor blades, and in 1784, demonstrated it to
the French Academy of Sciences. A dirigible airship was described by Jean Baptiste Marie
Meusnier presented in 1783. The drawings depict a 260-foot-long (79 m) streamlined
envelope with internal ballonets that could be used for regulating lift. The airship was
designed to be driven by three propellers. In 1784 Jean-Pierre Blanchard fitted a hand-
powered propeller to a balloon, the first recorded means of propulsion carried aloft.[11] Sir
George Cayley, influenced by a childhood fascination with the Chinese flying top,
developed a model of feathers, similar to that of Launoy and Bienvenu, but powered by
rubber bands. By the end of the century, he had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor
blades and springs for power. His writings on his experiments and models would become
influential on future aviation pioneers.[8]
Prototype created by Mikhail Lomonosov, 1754
William Bland sent designs for his "Atmotic Airship" to the Great Exhibition held in London
in 1851, where a model was displayed. This was an elongated balloon with a steam engine
driving twin propellers suspended underneath.[12][13] Alphonse Pénaud developed coaxial
rotor model helicopter toys in 1870, also powered by rubber bands. In 1872 Dupuy de
Lome launched a large navigable balloon, which was driven by a large propeller turned by
eight men.[14] Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110-foot (34-meter)
wingspan that was powered by two 360-horsepower (270-kW) steam engines driving two
propellers. In 1894, his machine was tested with overhead rails to prevent it from rising.
The test showed that it had enough lift to take off.[15] One of Pénaud's toys, given as a gift
by their father, inspired the Wright brothers to pursue the dream of flight.[16] The
twisted airfoil (aerofoil) shape of an aircraft propeller was pioneered by the Wright brothers.
While some earlier engineers had attempted to model air propellers on marine propellers,
the Wright Brothers realized that a propeller is essentially the same as a wing, and were
able to use data from their earlier wind tunnel experiments on wings, introducing a twist
along the length of the blades. This was necessary to maintain a more uniform angle of
attack of the blade along its length.[17] Their original propeller blades had an efficiency of
about 82%,[18] compared to 90% for a modern (2010) small general aviation propeller, the 3-
blade McCauley used on a Bonanza aircraft.[19] Roper[20] quotes 90% for a propeller for a
human-powered aircraft.
Mahogany was the wood preferred for propellers through World War I, but wartime
shortages encouraged use of walnut, oak, cherry and ash.[21] Alberto Santos Dumont was
another early pioneer, having designed propellers before the Wright Brothers (albeit not as
efficient)[22] for his airships. He applied the knowledge he gained from experiences with
airships to make a propeller with a steel shaft and aluminium blades for his 14 bis
biplane in 1906. Some of his designs used a bent aluminium sheet for blades, thus creating
an airfoil shape. They were heavily undercambered, and this plus the absence of
lengthwise twist made them less efficient than the Wright propellers.[23] Even so, this was
perhaps the first use of aluminium in the construction of an airscrew. Originally, a rotating
airfoil behind the aircraft, which pushes it, was called a propeller, while one which pulled
from the front was a tractor.[24] Later the term 'pusher' became adopted for the rear-mounted
device in contrast to the tractor configuration and both became referred to as 'propellers' or
'airscrews'. The understanding of low speed propeller aerodynamics was fairly complete by
the 1920s, but later requirements to handle more power in a smaller diameter have made
the problem more complex.
Propeller research for National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was directed
by William F. Durand from 1916. Parameters measured included propeller
efficiency, thrust developed, and power absorbed. While a propeller may be tested in
a wind tunnel, its performance in free-flight might differ. At the Langley Memorial
Aeronautical Laboratory, E. P. Leslie used Vought VE-7s with Wright E-4 engines for data
on free-flight, while Durand used reduced size, with similar shape, for wind tunnel data.
Their results were published in 1926 as NACA report #220.[25]
The earliest references for vertical flight came from China. Since around 400
BC,[2] Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys.[3][4][5] This bamboo-copter is
spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor between one's hands. The spinning creates lift,
and the toy flies when released.[2] The 4th-century AD Daoist book Baopuzi by Ge
Hong (抱朴子 "Master who Embraces Simplicity") reportedly describes some of the ideas
inherent to rotary wing aircraft.[6]
Designs similar to the Chinese helicopter toy appeared in Renaissance paintings and other
works.[7]
da Vinci's "aerial screw"
It was not until the early 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci created a design for a machine
that could be described as an "aerial screw", that any recorded advancement was made
towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built small flying models, but there were
no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate.[8][9] As
scientific knowledge increased and became more accepted, man continued to pursue the
idea of vertical flight. Many of these later models and machines would more closely
resemble the ancient bamboo flying top with spinning wings, rather than Leonardo's screw.
