CM2208: Scientific Computing

1. Complex Numbers

Prof. David Marshall

School of Computer Science & Informatics

Imaginary Numbers Complex Numbers MATLAB Phasors

A problem when solving some equations

There are some equations, for example x 2 + 1 = 0, for which we

cannot yet find solutions.

x2 + 1 = 0
x 2 = −1
√
x = ± −1?

The Problem: We cannot (yet) find the square root of a

negative number using real numbers since:
When any real number is squared the result is either positive
or zero, i.e. for all real numbers n2 ≥ 0, n ∈ R1 .

1
we use the symbol R to denote the set of all real numbers
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Imaginary Numbers

We need another category of numbers, the set of numbers

whose squares are negative real numbers.

Members of this set are called imaginary numbers.

√
We define −1 = i (or j in some texts)2

Every imaginary number √ can be written in the form: ni

where n is real and i = −1

2
If you read engineering books rather than maths books you may see j used
in place of i - this is just a quirk in notation
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Imaginary Numbers

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Imaginary Numbers

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Examples: Imaginary Numbers

Examples:
√ √ √ √
−16 = 16 × −1 = 16 × −1 = ±4i
√ √ √ √ √
−3 = 3 × −1 = 3 × −1 = ±i 3
1 √ √ √ √
(−121) 2 = −121 = 123 × −1 = 121 × −1 = ±11i

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Imaginary Number Arithmetic: Addition

Imaginary numbers can be added to or subtracted only from

other imaginary numbers.
Examples:
7i − 2i = 5i
√ √
4i + 3i = (4 + 3)i

(Note: i behaves like a special algebraic variable)

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Imaginary Number Arithmetic: Multiplication

When imaginary numbers are multiplied together the result is a

real number.

Example:
2i × 5i = 10 × i 2

√
but we know i = −1 , and therefore i 2 = −1

Hence 10 × i 2 = 10 × −1 = −10

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Imaginary Number Arithmetic: Division

Imaginary numbers when divided give a real number result.

Example:
6i
=2
3i

Powers of i may be simplified

Examples:

i 3 = i 2 × i = − − 1 × i = −i
√ √ √
i −1 = 1
= √1 = √1 × √−1 = −1
= − −1 = −i
i −1 −1 −1 −1

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Complex Numbers

Case 1: The need for Complex Numbers

Consider the quadratic equation x 2 + 2x + 2 = 0.
Using the quadratic formula we get:
√ p √
−b ± b 2 − 4ac −2 ± 22 − 4(2) −2 ± −4 −2 ± 2i
x= = = = = −1±i
2a 2 2 2

So x = −1 + i or−1 − i
x is now a number with a real number part (1) and an
imaginary number part (±i).

x is an example of a complex number.

Recall: If b 2 − 4ac < 0 then the equation has complex roots.
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CM2104 RECAP: The 3 possible discriminant cases

visualised
f(x) = x2 f(x) = x2 − 4 f(x) = 3x2 + x + 2
25
80
20

70

20
15 60

50
15
10
40

10
5 30

20

5
0
10

0
0 −5 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5

(i) Two equal roots (ii) Two distinct roots (iii) No real roots
The above diagrams of ax 2 + bx + c (a 6= 0) show the three
possible cases:
In (i) the curve touches the x-axis, i.e. for y = 0 there are
two equal values of x — b 2 − 4ac = 0.
In (ii) the curve cuts the x-axis, i.e. for y = 0 there are two
real distinct values of x, i.e. real roots — b 2 − 4ac > 0.
In (iii) the does not cut the x-axis, i.e. for y = 0 there is no
real values of x, i.e. complex roots — b 2 − 4ac < 0.
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Complex Numbers
Case 2: The need for Complex Numbers
Very Useful Mathematical Representation, to name a few:
Widely used in many branches of Mathematics, Engineering,
Physics and other scientific disciplines
Control theory
Advanced calculus: Improper integrals, Differential equations, Dynamic
equations
Fluid dynamics — potential flow, flow fields
Electromagnetism and electrical engineering: Alternating current, phase
induced in systems
Quantum mechanics
Relativity
Geometry: Fractals (e.g. the Mandelbrot set and Julia sets), Triangles —
Steiner inellipse
Algebraic number theory
Analytic number theory

Signal analysis: Essential for digital signal and image

processing (Phasors) — studied later.
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Definition: Complex Numbers

A complex number is a number of the form z = a + bi

that is a number which has a real and an imaginary part.

a and b can have any real value including 0. (a, b ∈ R )

E.g. 3 + 2i, 6 − 3i, −2 + 4i.

