An Exploration of the Perception of Dance and Its

Relation to Biomechanical Motion

A Systematic Review and Narrative Synthesis
Michael Chang, [Link].(Hons.), Mark Halaki, Ph.D., Roger Adams, Ph.D., Stephen
Cobley, Ph.D., Kwee-Yum Lee, Ph.D., and Nicholas O’Dwyer, Ph.D.

Abstract value perceived by audiences appears to be poses: 1. driving appropriate action

In dance, the goals of actions are not related to dance action goals and the coor- selection and 2. providing the means
always clearly defined. Investigations into dination of dance elements, practitioners to evaluate the outcome in relation
the perceived quality of dance actions and could place a priority on development and to the intended movement goal.4 In
their relation to biomechanical motion execution of those factors. many instances, the goal of an action

D
should give insight into the performance is obvious—pick up a cup, walk to
of dance actions and their goals. The ance is universal. It is found the door, catch a ball, etc. However,
purpose of this review was to explore and in all ethnicities and cultures in dance as a visual art, the goal is not
document current literature concerning and in its various forms is so clearly defined and the success of an
dance perception and its relation to the enjoyed collectively throughout the
biomechanics of motion. Seven studies action is determined by its effect on the
world.1 Fundamentally, dance can aesthetic experience of the audience. In
were included in the review. The study be viewed as a dynamic art form that
results showed systematic differences dance research, this ethereal quality-to-
uses the body moving through space action goal is problematic. Measuring
between expert, non-expert, and novice
and time as its medium, reflecting the the success or failure of dance actions
dancers in biomechanical and perceptual
measures, both of which also varied ac- society it inhabits.2 Intrinsic to dance is not straightforward, as it involves
cording to the actions expressed in dance. as a visual art form is the interaction the interaction of the danced action
Biomechanical and perceptual variables of the performer and the audience. and the perceptual quality assigned to
were found to be correlated in all the stud- Through changes in motion dynam- that movement by an observer.
ies in the review. Significant relations were ics, the audience is able to perceive The discipline of biomechanics is
observed between kinematic variables subjective meaning in the movements built on physics, chemistry, math-
such as amplitude, speed, and variability of the performers. The skill of the per-
of movement, and perceptual measures ematics, physiology, and anatomy. It
formers is critical in manipulating the has developed into the principal field
of beauty and performance quality. How- dynamics of their action to provoke
ever, in general, there were no clear trends for identifying and quantifying whole
the desired response in the audience, body movement.5 Investigations into
in these relations. Instead, the evidence
with a key goal of eliciting an emo- the perceived quality of dance actions
suggests that perceptual ratings of dance
may be specific to both the task (the skill tionally satisfying aesthetic reaction. and their relation to biomechanical
of the particular action) and the context Voluntary skilled actions are per- variables of motion should provide
(the music and staging). The results also formed to achieve movement goals insight into the performance of dance
suggest that the human perceptual system and are regulated by their anticipated and its action goals. Indeed, it is the
is sensitive to skillful movements and perceived effects.3 This anticipation aesthetic dimension of dance actions
neuromuscular coordination. Since the of perceptual effects serves two pur- and their relation to biomechanical
motion that is essential to the analysis
Michael Chang, [Link].(Hons.), Mark Halaki, Ph.D., Roger Adams, Ph.D., of dance motor skills. For the dance
Stephen Cobley, Ph.D., and Kwee-Yum Lee, Ph.D., University of Sydney, practitioner, investigations of percep-
Australia. Nicholas O’Dwyer, Ph.D., University of Sydney, Australia, and Charles
Sturt University, Australia.
tual and biomechanical relations in
dance actions could lead to more tar-
Correspondence: Mark Halaki, Ph.D., Discipline of Exercise and Sport Science, geted training, increased understand-
The University of Sydney, 75 East Street, Lidcombe, NSW 2141, Australia; mark. ing of outcome goals, and advances in
halaki@[Link]. choreography that could ultimately
Copyright © 2016 J. Michael Ryan Publishing, Inc.
[Link]
127
128 Volume 20, Number 3, 2016 • Journal of Dance Medicine & Science

