CS 321-Analysis of Algorithms
Lecture 02
Instructor: Asim Rehan
arehan@[Link]
National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad
1
Recursion
Basic problem solving technique is to divide a
problem into smaller subproblems
These subproblems may also be divided into smaller
subproblems
When the subproblems are small enough to solve
directly the process stops
A recursive algorithm is a problem solution that has
been expressed in terms of two or more easier to
solve subproblems
What is recursion?
A procedure that is defined in terms of itself
In a computer language a function that calls itself
Recursion
A recursive definition is one which is defined in terms of itself.
Examples:
• A phrase is a "palindrome" if the 1st and last letters are the same,
and what's inside is itself a palindrome (or empty or a single letter
• Rotor
• Rotator
• 12344321
Recursion
• The definition of the natural numbers:
1 is a natural number
N=
if n is a natural number, then n+1 is a natural number
Recursion in Computer Science
1. Recursive data structure: A data structure that is partially
composed of smaller or simpler instances of the same data
structure.
For instance, a tree is composed of smaller trees (subtrees) and
leaf nodes, and a list may have other lists as elements.
a data structure may contain a pointer to a variable of the same
type:
struct Node {
int data;
Node *next;
};
Recursive procedure: a procedure that invokes itself
Recursive definitions: if A and B are postfix
expressions, then A B + is a postfix expression.
Recursive Data Structures
Linked lists and trees are recursive data structures:
struct Node {
int data;
Node *next;
};
struct TreeNode {
int data;
TreeNode *left;
TreeNode * right;
};
Recursive data structures suggest recursive algorithms.
A mathematical look
We are familiar with
f(x) = 3x+5
How about
f(x) = 3x+5 if x > 10 or
f(x) = f(x+2) -3 otherwise
Calculate f(5)
f(x) = 3x+5 if x > 10 or
f(x) = f(x+2) -3 otherwise
f(5) = f(7)-3
f(7) = f(9)-3
f(9) = f(11)-3
f(11) = 3(11)+5
= 38
But we have not determined what f(5) is yet!
Calculate f(5)
f(x) = 3x+5 if x > 10 or
f(x) = f(x+2) -3 otherwise
f(5) = f(7)-3 = 29
f(7) = f(9)-3 = 32
f(9) = f(11)-3 = 35
f(11) = 3(11)+5
= 38
Working backwards we see that f(5)=29
Series of calls
f(5)
f(7)
f(9)
f(11)
Recursion
Recursion occurs when a function/procedure calls itself.
Many algorithms can be best described in terms of recursion.
Example: Factorial function
The product of the positive integers from 1 to n inclusive is
called "n factorial", usually denoted by n!:
n! = 1 * 2 * 3 .... (n-2) * (n-1) * n
Recursive Definition of the Factorial
Function
1, if n = 0
n! =
n * (n-1)! if n > 0
5! = 5 * 4! = 5 * 24 = 120
4! = 4 * 3! = 4 * 3! = 4 * 6 = 24
3! = 3 * 2! = 3 * 2! = 3 * 2 = 6
2! = 2 * 1! = 2 * 1! = 2 * 1 = 2
1! = 1 * 0! = 1 * 0! = 1
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Recursive Definition
of the Fibonacci Sequence
The Fibonacci numbers are a series of numbers as follows:
fib(1) = 1 1, n <= 2
fib(2) = 1 fib(n) = fib(n-1) + fib(n-2), n > 2
fib(3) = 2
fib(4) = 3
fib(5) = 5
... fib(3) = 1 + 1 = 2
fib(4) = 2 + 1 = 3
fib(5) = 2 + 3 = 5
17
iterative
int main()
{
int n=5, firstTerm = 1, secondTerm = 1, nextTerm;
for (int i = 1; i <= n-2; ++i)
{ nextTerm = firstTerm + secondTerm;
cout << nextTerm << " + ";
firstTerm = secondTerm;
secondTerm = nextTerm;
}
return 0; }
18
Recursive Definition
int BadFactorial(n){
int x = BadFactorial(n-1);
if (n == 1)
return 1;
else
return n*x;
}
What is the value of BadFactorial(2)?
We must make sure that recursion eventually stops, otherwise
it runs forever:
Using Recursion Properly
For correct recursion we need two parts:
1. One (ore more) base cases that are not recursive, i.e. we
can directly give a solution:
if (n==1)
return 1;
2. One (or more) recursive cases that operate on smaller
problems that get closer to the base case(s)
return n * factorial(n-1);
The base case(s) should always be checked before the
recursive calls.
Counting Digits
Recursive definition
digits(n) = 1 if (–9 <= n <= 9)
1 + digits(n/10) otherwise
Example
digits(321) =
1 + digits(321/10) = 1 +digits(32) =
1 + [1 + digits(32/10)] = 1 + [1 + digits(3)] =
1 + [1 + (1)] =
3
Counting Digits in C++
int numberofDigits(int n) {
if ((-10 < n) && (n < 10))
return 1
else
return 1 + numberofDigits(n/10);
}
Recursion
If you want to compute f(x) but can’t compute it
directly
Assume you can compute f(y) for any value of y
smaller than x
Use f(y) to compute f(x)
For this to work, there has to be at least one value of
x for which f(x) can be computed directly (e.g. these
are called base cases)
Evaluating Exponents Recurisivley
int power(int k, int n) {
// raise k to the power n
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return k * power(k, n – 1);
}
Divide and Conquer
Using this method each recursive subproblem is
about one-half the size of the original problem
If we could define power so that each subproblem
was based on computing kn/2 instead of kn – 1 we
could use the divide and conquer principle
Recursive divide and conquer algorithms are often
more efficient than iterative algorithms
Evaluating Exponents Using Divide and
Conquer
int power(int k, int n) {
// raise k to the power n
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else{
int t = power(k, n/2);
if ((n % 2) == 0)
return t * t;
else
return k * t * t;
}
Stacks
Every recursive function can be implemented using a
stack and iteration.
Every iterative function which uses a stack can be
implemented using recursion.
Disadvantages
May run slower.
Compilers
Inefficient Code
May use more space.
Advantages
More natural.
Easier to prove correct.
Easier to analysis.
More flexible.
Reference
Introduction to Algorithms
Chapter # 4
Thomas H. Cormen
3rd Edition