Note: the real term is always written first, even where
negative.
Note: This means that
when a = 0 we have numbers of the form bi i.e. only
imaginary numbers
when b = 0 we have numbers of the form a i.e. real numbers.

The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C.

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Real and Imaginary Parts, Notation

Mathematical Notation:
The set of all real numbers is denoted by R
The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C
The real part of a complex number z is denoted by
Re(z) or <(z)
The imaginary part of a complex number z is denoted by
Im(z) or =(z)

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Example: Real and Imaginary Parts

Find the real and imaginary parts of:

z = 1 + 7i — real part <(z) = 1 , imaginary part =(z) = 7

z = 2 − 4i — real part <(z) = 2, imaginary part =(z) = −4
z = −3 — real part <(z) = −3, imaginary part =(z) = 0
√ √
z = i 3 — real part <(z) = 0, imaginary part =(z) = 3

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Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers

Complex Numbers can be added (or subtracted) by adding (or

subtracting) their real and imaginary parts separately.

Examples:

(2 + 3i) + (4 − i) = 6 + 2i
(4 − 2i) − (3 + 5i) = 1 − 7i

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Multiplication of Complex Numbers

Complex Number Multiplication:
Follows the basic laws of polynomial multiplication and
imaginary number multiplication (recall i 2 = −1)
Then gather real and imaginary terms to simplify the
expression.
Examples:
2(5 − 3i) = 10 − 6i
(2 + 3i)(4 − i) = 8 − 2i + 12i − 3i 2 = 8 + 10i − 3(−1) =
8 + 10i + 3 = 11 + 10i
(−3−5i)(2+3i) = −6−9i −10i −15i 2 = −6−19i +15 = 9−19i
(2 + 3i)(2 − 3i) = 4 − 6i + 6i − 9i 2 = 4 + 9 = 13
Note that in the last example the product of the two complex
numbers is a real number.
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The Complex Conjugate

In general (a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 + b 2

A pair of complex numbers of this form are said to be
conjugate.

Examples:
4 + 5i and 4 − 5i are conjugate complex numbers.
7 − 3i is the conjugate of 7 + 3i

If z is a complex number (z ∈ C) the notation for its conjugate

is z orz ∗ .

Example:
z = 7 − 3i then z = 7 + 3i

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Division of Complex Numbers

Problem: How to evaluate/simplify:

a + bi
z= , a, b, c, d ∈ R
c + di

Can we express z in the normal complex number form:

z = e + fi, e, f ∈ R?

Direct division by a complex number cannot be carried out:

The denominator is made up of two independent terms
The real and imaginary part of the complex number c + di
We have to follow the basic laws of algebraic division.

The complex conjugate comes to the rescue.

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Complex Number Division: Realising the Denominator

Problem: Express z (below) in the form z = e + fi, a, b ∈ R:

a + bi
z= , a, b, c, d ∈ R
c + di

We need to deal with the denominator, zd . Here zd = c + di.

We can readily obtain the complex conjugate of zd ,
zd = c − di
We have already observed that any complex number × its
conjugate is a real number, zd × zd ∈ R: c 2 + d 2
So to remove i from the denominator we can multiply both
numerator and denominator by zd

This process is known as realising the denominator.

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Example: Division of Complex Numbers

Express z (below) in the form z = a + bi, a, b ∈ R:

2 + 9i
z=
5 − 2i

We need to deal with the denominator,zd . Here zd = 5 − 2i.

Obtain complex conjugate of zd , zd = 5 + 2i
Multiply both numerator and denominator byzd

2 + 9i 5 + 2i 10 + 4i + 45i + 18i 2
× =
5 − 2i 5 + 2i 25 − 4i 2
−8 + 49i
=
29
−8 49
= + i
29 29
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Comparing Complex Numbers: Equality

Two complex numbers, z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di , are equal if

and only if
the real parts of each are equal
AND
the imaginary parts are equal.