enhance the interaction and enjoy- between perceptual and biomechani- and any differences in ratings were dis-
ment for the audience. Although cal measures reported. Review articles cussed until consensus was achieved.
there has been a significant amount and books, research related to self- Each study was evaluated against the
of research pertaining to both dance perception, and studies represented 27 items contained in the index and
perception6-9 and dance biomechan- only by abstracts were excluded. responses were given as either 0 (no),
ics,10-15 it is not clear to what extent 1 (yes), or ‘‘not applicable” when an
these two areas of inquiry have been Search Strategy item was not relevant to the study
investigated concurrently. Accord- An electronic search was concluded design. In addition, items 5 and 27
ingly, the purpose of this review was on September 17, 2015, using the were modified to conform to the 0, 1,
to explore and document the current following databases: MEDLINE or ‘‘not applicable” scale. A final qual-
literature pertaining to the perception (1946 to 9/2015), PsycINFO (1806 ity rating was calculated as the score
of dance and its relation to the under- to 9/2015), Scopus (1902 to 9/2015), over the number of applicable items
lying biomechanical variables of dance SPORTDiscus (1985 to 9/2015), and expressed as a percentage. The quality
actions, with the aim of identifying Web of Science (1900 to 9/2015). index assessed the reporting (items 1
patterns in these relations. One investigator (MC) conducted to 10), external validity (items 11 to
searches using the following terms: 13), internal validity-bias (items 14
Methods Percept* AND Danc* AND (biome- to 20), internal validity-selection bias
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria chanic* OR kinetic* OR kinematic* (items 21 to 26), and power (item 27)
The following criteria were established OR “motion capture”). of each study included (for a complete
for inclusion in the review: original description see Downs and Black,
research, peer-reviewed, written in Quality Assessment 1998).16
English, adult human participants, A modified Downs and Black16 quality
at least one dance action, at least index was used to assess each study Data Extraction
one perceptual measure, at least one included in the review. The assessment The following key variables were
biomechanical measure, and relations was performed by two investigators, established a priori for data extrac-

Figure 1 Literature search methodology.

 Journal of Dance Medicine & Science • Volume 20, Number 3, 2016 129

tion: theoretical perspective of the and abstract (48 excluded) for rel- populations from which they were
research; the style of dance used in evance to dance, perception, or bio- recruited.
the study; details of the dance task; mechanics, and finally by full text
descriptive information of dance par- (10 excluded) using the inclusion General Results of Included
ticipants (performers of dance task); and exclusion criteria. The reasons Studies
descriptive information of percep- for excluding articles during the full The theoretical perspectives of the
tual participants (observers of dance text screening are listed in Figure 1. studies were as follows: three from
task); methods for the collection of After the evaluation process, eight evolutionary psychology 19-21; one
biomechanical data; methods for the studies met the inclusion criteria. from art psychology 22; one from
collection of perceptual data; results However, one study by Brown and perception-motor control23; and two
of perceptual variables; results of bio- coworkers 17 that was initially in- from biomechanics-motor control.24,25
mechanical variables; and measures cluded was later excluded because All the studies used three-dimensional
of the relations between perceptual the article was retracted by the video motion capture for the col-
and biomechanical variables. journal (Nature) in 2013.18 Conse- lection of dance kinematics. The
quently, a total of seven studies were perceptual measures in the studies
Results included for review. were as follows: the study by Bronner
Systematic Search and Shippen25 used ranked order (1
The database search process re- Quality Index being the best, 18 being the worst),
trieved 221 potentially relevant The studies had a mean quality technical proficiency, and smoothness
articles. The reference lists of the score of 82% (range: 64% to 93%) measures (see Table 2 for details); the
included articles were then scanned with a standard deviation of 11% study by Sato and colleagues24 used a
to ensure that relevant literature (Table 1). All the studies stated a 10-point Likert graded performance
was not excluded from the review. hypothesis, aim, or objective with scale (1 = low, 10 = high); the stud-
Search results were imported into measures and main findings clearly ies by McCarty and associates20 and
EndNote (version X7.3, Thomson described. Participant characteristics Neave and coworkers21 used 7-point
Reuters) and after duplicates were were adequately described in all but Likert dance quality scale (1 = low,
removed the number of articles one study19; however, in none of the 7 = high); the study by Torrents and
was reduced to 157. Articles were studies was it made clear whether the colleagues22 used a 7-point Likert
screened first by title (91 excluded) samples were representative of the perception of beauty scale (1 = ugly,

