DF1 – Getting energy from fuels
Standard conditions- 1 atm pressure, 298K (25°C), 1 mol/dm³)
Enthalpy change of combustion- enthalpy change when 1 mol of a substance burns completely in
oxygen
Enthalpy change of formation- enthalpy change when 1 mol of a compound is formed from its
elements in their standard states
Enthalpy change of neutralisation- enthalpy change when 1 mol of H+ ions reacts with 1 mol of OH-
ions to form 1 mol of H₂O
Average bond enthalpy- the quantity of energy needed to break a particular bond in a molecule
Calorimetry- measuring energy changes when burning fuels
Q= m x c x ΔT
Q= energy transferred (J)
M= mass of water (g)
C= 4.2 Jg⁻¹Kg⁻¹
ΔT= temp change (K)
Limitations- heat loss to surroundings and evaporation of fuel
DF2- Enthalpy cycles
Hess’s Law- the enthalpy change for any reaction is independent of the intermediate stages
DF3- Hydrocarbons and alkanes
Aromatic compound- compounds with one or more benzene rings
Aliphatic compound- compounds with no benzene rings
Functional group- modifiers responsible for characteristic chemical reactions of a molecule e.g. OH
for alcohol
Homologous series- series of compounds in which all members have the same general molecular
formula
Isomer- same molecular formula, different arrangement
Alkyl groups- branches on carbon chains
DF4- Calculating bond enthalpies
1. Write up balanced equation
2. Draw full structural formulae for reactants and products
3. Work out which bonds are broken and calculate enthalpies
4. Work out which bonds are formed and calculate enthalpies
5. Find the difference
6. Work out how much energy is needed
DF5- Cracking and catalysts
Catalysis- process of using a catalyst
Catalyst poison- substance that stops a catalyst from working properly
Homogeneous catalysis- catalyst and reactants in the same physical state e.g. enzymes in aqueous
Heterogeneous catalysis- catalyst and reactants in different physical states e.g. Haber process
Reactants are adsorbed onto the active site on the catalyst
Once adsorbed, the bonds between reactants weaken and break
New bonds form to make the products
The product desorbs from the surface of the catalyst
DF6- Alkenes
C-C-C=C is But-1-ene
C-C=C=C is Buta-1-2-diene
Sigma bonds- bonds between 2 atoms in a single bond
Pi bonds- 2 areas of electron density above and below the plane
Electrophile- a positive ion/molecule that attracts to a negatively charged region and accepts
a lone pair of electrons to form a covalent bond
Electrophilic addition- an electrophilic molecule attaches and joins on
1. The bromine molecule becomes polarised as it approaches the alkene. The electrons
are repelled by the alkene electrons and pushed back along the molecule so one
atom becomes slightly positively charged and one negatively charged.
2. The positively charged bromine atom acts as an electrophile and reacts with the
double bond.
3. One of the carbon atoms now only has 6 outer electrons and becomes a carbocation
4. It reacts rapidly with the bromide ion to form a C-Br covalent bond
DF7- Polymers
Polymerisation- small molecules called monomers joining up to make long chain polymers
Copolymerisation- More than one type of monomer used in addition polymerisation e.g. ethene and
propene
DF8- Burning Fuels
Pressure: 1Pa = 1Nm⁻²
Ideal Gas Equation: pV=nRT
P= pressure (pa)
V= volume (m³)
N= amount of gas (mol)
R= gas constant (8.31JK⁻¹mol⁻¹)
T= temperature (K)
DF9- Geometric Isomerisation
Also known as cis-trans isomerisation or E-Z isomerisation
If two of the same molecule are locked on the same side then it is a Z or cis molecule
If the molecules are locked on opposite sides then it is an E or trans molecule
The E or trans isomer has a higher melting point and a higher intermolecular attraction.
When the atoms are on opposite sides, the molecules can line up close together and
increase attraction.
If they are on the same side, the larger atoms will get in the way
Naming alcohols
1. Name the alcohol using the root prefix of the longest chain
2. Determine the position of the –OH group, by counting carbons
3. Add ‘ol’ at the end of the name
Naming haloalkanes
Use chloro-, bromo- etc. to indicate a halogen atom substituted for a hydrogen atom
DF10- Atmospheric Pollutants
Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and Nitrogen oxide (NO) react with H₂O in the atmosphere
They form sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) and nitric acid (2HNO₃)
This falls as acid rain
DF11- Other fuels
Biofuels
Ethanol- made from fermentation of carbohydrate crops such as sugar cane, too volatile on its
own
Biodiesel- made by chemically reacting fats with an alcohol producing fatty esters. This process
is called trans-esterification
Advantages- it can be made from waste oil not fossil-fuel based oil
-Carbon-neutral and biodegradable if spilled
-Virtually no sulfur so no sulfur oxides emitted
-Produces less particulates, CO and hydrocarbons than petrol and diesel
Disadvantages- produces more nitrogen oxides than fossil fuels
Hydrogen- when it combusts it just makes water
Advantages- renewable and can be made by electrolysis of water
-Easy to store and transport. Can be used in a fuel cell to generate electricity.
-Produces no CO2, CO or hydrocarbons when burnt.
Disadvantages- production from water often depends on the use of electricity from power
stations
-doesn’t release as much energy per gram as petrol
-nitrogen oxides are produced in hydrogen internal combustion engines due to the high temp