That is to say:
<(z1 ) = <(z2 ) or a = c,
AND
=(z1 ) = =(z2 ) or b = d

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Example: Comparing Complex Numbers

Example:
If x + iy = (3 − 2i)(5 + i) what are the values of x and y ?

x + iy = (3 − 2i)(5 + i)
= 15 + 3i − 10i + 2i 2
= 13 − 7i

So x = 13 and y = −7.

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Corollary: The complex number zero

A complex number is zero if and only if the real part and the
imaginary part are both zero i.e.

a + bi = 0 ↔ a = 0 and b = 0.

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Visualising Complex Numbers: The Complex Plane

A complex number, z = a + ib, is made up of two parts,

The real part, a and,
The imaginary part, b

One way we may visualise this is by plotting these on a 2D graph:

The x-axis represents the real numbers, and
The y-axis represents the imaginary numbers.

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Visualising Complex Numbers: Argand Diagrams

The complex number z = a + ib may then be represented in the
complex plane by
the point P whose co-ordinates are (a, b)
or,
the vector OP, where O is the point at the origin, (0, 0)

" "
or or
Im Im

b P (a, b) b a + bi

O a ! or Re O a ! or Re
,
This representation is known as the Argand diagram.
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Exercise: Complex Numbers and Argand Diagram

Given z1 = 3 − 2i and z2 = 5 + 2i draw an Argand diagram for:

z1

z2

z1 + z2

z1 − z2

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Visualising Complex Numbers: Adding Complex Numbers

Generally, givenz1 = a1 + b1 i and z2 == a2 + b2 i then:
z1 + z2 = (a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 )i
z2

z1
z1 + z2
z1

z2

If we plot two complex numbers on an Argand diagram then

we see
that they form two adjacent sides of a parallelogram
their sum forms the diagonal.
Basic Laws of Vector Algebra
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Visualising Complex Numbers: Polar Form

Polar Coordinates: An alternative system of coordinates in

which the position of any point P can be described in terms of
The distance, r , of P from the origin, O, and
The angle/direction, φ, that the line OP makes with the
positive real <-axis (or, more generally x-axis)

a P (a, b)

"
r b

φ
!
O

This is the polar form of complex numbers

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The Polar Form of Complex Numbers

In relation to complex numbers, we call the polar coordinate terms:

The modulus,r ,
p
r = |z| = a2 + b 2
(Note this is a simple application of Pythagoras’ theorem.)
The argument or phase,φ,

b b
(Simply) φ = arg z = argument z = arctan( ) = tan−1 ( )
a a
(Note: This is a simple application of basic trigonometry)
to make up what is known as the polar coordinates of a point.

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The Polar Form: More on the Argument

We can measure the Argument is two ways: Both depend on which

quadrant of complex plane the point resides in:
P P

" "
r r

φ
φ
! !
O O

Quadrant 1 Quadrant 2

" "

φ φ

! !
O O

r r

1 1

P P

Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
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The Polar Form: More on the Argument

φ ∈ [0, 2π) — All angles, φ, were measured anticlockwise from
the +ive real axis: therefore φ must be in the range 0 to 2π
P P

" "
r r

φ
φ
! !
O O

Quadrant 1 Quadrant 2

" "

φ φ

! !
O O

r r

1 1

P P

Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
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Imaginary Numbers Complex Numbers MATLAB Phasors

The Polar Form: Argument Alternative Angle

Measurement
Alternatively:
φ ∈ (−π, π] — (not illustrated) measure smallest spanned
angle from +ive real axis: φ measured in range −π to π.

arctan( ba )

 if x >0
arctan( ba ) + π

if x <0 and y ≥0




arctan( ba ) − π if x <0 and y <0

φ = arg z = π

 2 if x =0 and y >0
− π2 <0



 if x =0 and y

indeterminate if x =0 and y =0

The polar angle for the complex number 0 is undefined, but usual
arbitrary choice is the angle 0.
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Examples: Modulus and Argument