Table 1 Quality Index16 Assessment Results

Q11 Sample Representation (Recruitment)

Q12 Sample Representation (Subjects)

Q22 Recruitment Time Period

Q2 Main Outcomes Measures

Q7 Data Variability Reported

Q20 Validity and Reliability

Q3 Subjects’ Characteristics

Q18 Appropriate Analysis

Q10 Probability Values
Q9 Subject Attrition

Q16 Data Dredging

Q21 Selection Bias

Q6 Main Findings
Q1 Hypothesis

Q15 Blinding

Q27 Power

%Total

Study
Bronner and Shippen, 2015 1 1 1 1 1 n/a 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 n/a 1 93%
Sato, Nunome, and Ikegami, 2014 1 1 1 1 1 n/a 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 n/a 1 79%
McCarty, et al., 2013 1 1 1 1 1 n/a 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 87%
Torrents, et al., 2013 1 1 1 1 n/a n/a n/a 0 1 1 1 1 1 n/a n/a n/a 90%
Luck, et al., 2012 1 1 0 1 n/a n/a 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 64%
Neave, et al., 2011 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 n/a n/a 1 86%
Sawada, Suda, and Ishii, 2003 1 1 1 1 1 n/a 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 n/a n/a 1 77%
Note: n/a = not applicable; questions that were not applicable for any of the seven were not included in the table.
130 Volume 20, Number 3, 2016 • Journal of Dance Medicine & Science