In July 1754, Russian Mikhail Lomonosov had developed a small coaxial modeled after
the Chinese top but powered by a wound-up spring device [10] and demonstrated it to
the Russian Academy of Sciences. It was powered by a spring, and was suggested as a
method to lift meteorological instruments. In 1783, Christian de Launoy, and his mechanic,
Bienvenu, used a coaxial version of the Chinese top in a model consisting of
contrarotating turkey flight feathers [10] as rotor blades, and in 1784, demonstrated it to
the French Academy of Sciences. A dirigible airship was described by Jean Baptiste Marie
Meusnier presented in 1783. The drawings depict a 260-foot-long (79 m) streamlined
envelope with internal ballonets that could be used for regulating lift. The airship was
designed to be driven by three propellers. In 1784 Jean-Pierre Blanchard fitted a hand-
powered propeller to a balloon, the first recorded means of propulsion carried aloft.[11] Sir
George Cayley, influenced by a childhood fascination with the Chinese flying top,
developed a model of feathers, similar to that of Launoy and Bienvenu, but powered by
rubber bands. By the end of the century, he had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor
blades and springs for power. His writings on his experiments and models would become
influential on future aviation pioneers.[8]
Prototype created by Mikhail Lomonosov, 1754
William Bland sent designs for his "Atmotic Airship" to the Great Exhibition held in London
in 1851, where a model was displayed. This was an elongated balloon with a steam engine
driving twin propellers suspended underneath.[12][13] Alphonse Pénaud developed coaxial
rotor model helicopter toys in 1870, also powered by rubber bands. In 1872 Dupuy de
Lome launched a large navigable balloon, which was driven by a large propeller turned by
eight men.[14] Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110-foot (34-meter)
wingspan that was powered by two 360-horsepower (270-kW) steam engines driving two
propellers. In 1894, his machine was tested with overhead rails to prevent it from rising.
The test showed that it had enough lift to take off.[15] One of Pénaud's toys, given as a gift
by their father, inspired the Wright brothers to pursue the dream of flight.[16] The
twisted airfoil (aerofoil) shape of an aircraft propeller was pioneered by the Wright brothers.
While some earlier engineers had attempted to model air propellers on marine propellers,
the Wright Brothers realized that a propeller is essentially the same as a wing, and were
able to use data from their earlier wind tunnel experiments on wings, introducing a twist
along the length of the blades. This was necessary to maintain a more uniform angle of
attack of the blade along its length.[17] Their original propeller blades had an efficiency of
about 82%,[18] compared to 90% for a modern (2010) small general aviation propeller, the 3-
blade McCauley used on a Bonanza aircraft.[19] Roper[20] quotes 90% for a propeller for a
human-powered aircraft.
Mahogany was the wood preferred for propellers through World War I, but wartime
shortages encouraged use of walnut, oak, cherry and ash.[21] Alberto Santos Dumont was
another early pioneer, having designed propellers before the Wright Brothers (albeit not as
efficient)[22] for his airships. He applied the knowledge he gained from experiences with
airships to make a propeller with a steel shaft and aluminium blades for his 14 bis
biplane in 1906. Some of his designs used a bent aluminium sheet for blades, thus creating
an airfoil shape. They were heavily undercambered, and this plus the absence of
lengthwise twist made them less efficient than the Wright propellers.[23] Even so, this was
perhaps the first use of aluminium in the construction of an airscrew. Originally, a rotating
airfoil behind the aircraft, which pushes it, was called a propeller, while one which pulled
from the front was a tractor.[24] Later the term 'pusher' became adopted for the rear-mounted
device in contrast to the tractor configuration and both became referred to as 'propellers' or
'airscrews'. The understanding of low speed propeller aerodynamics was fairly complete by
the 1920s, but later requirements to handle more power in a smaller diameter have made
the problem more complex.
Propeller research for National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was directed
by William F. Durand from 1916. Parameters measured included propeller
efficiency, thrust developed, and power absorbed. While a propeller may be tested in
a wind tunnel, its performance in free-flight might differ. At the Langley Memorial
Aeronautical Laboratory, E. P. Leslie used Vought VE-7s with Wright E-4 engines for data
on free-flight, while Durand used reduced size, with similar shape, for wind tunnel data.
Their results were published in 1926 as NACA report #220.[25]
The earliest references for vertical flight came from China. Since around 400
BC,[2] Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys.[3][4][5] This bamboo-copter is
spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor between one's hands. The spinning creates lift,
and the toy flies when released.[2] The 4th-century AD Daoist book Baopuzi by Ge
Hong (抱朴子 "Master who Embraces Simplicity") reportedly describes some of the ideas
inherent to rotary wing aircraft.[6]
Designs similar to the Chinese helicopter toy appeared in Renaissance paintings and other
works.[7]
da Vinci's "aerial screw"
It was not until the early 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci created a design for a machine
that could be described as an "aerial screw", that any recorded advancement was made
towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built small flying models, but there were
no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate.[8][9] As
scientific knowledge increased and became more accepted, man continued to pursue the
idea of vertical flight. Many of these later models and machines would more closely
resemble the ancient bamboo flying top with spinning wings, rather than Leonardo's screw.