Find the modulus and argument of each of the following:
1+i
√ √
Modulus r = |1 + i| = 12 + 12 = 2
Sketching the Argand diagram indicates that we are in the
first quadrant, therefore positive angle, φ between 0 and 90.
Argument = arctan( 11 ) = 45◦ or π4 radians
√1 − i √12
2

Modulus q q
r = | √12 − i √12 | = ( √12 )2 + (− √12 )2 = 12 + 12 = 1
Sketching the Argand diagram indicates that we are in the
fourth quadrant, therefore angle is negative between 0 and 90
(or between 270 and 360) degrees.
(− √12 )
Argument = arctan( √1 ) = arctan(−1) = −45◦ or 315◦
2
(Radians sim.)
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Exercise: Modulus and Argument

Find the modulus and argument of each of the following:

−1.35 + 2.56i

√
1 3
4 + 4 i

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Converting between Cartesian and Polar forms

The form of a complex number in this system (polar co-ordinates)

are the pairs [r , φ] or [modulus, argument].
We have already seen how to convert from Cartesian (a, b) to
Polar [r , φ] via:
√
r = |z| = a2 + b 2
φ = arg z = arctan( ba )

a P (a, b)

"
r b

φ
!
O

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Polar to Cartesian Conversion

Can we convert from Polar [r , φ] to Cartesian (a, b)?

Simple trigonometry gives us the solution:

r cos φ P (r cos φ, r sin φ)

"
r r sin φ

φ
!
O

a = r cos φ
b = r sin φ
Giving z = a + bi

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Exercise

Find the Cartesian Co-ordinates of the Complex Point

P[4, 30◦ ].

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Trigonometric form
From last slide
a = r cos φ
b = r sin φ
Giving z = a + bi

So if we substitute for a and b we get:

z = r cos φ + r sin φ × i
= r(cos φ + i sin φ)

This is known as the

trigonometric form of a complex number
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MATLAB and Complex Numbers

MATLAB knows about complex numbers

>> s q r t ( −1)
ans = 0 + 1.0000 i

% S y m b o l i c Eqns S o l n
>> syms x ;
>> f = x ˆ2 + 1 ;
>> s o l v e ( f )
ans =

i
−i

% Polynomial Roots
>> p = [ 1 0 1 ] ;
>> r o o t s ( p )
ans =

0 + 1.0000 i
0 − 1.0000 i

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Declaring Complex Numbers in MATLAB

Simply use i in an expression or the complex() function

% Must u s e ∗ o p e r a t o r w i t h i e v e n t h o u g h t h i s i s not d i s p l a y e d
>> c1 = 3 + 4∗ i
c1 =

3.0000 + 4.0000 i

% MATLAB a l s o a l l o w s t h e u s e o f j
>> c2 = 2 + 4∗ j
c2 =

2.0000 + 4.0000 i

% What I a l r e a d y h a v e a v a r i a b l e i ( or j ) e .g. for i =1: n ?

>> c3 = c o m p l e x ( 1 , 2 )
c3 =

1.0000 + 2.0000 i

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MATLAB: real, imaginary, magnitude and phase

MATLAB provides functions to obtain these

>> c = 4+3∗ i
c =
4.0000 + 3.0000 i

% Real part , Imaginary part , and Absolute value

>> [ r e a l ( c ) , imag ( c ) , a b s ( c ) ]
ans =
4 3 5

% A c o m p l e x number o f m a g n i t u d e 11 and p h a s e a n g l e 0 . 7 r a d i a n s
>> z = 1 1 ∗ ( c o s ( 0 . 7 ) + s i n ( 0 . 7 ) ∗ i )
z =
8.4133 + 7.0864 i

% R e c o v e r t h e m a g n i t u d e and p h a s e o f ” z ”
>> [ a b s ( z ) , a n g l e ( z ) ]
ans =
11.0000 0.7000

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MATLAB understands Trig. form of a complex number

From the last slide example:
You can declare in trig. form but MATLAB coverts to normal
representation

% T r i g . Form : A c o m p l e x number o f
% m a g n i t u d e 11 and p h a s e a n g l e 0 . 7 r a d i a n s
>> z = 1 1 ∗ ( c o s ( 0 . 7 ) + s i n ( 0 . 7 ) ∗ i )
z =
8.4133 + 7.0864 i