7 = beautiful); the study by Luck < 0.01). Smoothness was significantly perspective, slow movements of
and associates19 used a 7-point Likert correlated with joint angle coordina- the center of mass in the observ-
dance characteristic scale (anchors not tion (r = 0.48, p < 0.01), hip angular er’s right-left viewing perspective,
reported, see Table 2 for details); and jerk (r = 0.27, p = 0.01), linear toe and maximum turning velocity of
the study by Sawada and coworkers23 jerk (r = 0.36, p = 0.01), and toe the pelvis around the vertical axis
used a 7-point Likert-type scale for mean standard deviation (r = 0.45, for the tour en dehors;
appropriateness of danced emotion p < 0.01). • Vertical amplitude of the center
(1 = extremely bad dancer, 7 = ex- The study by Sato and colleagues24 of mass, amplitude of the antero-
tremely good dancer) and a 5-point investigated relations between per- posterior angle between the pelvis
Likert perceived emotion scale (1 = ceptual measures and biomechanical and right leg during flight, and
not expressive, 5 = expressive). Partici- variables in the upper-body wave ac- maximum vertical inclination of
pant characteristics, dance tasks, and tion in hip hop dance. Their results the body at the instant of maxi-
perceptual measures are summarized showed that the coefficient of varia- mum height for the brisé volé en
in Table 2. Because a large number of tion (CV) of the amplitude (r = -0.61, arrière en tournant;
biomechanical variables were utilized p < 0.01), the CV of the propagation • Angle of the right leg, angle of
in the seven studies reviewed, only velocity (r = -0.80, p < 0.01), and the the left arm, and angle between
those with significant relations to shape deviation from the ideal wave left leg and left arm in the ob-
perceptual measures are reported in (r = -0.50, p < 0.01, sum of the dif- server’s plane of view, medium
the review. ferences between the ideal sine wave speed and fast movements (FFT
Although all studies measured and the experimentally derived wave) integral > 5 Hz) of the center of
perceptual and biomechanical vari- were significantly associated with mass in the observer’s near—far
ables, only three reported the results perceived performance grades given viewing perspective, and duration
of perceptual measures, and only two by the judges. Also, the strength of of the single limb stance for the
reported the results of biomechanical the association increased systemati- arabesque penchée; and
variables. Five studies used correlation cally with the skill levels of the three • Maximal trunk forward leaning
coefficients as their main measure groups of dancers. Furthermore, as prior to advancing the foot, and
of relations between perceptual and might be expected, the values of these angle of the body at maximal for-
biomechanical variables, while one biomechanical measures of variability ward leaning for the forward fall.
study used multiple factor analysis to were lowest for experts, followed by Low beauty scores were associated
establish associations between vari- the non-experts, and then the novices. with the following biomechanical
ables. One study used discriminant Similarly, the values of the perceptual variables:
analysis to test whether biomechanical variables were highest for experts, fol- • Slow movements of the center of
variables could predict emotions in lowed by the non-experts, and then mass and pelvis in the observer’s
dance. the novices. near-far viewing perspective, stan-
The study by Torrents and cowork- dard deviation of the head angle
Relations Between Perceptual and ers22 used multiple factor analysis relative to the pelvis around the
Biomechanical Variables to determine associations between vertical axis, and the differences
The study by Bronner and Shippen25 perceived beauty scores and biome- (%) between turning velocities of
investigated the relations between chanical variables in four contempo- the head and pelvis and head and
two perceptual measures (technical rary dance skills (tour en dehors—or thorax around the vertical axis for
proficiency and smoothness) and turning skill; brisé volé en arrière en the tour en dehors;
biomechanical variables quantifying tournant—the skater’s jump or jump- • Amplitude of the vertical angle
jerk (third derivative of position), ing skill; the arabesque penchée—or between the pelvis and right leg
joint angle coordination (principal stability skill; and the forward fall—or during flight for the brisé volé en
component analysis), coordination displacement skill). High perceived arrière en tournant; and
variability (angle–angle mean stan- beauty scores were positively associ- • Slow movements of the center
dard deviation), and variability (mean ated with the following biomechanical of the pelvis in the observer’s
standard deviation). Both perceptual variables: down-up viewing perspective,
measures were highly related (r = 0.82, • Slow movements (integral of the and medium speed and fast move-
p < 0.01). Technical proficiency was fast Fourier transform [FFT] ments of the center of the pelvis
significantly correlated with joint an- from 0 to 2.5 Hz) and medium in the observer’s near-far viewing
gle coordination (r = 0.62, p < 0.01), speed movements (FFT integral perspective for the arabesque
hip angular jerk (r = 0.46, p < 0.01), from 2.5 to 5 Hz) of the center penchée.
linear toe jerk (r = 0.26, p = 0.01), of mass in the observer’s down-up The study by Luck and associ-
pelvic-hip angle–angle mean standard viewing perspective, slow move- ates19 investigated relations between
deviation (r = 0.46, p < 0.01), and toe ments of the center of the pelvis perceived dance characteristic scales
mean standard deviation (r = 0.45, p in the observer’s down-up viewing and biomechanical variables, using
Table 2 Participant Characteristics, Dance Tasks, and Perceptual Measures
Dance Participants Perceptual Participants
Study Sample Sex Age (years) Dance Task Sample Sex Age (years) Perceptual Metric
Bronner 9 expert ballet 4 M, 5 F 25.8 ± 2.6 3 ballet développé arabesque 9 5 M, 28.26 ± Ranked order from 1 to 18
and dancers tasks: 1. flat foot at a tempo of 40 professional 22 F 11.70 (1: best; 18: worst). Technical
Shippen, 4 M, 5 F 20.4 ± 1.5 beats·min−1 (Slowflat); 2. relevé at 18 pre- proficiency: accuracy
2015 9 intermediate a tempo of 40 beats·min−1 (Slow- professional of timing, dynamics, and shape;
ballet dancers bal); 3. flat foot at a tempo of 90 dancers Smoothness: fluid trajectory of
beats·min−1 (Fast) the lower extremity gesture limb
Sato, 11 expert dancers 6 M, 5 F 24.3 ± 5.4 Hip hop wave motion of the 12 NR NR Graded performance using a
Nunome, (Exp: 9.3 ± 2.3 upper extremities experienced 10-point Likert scale (1: low; 10:
and years), 3 M, 3 F 24.8 ± 6.1 judges high)
Ikegami, 6 non-expert (Exp.: 10.3
2014 dancers (Exp: 4.7 5 M, 4 F 27.0 ± 5.5 ± 3.9 years)
± 1.9 years),
9 novice dancers
(Exp: 0 years)
McCarty, 30 nonprofessional M 23.6 ± 4.9 Non-specific dance to a constant 48 under- 21 M, M 20 to Perceived dance quality using a
et al., dancers 125 bpm drum beat for 30 s graduates 27 F 33, 7-point Likert scale (1: low to 7:
2013 F 17 to 18 high)
Torrents, 4 professional 2 M, 2 F M 31 ± 4 contemporary dance motor 108 under- 77 M, 19.5 ± 2.0 Perception of beauty using a
et al., contemporary 9.9, skills: graduates 31 F 7-point Likert scale (1: ugly; 7:
2013 dancers F 28 ± 1. Tour en dehors or turning skill beautiful)
12.7 2. Brisé volé en arrière en
tournant, skater’s jump or
jumping skill
3. Arabesque penchée or stability
skill
4. Forward fall or displacement
skill
Luck, et 16 (Exp NR) 8 M, 8 F NR Non-specific dance to songs 62 hetero- 28 M, 24.7 Responses were given using a
al., 2012 representative of Techno, Pop, sexuals 34 F 7-point Likert scales (anchors not
and Latin genres reported) on the following five
questions regarding perceived
characteristics of each dancer: 1.
How masculine or feminine is
their dancing? 2. How sensual
is their dancing? 3. How sexy
is their dancing? 4. How good
Journal of Dance Medicine & Science • Volume 20, Number 3, 2016