In July 1754, Russian Mikhail Lomonosov had developed a small coaxial modeled after
the Chinese top but powered by a wound-up spring device [10] and demonstrated it to
the Russian Academy of Sciences. It was powered by a spring, and was suggested as a
method to lift meteorological instruments. In 1783, Christian de Launoy, and his mechanic,
Bienvenu, used a coaxial version of the Chinese top in a model consisting of
contrarotating turkey flight feathers [10] as rotor blades, and in 1784, demonstrated it to
the French Academy of Sciences. A dirigible airship was described by Jean Baptiste Marie
Meusnier presented in 1783. The drawings depict a 260-foot-long (79 m) streamlined
envelope with internal ballonets that could be used for regulating lift. The airship was
designed to be driven by three propellers. In 1784 Jean-Pierre Blanchard fitted a hand-
powered propeller to a balloon, the first recorded means of propulsion carried aloft.[11] Sir
George Cayley, influenced by a childhood fascination with the Chinese flying top,
developed a model of feathers, similar to that of Launoy and Bienvenu, but powered by
rubber bands. By the end of the century, he had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor
blades and springs for power. His writings on his experiments and models would become
influential on future aviation pioneers.[8]
Prototype created by Mikhail Lomonosov, 1754
William Bland sent designs for his "Atmotic Airship" to the Great Exhibition held in London
in 1851, where a model was displayed. This was an elongated balloon with a steam engine
driving twin propellers suspended underneath.[12][13] Alphonse Pénaud developed coaxial
rotor model helicopter toys in 1870, also powered by rubber bands. In 1872 Dupuy de
Lome launched a large navigable balloon, which was driven by a large propeller turned by
eight men.[14] Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110-foot (34-meter)
wingspan that was powered by two 360-horsepower (270-kW) steam engines driving two
propellers. In 1894, his machine was tested with overhead rails to prevent it from rising.
The test showed that it had enough lift to take off.[15] One of Pénaud's toys, given as a gift
by their father, inspired the Wright brothers to pursue the dream of flight.[16] The
twisted airfoil (aerofoil) shape of an aircraft propeller was pioneered by the Wright brothers.
While some earlier engineers had attempted to model air propellers on marine propellers,
the Wright Brothers realized that a propeller is essentially the same as a wing, and were
able to use data from their earlier wind tunnel experiments on wings, introducing a twist
along the length of the blades. This was necessary to maintain a more uniform angle of
attack of the blade along its length.[17] Their original propeller blades had an efficiency of
about 82%,[18] compared to 90% for a modern (2010) small general aviation propeller, the 3-
blade McCauley used on a Bonanza aircraft.[19] Roper[20] quotes 90% for a propeller for a
human-powered aircraft.
Mahogany was the wood preferred for propellers through World War I, but wartime
shortages encouraged use of walnut, oak, cherry and ash.[21] Alberto Santos Dumont was
another early pioneer, having designed propellers before the Wright Brothers (albeit not as
efficient)[22] for his airships. He applied the knowledge he gained from experiences with
airships to make a propeller with a steel shaft and aluminium blades for his 14 bis
biplane in 1906. Some of his designs used a bent aluminium sheet for blades, thus creating
an airfoil shape. They were heavily undercambered, and this plus the absence of
lengthwise twist made them less efficient than the Wright propellers.[23] Even so, this was
perhaps the first use of aluminium in the construction of an airscrew. Originally, a rotating
airfoil behind the aircraft, which pushes it, was called a propeller, while one which pulled
from the front was a tractor.[24] Later the term 'pusher' became adopted for the rear-mounted
device in contrast to the tractor configuration and both became referred to as 'propellers' or
'airscrews'. The understanding of low speed propeller aerodynamics was fairly complete by
the 1920s, but later requirements to handle more power in a smaller diameter have made
the problem more complex.
Propeller research for National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was directed
by William F. Durand from 1916. Parameters measured included propeller
efficiency, thrust developed, and power absorbed. While a propeller may be tested in
a wind tunnel, its performance in free-flight might differ. At the Langley Memorial
Aeronautical Laboratory, E. P. Leslie used Vought VE-7s with Wright E-4 engines for data
on free-flight, while Durand used reduced size, with similar shape, for wind tunnel data.
Their results were published in 1926 as NACA report #220.[25]