% So Need t o u s e a b s ( ) and a n g l e ( ) t o
% R e c o v e r t h e m a g n i t u d e and p h a s e o f ” z ”
>> [ a b s ( z ) , a n g l e ( z ) ]
ans =
11.0000 0.7000
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MATLAB Complex Arithmetic

Behaves as one would expect

>> c1 = 3 + 4∗ i ;
>> c2 = 2 + 4∗ j ;
>> c1 + c2
ans = 5.0000 + 8.0000 i

>> c1 − c2
ans = 1

>> i ˆ2
a n s = −1

>> c1 ∗ c2
a n s = −10.0000 +20.0000 i

>> c1 / c2
ans = 1.1000 − 0.2000 i

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Plotting Polar Coordinates in MATLAB

MATLAB provide useful plotting functions for general Polar

Coordinates
This is not exclusively for Complex Numbers.
The MATLAB function polar() achieves this:
polar() — Polar coordinate plot
polar(Theta , Radius ) makes a plot using polar
coordinates of the angle Theta , in radians, versus the radius
Radius. polar(Theta, Radius, S) uses the linestyle
specified in string S.
similar to plot() in terms of styles
Note the order! Theta first then Radius!

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polar() Example

Plotting Polar Representation of a Complex Number

>> z = 1 1 ∗ ( c o s ( 0 . 7 ) + s i n ( 0 . 7 ) ∗ i )

z =

8.4133 + 7.0864 i

>> p o l a r ( [ 0 a n g l e ( z ) ] , [ 0 a b s ( z ) ] , ’ − r ’ ) ;

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polar(angle(z),abs(z)) Plot Output

90
15
120 60

10

150 30

180 0

210 330

240 300

270

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compass() Plot

The compass() knows how to plot a complex number directly:

compass() Example

>> c1 = 3 + 4∗ i ;
>> compass ( c1 ) ;

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compass(c1); Plot Output

90
5
120 60
4

3
150 30
2

180 0

210 330

240 300

270

Note: c1 automatically converted to polar form

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Euler’s Formula: Phasor Form

Euler’s Formula3 states that we can express the trigonometric form
as:

eiφ = cos φ + i sin φ, φ ∈ R

Exercise: Show that

e−iφ = cos φ − i sin φ

This is also known as phasor form or Phasors , for

short.
Note: Phasors and the related trigonometric form are very
important to Fourier Theory which we study later.
3
we won’t prove this here. Proof here if interested
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Phasor Notation

General Phasor Form: re iφ

More generally we use re iφ where:

re iφ = r (cos φ + i sin φ)

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MATLAB Speaks the Phasor Language

MATLAB Complex No. Phasor Declaration

>> exp ( i ∗ ( p i / 4 ) )

ans = 0.7071 + 0.7071 i

>> [ a b s ( z ) , a n g l e ( z ) ]

ans = 1.0000 0.7854

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Phasors are stunning!

Phasers on stun!

Phasors are stunning!

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Phasors are very useful mathematical tools

Can simplify Trigonometric proofs, Trig. expression

manipulation etc
Can do Trigonometry without Trigonometry (well almost!)
Electrical Signals: Can apply simplify AC circuits to DC circuit
theory (e.g. Ohm’s Law)!
Power engineering: Three phase AC power systems analysis
Signal Processing: Fourier Theory, Filters

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Trig. Example: sin and cos as functions of e

From Euler’s Formula we can write:

eiφ + e−iφ
cos φ =
2

eiφ − e−iφ
sin φ =
2i

Prove the above

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Trig. Exercise: Powers of the Trigonometric Form (de

Moivre’s Theorem)

If n is an integer then show that:

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ.