a mood are they in? 5. How

interesting a person are they?
(Continued on next page)
131
 132 Volume 20, Number 3, 2016 • Journal of Dance Medicine & Science

a non-specific dance task combining

three musical genres (Techno, Pop,

not appropriate; 4: appropriate);

using a 7-point Likert-type scale

Experts judged how appropriate

emotion using a 5-point Likert

using a 4-point Likert scale (1:
and Latin). Hip-body ratio (hip width

the expressive movement was

(1: extremely bad dancer; 7:
Judgement of dance quality
versus body height) and bounciness

Undergraduates perceived

scale (1: not expressive; 5:

extremely good dancer)
(derived from the distribution of ver-
tical velocity) were equally correlated
Perceptual Metric

with perceived sensuality (r = 0.41),

while hip-knee phase angle (degree
of synchrony between the vertical

expressive)
movement of the hip and knee) was
correlated with perceived mood (r
= -0.49) and perceived interest (r =
-0.41).
Age (years)
22.3 ± 6.2

The studies by McCarty and associ-

graduates
Experts

under-

ates20 and Neave and coworkers21 both

21.5

20.0

examined relations between perceived

dance quality and biomechanical
variables in non-specific dance tasks.
Perceptual Participants

In the study by McCarty and associ-

Sex

ates,20 dance quality was related to the

F

following biomechanical variables:

grip strength (r = 0.47), arm move-
37 hetero-

22 under-
8 experts,

graduates

ment (r = 0.38), and the principal

Sample

sexuals

components of upper-body move-

ment (r = 0.42), i.e., amplitude, vari-
ability, and speed, for males observing
Note: M = Male, F = female; ages are means ± one standard deviation; Exp = experience; NR = not reported.
Table 2 Participant Characteristics, Dance Tasks, and Perceptual Measures (continued)

male dancers, and grip strength (r =

Non-specific dance to a constant

0.38) and arm movement principal

Modern dance arm movement

components (r = 0.58) for females

drum beat for 30 seconds

observing male dancers. However, it

should be noted that grip strength was
independent of the arm movement
principal components (r = -0.00). In
the study by Neave and coworkers21
Dance Task

dance quality was found to be related

to the following biomechanical vari-
ables: movement amplitude of the
neck and trunk principal component
Age (years)

(r = 0.55), neck flexion-extension (r

22.7 ± 4.4

= 0.47), trunk flexion-extension (r =

23.8

0.67) and abduction-adduction (r =

0.48), movement variability of the
neck and trunk principal component
(r = 0.81), neck flexion-extension (r
= 0.68), abduction-adduction (r =
Sex
M

0.66) and internal-external rotation

(r = 0.73), trunk flexion-extension
30 nonprofessional
Dance Participants

(r = 0.68), abduction-adduction (r =
0.68) and internal-external rotation
10 modern