This is known as de Moivre’s Theorem

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Complex Number Multiplication in Polar Form

Let z1 = [r1 , φ1 ] and z2 = [r2 , φ2 ] then
z1 = r1 (cos φ1 + i sin φ1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos φ2 + i sin φ2 )
Therefore:
z1 z2 = [r1 (cos φ1 + i sin φ1 )] × [r2 (cos φ2 + i sin φ2 )]
= r1 r2 [(cos φ1 + i sin φ1 ) × (cos φ2 + i sin φ2 )]
= r1 r2 [cos φ1 cos φ2 − sin φ1 sin φ2
+i(cos φ1 sin φ2 + sin φ1 cos φ2 )]
From trigonometry we have the following relations:
sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B,
cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B,
So finally we have:
z1 z2 = r1 r2 [cos(φ1 + φ2 ) + i sin(φ1 + φ2 )]
z1 z2 = [r1 r2 , φ1 + φ2 ]
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Complex Number Multiplication via Phasors

Alternatively, we can multiply complex numbers via Phasors:
z1 = r1 e iφ1 and z2 = r2 e iφ2 .
Therefore:

z1 z2 = r1 e iφ1 × r2 e iφ2
= r1 r2 e iφ1 e iφ2

Now in general, e x e y = e (x+y )

So we get: z1 z2 = r1 r2 e i(φ1 +φ2 ) which (as we should expect) gives:

z1 z2 = [r1 r2 , φ1 + φ2 ]

This is a much easier way to prove this fact —

Agree?4
4
This sort of algebra is important for Fourier Theory later
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Complex Number Division in Phasor Form

Sticking with the Phasor formulation, we can divide two complex
numbers:
z1 = r1 e iφ1 and z2 = r2 e iφ2 .
Therefore:
z1 r1 e iφ1
=
z2 r2 e iφ2
r1 e iφ1
=
r2 e iφ2
r1 iφ1 −iφ2
= e e , by a same argument as in multiplication
r2
r1 i(φ1 −φ2 )
= e
r2
z1 r1
= [ , φ1 − φ2 ]
z2 r2
Exercise: Prove this formula via the trigonometric polar form —
yawn!.
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Exercises: Complex Number Multiplication and Division

√ √ √
z1
If z1 = 3 2 + 3 2i and z2 = 3 2 3 + 32 i, find z1 z2 and z2 ,
leave your answer in polar form.

√
3 3
Evaluate ( 21 + 2 i) , give your answer in Cartesian form.

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Complex Number Multiplication: Geometric Representation

Multiplying a complex number z = x + iy by i rotates the vector

representing z through 90◦ anticlockwise
Example: Let z1 = 1.
Then
z2 = iz1 = i.

Polar form of z1 = [1, 0◦ ].

Polar form of z2 = [1, 90◦ ], Q.E.D.

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Back to Phase: Important Example

Concept: A phasor is a complex number used to represent a

sinusoid.

In particular:

Sinusoid : x(t) = M cos(ωt + φ), −∞ < t < ∞ — a function of

time
Phasor : X = Me iφ = M cos(φ) + iM sin(φ) — a complex
number

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Complex Numbers and Phase: Important Example

Phasors and Sinusoids are related:

<[Xe iωt ] = <[Me iφ e iωt ]

= <[Me i(ωt+φ )]
= <[M(cos(ωt + φ) + i sin(ωt + φ))
= M cos(ωt + φ)
= x(t)

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Visualising Sinusoids of differing Phase, Amplitude and

Frequency

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MATLAB Sine Wave Frequency and Amplitude (only)

% N a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y i s 2∗ p i r a d i a n s
% I f s a m p l e r a t e i s F s HZ t h e n 1 HZ i s 2∗ p i / F s
% I f wave f r e q u e n c y i s F w t h e n f r e q u e n c y i s
% F w∗ ( 2 ∗ p i / F s )
% s e t n s a m p l e s s t e p s up t o sum d u r a t i o n n s e c ∗ F s where
% nsec i s the duration in seconds
% So we g e t y = amp∗ s i n ( 2 ∗ p i ∗n∗F w/ F s ) ;

F s = 11025;
F w = 440;
nsec = 2;
d u r= n s e c ∗ F s ;
n = 0 : dur ;

y = amp∗ s i n ( 2 ∗ p i ∗n∗F w/ F s ) ;
f i g u r e (1)
plot (y (1:500));
t i t l e ( ’N s e c o n d D u r a t i o n S i n e Wave ’ ) ;
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MATLAB Cos v Sin Wave

% C o s i n e i s same a s S i n e ( e x c e p t 90 d e g r e e s o u t o f p h a s e )

y c = amp∗ c o s ( 2 ∗ p i ∗n∗F w/ F s ) ;

figure (2);
h o l d on ;
p l o t ( yc , ’ b ’ ) ;
plot (y , ’ r ’ ) ;
t i t l e ( ’ Cos ( B l u e ) / S i n ( Red ) P l o t ( Note Phase D i f f e r e n c e ) ’ ) ;
hold o f f ;

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Sin and Cos (stem) plots

MATLAB functions cos() and sin().