(r = 0.51), movement speed of the

legs principal component (r = 0.47),
dancers

dancers
Sample

and right knee flexion-extension (r =

0.52) and internal-external rotation
(r = 0.70) for females observing male
Neave, et
al., 2011

dancers.
Sawada,

& Ishii,
Study

Suda,

Sawada and associates23 investi-

2003

gated the relation between dance

 Journal of Dance Medicine & Science • Volume 20, Number 3, 2016 133

arm movement characteristics and variables in specific dance motor skills, received lower scores.22 The percep-
the perception of emotion. Both the while musical context dependency tion of slow near-far center of mass
biomechanical measures and the per- may explain the differences in results and pelvis movements and larger
ceptual ratings varied according to the of the studies that examined non- movements of the head would be
emotions expressed. A discriminant specific dance tasks.19-21 likely to indicate instability in a turn-
analysis was used to test whether the ing action, which would reduce the
kinematic data could predict emotion Task Dependency of Perceptual effectiveness of the skill. However,
in dance arm movements. The first Ratings one common dance technique may
discriminant function, which was The study by Torrents and colleagues22 contradict this account. ‘‘Spotting”
related to the resultant maximum ac- examined four contemporary dance is a technique used to help maintain
celeration of the fingers, was able to skills: the tour en dehors, or turning balance in dance where the head is
account for 83.8% of the variance in skill; brisé volé en arrière en tournant, kept fixed in one direction while
the data. The analysis had an excellent the skater’s jump or jumping skill; the the remainder of the body turns,
ability to predict the emotions of sad- arabesque penchée, or stability skill; and then the head is rotated quickly
ness (88.9%), joy (66.7%), and anger and the forward fall, or displacement around to face the original fixed di-
(75%), indicating that the kinematic skill. The study by Sato and associ- rection.26 A study investigating the
data validated the discrimination of ates24 analyzed the wave motion skill mechanics of dance turns showed
emotional expression. of the upper extremities in hip hop an uncoupling of the head with
dance, while the study by Bronner and the body in a professional dancer
Discussion Shippen25 investigated the développé performing the tour en dehors, with
The purpose of this review was to arabesque skill in ballet under three spotting occurring for approximately
examine research that investigated different conditions. To illustrate task half the total turning time.27 Since it
relations between perceptual mea- dependency of perceptual ratings in would be expected that a professional
sures and biomechanical variables in dance, these six dance skills are dis- dancer would turn in a way that is
dance, with the aim of determining cussed individually, with an emphasis aesthetically pleasing, it is not clear
identifiable patterns in these rela- on their perceptual and biomechanical why deviations of the head relative
tions. In general, there were no uni- relations and connection to the move- to the thorax and pelvis were related
fying trends across the seven studies ment goal of each task. to low beauty scores in the study of
reviewed, with each study showing For the tour en dehors, or turning Torrents and colleagues,22 except per-
a variety of significant relations skill, high beauty ratings were related haps that spotting is a very deliberate
between kinematic biomechanical to the maximum turning velocity, action and this may not have been
variables and perceptual measures. A slow movements of the center of mass the case with the head deviations of
number of studies in the review noted and pelvis in the down-up viewing the participants in the Torrents and
the significance of relations between perspective, and medium speed move- colleagues’ study.22
amplitude,20-22 speed, and variability ments of the center of mass in the High beauty ratings of the brisé
of movement20,21 and perceptual ap- down-up viewing perspective.22 As volé en arrière en tournant, skater’s
praisal measures such as beauty and this was a turning skill, it was expected jump or jumping skill, were related
dance quality. However, since there that high beauty ratings would be as- to the vertical amplitude of the center
was a diverse range of biomechanical sociated with the maximum turning of mass motion, the amplitude of the
measures in a variety of body seg- velocity, reflecting the goal of the task. anteroposterior angle between the
ments that differed between studies In addition, effective turning requires pelvis and right leg during flight, and
and dance tasks, it was not possible the dancer to reduce the surface area the maximum vertical inclination of
to identify any consistent trend with of the foot on the floor, minimizing the line of the body at the instant
respect to those relations. frictional torque,26 and the slow and of maximum height of the center of
An explanation for the lack of medium speed down-up movements mass.22 All these measures reflect the
clear trends in the data might be that may be indicative of the required goal of the action, which was to jump,
perceptual ratings of dance actions impulse and transition for the dancer achieving a horizontal orientation of
are specific to the skill requirement to rise through the foot.27 the body, while switching the support-
of the task and goal of the action and The low beauty ratings of the ing leg in mid-air.
dependent on context in regard to tour en dehors skill were related to In the arabesque penchée, or sta-
factors such as music and the setting. the slow movements of the center bility skill, the duration of the single
Task dependency can be seen in the of mass and pelvis in the observer’s limb stance, medium speed and fast
results of the studies by Torrents and near-far viewing perspective. For the movements of the center of mass in
colleagues,22 Sato and coworkers,24 measures relating to the stillness of the observer’s near-far viewing per-
and Bronner and Shippen,25 which the dancer’s head, greater movement spective, the angle of the right leg
investigated associations between of the head relative to the thorax and left arm and between the left leg
perceptual ratings and biomechanical and pelvis around the vertical axis and left arm in the observer’s plane of
134 Volume 20, Number 3, 2016 • Journal of Dance Medicine & Science

view were all found to be associated findings of this study demonstrate a The studies conducted by Mc-
with high beauty scores.22 Increased link between perceived ratings and Carty and associates20 and Neave and
duration of the single limb stance dance action goals. coworkers21 had the most similar in-
signifies greater stability and balance, dependent variables of the seven stud-
consistent with the goal of the task, Context Dependency of Perceptual ies reviewed; both reported relations
while the fast and medium speed Ratings between female perceptual ratings and
movements in the observer’s near-far Three studies19-21 used non-specific biomechanical variables of non-specif-
perspective may indicate subtle adjust- tasks, which did not belong to any ic male dance actions. The significant
ments from the neuromuscular system particular dance style, and were findings, however, were dissimilar.
to establish the center of mass over the similar in that they all used novice McCarty and associates20 found that
base of support in order to maintain participants who were not given dance quality was independently
balance.28 The angles of the right leg, any instruction on how they should related to grip strength and the prin-
left arm, and between the left leg and dance. While it is difficult to compare cipal component of arm movement
left arm again all reflect the purpose the results of these studies directly (a combination of amplitude, speed,
of the arabesque as a set pose, where because they used different biome- and variability), although the vari-
the dancer stands on one leg while the chanical and perceptual measures, ance that this component accounted
other leg is fully extended backward.26 their results can be interpreted for and the loadings of the variables
The forward fall, or displacement from a context-specific perspective. that make up this component were
skill, involved overbalancing the body The study by Luck and coworkers19 not reported. Neave and coworkers21
past the base of support. The variables combined the results of three dance found that dance quality was related
that were related to high beauty scores movements, each associated with to measures associated with the move-
in this skill were maximal trunk different musical genres (Techno, ment of neck, trunk, and legs. It was
forward leaning prior to advancing Pop, and Latin). The investigators not clear from the reporting whether
the foot and the angle of the body noted their disappointment in the a similar rhythmical structure was
at maximal forward leaning.22 These small number of significant relations used for the musical dance stimulus
variables relating to high beauty scores found between biomechanical and in these two studies, and thus it is
are similarly reflective of the move- perceptual measures common to not possible to determine whether
ment goal of this task. all three genres. Conceivably, each the musical context of the dance tasks
The results of the Sato and as- musical genre changed the context, used might have affected the outcomes
sociates’ study24 showed that judges’ and therefore the coordination char- of the dance actions. Nevertheless,
ratings of the wave action in hip hop acteristics of the dancers’ actions may given the similarities of all the other
dance were related to the variability have had an effect on perceptual independent variables used in these
of the wave amplitude, propagation and biomechanical relations. Once two studies, musical context again
velocity, and deviation from the ideal the data from the three genres were provides the most plausible explana-
shape, and that the ratings increased collated and analyzed, individual tion for the differences in the results.
concurrently with the skill levels of genre-specific relations would have
the dance participants. As high ratings been obscured, reducing the number Other Issues
were associated with lower variability of significant relations. Nevertheless, It has been hypothesized that, due
and conformity with the ideal wave the relations that emerged from the to biologically determined sexual
form, these measures again reflected combined data may constitute uni- selection factors, heterosexual females
the goal of the action, which was to versal relations common to all three assessing male dance performance are
produce a continuous wave action musical genres. For instance, hip- influenced by vigour as well as neu-
from the fingertips of one hand to the knee phase angle and bounciness of romuscular motor performance-skill,
other hand via the arms and body of biomechanical variables were found which would constitute indicators of
the dancer. to have significant relations with fitness.32 The focus of the previous lit-
A general goal of ballet is the co- perceptual variables in the combined erature has been on amplitude, speed,
ordinated execution of dance actions musical genre data.19 Phase angles are and variability of movement, with the
that are effortless in appearance29 a common way of quantifying the rel- assumption that these qualities are
while achieving the technical require- ative coordination of two joint angles related to the vigour of male dancers.20
ments of the dance sequence being over time in motor control research,30 However, it might also be the complex
performed. Not surprisingly, the study and the bounciness may be a reflec- organization of amplitude, speed, and
by Bronner and Shippen25 showed tion of the stretch-shortening cycle, variability that is being assessed, and
that both hip angular jerk and toe or leg stiffness traits, of the dance this might be related to the coordina-
linear jerk, along with various mea- participants.31 These two variables, tion and neuromuscular motor perfor-
sures of coordination, were related to therefore, may represent the extent mance of male dancers. Similarly, the
perceived quality of smoothness and of the participants’ coordination and findings by McCarty and associates20
technical proficiency. Once again, the neuromuscular ability. suggest that when females assess male
 Journal of Dance Medicine & Science • Volume 20, Number 3, 2016 135