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Amplitudes of a Sine Wave

Code for sinampdemo.m

% S i m p l e S i n A m p l i t u d e Demo
samp freq = 400;
dur = 800; % 2 seconds
amp = 1 ; p h a s e = 0 ; f r e q = 1 ;
s 1 = m y s i n ( amp , f r e q , p h a s e , dur , s a m p f r e q ) ;

a x i s x = ( 1 : dur )∗360/ samp freq ; % x a x i s i n d e g r e e s

p l o t ( a x i s x , s1 ) ;
s e t ( gca , ’ XTick ’ , [ 0 : 9 0 : a x i s x ( end ) ] ) ;

f p r i n t f ( ’ I n i t i a l Wave : \ t A m p l i t u d e = . . . \ n ’ , amp ,
f r e q , phase , . . . ) ;

% change a m p l i t u d e
amp = i n p u t ( ’ \ n E n t e r A m p l i t u d e : \ n\n ’ ) ;

s 2 = m y s i n ( amp , f r e q , p h a s e , dur , s a m p f r e q ) ;
h o l d on ;
p l o t ( a x i s x , s2 , ’ r ’ ) ;
s e t ( gca , ’ XTick ’ , [ 0 : 9 0 : a x i s x ( end ) ] ) ;
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mysin MATLAB code

mysin.m — a modified version of previous MATLAB sin example to account for

phase

f u n c t i o n s = m y s i n ( amp , f r e q , phase , dur , s a m p f r e q )

% e x a m p l e f u n c t i o n t o s o show how a m p l i t u d e , f r e q u e n c y
% and p h a s e a r e c h a nge d i n a s i n f u n c t i o n
% I n p u t s : amp − a m p l i t u d e o f t h e wave
% f r e q − f r e q u e n c y o f t h e wave
% p h a s e − p h a s e o f t h e wave i n d e g r e e
% d u r − d u r a t i o n i n number o f s a m p l e s
% samp freq − sample f r e q u n c y

x = 0 : dur −1;
phase = phase ∗ p i /180;

s = amp∗ s i n ( 2∗ p i ∗ x ∗ f r e q / s a m p f r e q + p h a s e ) ;

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Amplitudes of a Sine Wave: sinampdemo output

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720

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Frequencies of a Sine Wave

Code (fragment) for sinfreqdemo.m

% S i m p l e S i n F r e q u e n c y Demo
samp freq = 400;
dur = 800; % 2 seconds
amp = 1 ; p h a s e = 0 ; f r e q = 1 ;
s 1 = m y s i n ( amp , f r e q , p h a s e , dur , s a m p f r e q ) ;

a x i s x = ( 1 : dur )∗360/ samp freq ; % x a x i s i n d e g r e e s

p l o t ( a x i s x , s1 ) ;
s e t ( gca , ’ XTick ’ , [ 0 : 9 0 : a x i s x ( end ) ] ) ;

f p r i n t f ( ’ I n i t i a l Wave : \ t A m p l i t u d e = %d\n ’ , amp , f r e q ,

% change a m p l i t u d e
f r e q = i n p u t ( ’ \ n E n t e r F r e q u e n c y : \ n\n ’ ) ;

s 2 = m y s i n ( amp , f r e q , p h a s e , dur , s a m p f r e q ) ;
h o l d on ;
p l o t ( a x i s x , s2 , ’ r ’ ) ;
s e t ( gca , ’ XTick ’ , [ 0 : 9 0 : a x i s x ( end ) ] ) ;
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Frequencies of a Sine Wave: sinfreqdemo output

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720

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Imaginary Numbers Complex Numbers MATLAB Phasors

Phase of a Sine Wave

sinphasedemo.m (Fragment)

% S i m p l e S i n Phase Demo
samp freq = 400;
dur = 800; % 2 seconds
amp = 1 ; p h a s e = 0 ; f r e q = 1 ;
s 1 = m y s i n ( amp , f r e q , p h a s e , dur , s a m p f r e q ) ;

a x i s x = ( 1 : dur )∗360/ samp freq ; % x a x i s i n d e g r e e s

p l o t ( a x i s x , s1 ) ;
s e t ( gca , ’ XTick ’ , [ 0 : 9 0 : a x i s x ( end ) ] ) ;

f f p r i n t f ( ’ I n i t i a l Wave : \ t A m p l i t u d e = %d\n ’ , amp , f r e q ,

% change a m p l i t u d e
p h a s e = i n p u t ( ’ \ n E n t e r Phase : \ n\n ’ ) ;

s 2 = m y s i n ( amp , f r e q , p h a s e , dur , s a m p f r e q ) ;
h o l d on ;
p l o t ( a x i s x , s2 , ’ r ’ ) ;
s e t ( gca , ’ XTick ’ , [ 0 : 9 0 : a x i s x ( end ) ] ) ;
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Imaginary Numbers Complex Numbers MATLAB Phasors

Phase of a Sine Wave: sinphasedemo output

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630

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Imaginary Numbers Complex Numbers MATLAB Phasors

Sum of Two Sinusoids of Same Frequency (1)

Hopefully we now have a good understanding and can visualise

Sinusoids of different phase, amplitude and frequency.

Back to Phasors: X = Me iφ = M cos(φ) + iM sin(φ)

Consider two sinusoids: Same frequency, ω but different phase, θ

and φ and amplitude, A and B

A cos(ωt + θ), and

B cos(ωt + φ)

Let’s add them together

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Sum of Two Sinusoids of Same Frequency (2)

A cos(ωt + θ) + B cos(ωt + φ) = <[Ae i(ωt+θ) + Be i(ωt+φ) ]

= <[e iωt (Ae iθ + Be iφ )]

Now let Ae iθ + Be iφ = Ce iγ for some C and γ, then

<[e iωt (Ae iθ + Be iφ )] = <[e iωt (Ce iγ )]

= C cos(ωt + γ)

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Sum of Two Sinusoids of Same Frequency (3)

Trigonometry Equation

A cos(ωt + θ) + B cos(ωt + φ) = C cos(ωt + γ)

Equivalent Complex Number Equation

Ae iθ + Be iφ = Ce iγ

Which is neater? Let’s see

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Example: Sum of Two Sinusoids of Same Frequency (1)

Simplify √
5 cos(ωt + 53◦ ) + 2 cos(ωt + 45◦ )

Hard way via trigonometry

Use the cosine addition formula three times
see maths formula sheet handout for formula
Third time to simplify the result.
Not difficult but tedious!

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Example: Sum of Two Sinusoids of Same Frequency (2)

Easy Way Phasors

◦ √ ◦
<[5e i53 + 2e i45 ] = (3 + 4i) + (1 + i)
= (4 + 5i)
◦
= 6.4e i51

So:
√ ◦
5 cos(ωt + 53◦ ) + 2 cos(ωt + 45◦ ) = <[6.4e i(wt+51 ) ]
= 6.4 cos(ωt + 51◦ )

This is a very important example - make sure you

understand it.
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Another Example (1)

Simplify
cos(ωt + 30◦ ) + cos(ωt + 150◦ ) + sin(ωt)
First trick to note:

sin(ωt) = cos(ωt − 90◦ )

So now simplify:

cos(ωt + 30◦ ) + cos(ωt + 150◦ ) + cos(ωt − 90◦ )

Hard way via trigonometry

Use the cosine addition formula three times
see maths formula sheet handout for formula
Not difficult but tedious!
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Another Example (2)

Easy Way Phasors

◦ ◦ ◦
e i30 + e i150 + e −i90 = e i90 (= i)
So we get:
<[e i90 ] = cos(90◦ )
= 0

So:

cos(ωt + 30◦ ) + cos(ωt + 150◦ ) + cos(ωt − 90◦ ) = 0

or
cos(ωt + 30◦ ) + cos(ωt + 150◦ ) + sin(ωt) = 0

This fact is used in three-phase AC to conserve

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