dancing, the movement pattern of thetics. However, this indicates that it examined kinematic variables only,
the arms has an influence separate is possible that there may be interact- kinetic variables should be included
from general upper body strength. ing factors between and within dance in future investigations as these may
The complex universal variables in tasks that influence the perception of also be important in the perception
the study by Luck and coworkers19 the observer. While skill may be the of dance. Finally, a further limitation
combining the three musical genres, determinant within a single dance was the exclusion of articles not writ-
also lend support to this position. task, energetic movements may be the ten in English.
Christensen and Calvo-Merino33 determinant between dance tasks, or
have suggested that putative universal more likely, both factors may play a Conclusion
variables would endorse the concept role in perceived value determination Significant relations between per-
of an evolved human cognitive sys- and this would be broadly consistent ceptual and biomechanical variables
tem that can aesthetically appreciate with evolutionary sexual selection were found in all of the studies re-
dance. In the studies reviewed here, theory. 32 For dance practitioners, viewed, but no consistent patterns
there was no evidence of universal- this may help to explain the conflict could be discerned in these relations.
ity in kinematic variables and their between the ‘‘quality” (skill) and the It is proposed that this lack of clear
relations with perceptual measures, ‘‘energy” (physical fitness) of dance trends may be due to both the task-
although it is still possible that uni- performances and have implications dependent and context-dependent
versal variables exist at more complex for the development of choreography nature of perceptual ratings of dance
levels such as kinetics and movement and dance technique. In addition, actions. Consequently, dance practi-
patterning or coordination. The other studies 35,36 using fMRI and tioners could place a priority on the
discriminant analysis conducted by dance have shown that activation of development and execution of dance
Sawada and colleagues23 in their study the mirror neuron system was stron- action goals, or the ‘‘intent” of the
showed that the function associated ger when participants had specific action, and the coordination of dance
with acceleration of the fingers ac- motor experience with the observed elements, as these appear to be related
counted for 83.8% of the variance actions. Therefore, experience may to the value awarded by audiences. Fi-
in their data. With acceleration ac- be expected to affect the perception nally, complex universal variables may
counting for such a large amount of of dance and its biomechanical cor- hold the key to aesthetic appreciation
variance and its close association with relates and accordingly, investigations of dance, and therefore variables not
force, investigations into perception utilizing different levels of experience, yet investigated in dance perception
and dance employing kinetic variables for both raters and dance performers, research, including kinetic variables
such as force, momentum, power, and are warranted. and variables that quantify coordina-
energy transfer and economy may tion or movement patterning, should
prove rewarding. Limitations be included in future investigations.
Since most of the studies reviewed The strength of a systematic review
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