CRIB NOTES
FOUNDATION ENGLISH
UNIT 1
Types of Communication
1. Oral Communication
2. Written Communication – is formal communication
Features of Oral Communication
Pronouns such as “I”, “We”, “This” or “That” – shared context between speaker and listener
Contractions as “it is” is pronounced as “it’s” – shortening of words
Easy to correct oneself – “I’m sorry” or “what I meant was…”
Certain words/phrases can be used to check the attentiveness or understanding of the listener –
“ok” or “right”
It allows for immediate feedback from the listener to the speaker – “ok” – “yeah”
Markers of sympathetic circularity – “you know”
Slang terms often occur – “Babylon”
Hedges – expressions we use to lessen the impact of what we are saying – used to soften the blow
– “I think”, “kinda careful”
Speech markers – “so”, “well”. “anyway” – to indicate topic switches, asides, summaries
The spoken word contains less punctuation markers than the written word.
Speech is typically fast and unplanned.
Rhetorical questions are those questions that we ask but not expect an answer.
Features of Written Communication
Contractions – the entire word is written “do not” “would not” are used.
Slang terms are not used.
First person is not used (singular I) is considered inelegant in formal writing. One should aim for
impersonal tone more suitable by the third person singular (one) The reader is not to be
addressed directly as you
Intensifiers – “great”, “really”
Sentence fragments
Register – the linguistic choices that are made in different circumstances e.g. to be more or less formal.
Communicative Competence – the ability to choose an appropriate register or manner to suit the
context.
Codeswitch – from a formal to a casual or intimate code within the same conversation/context.
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Oral versus Written Communication
Oral Communication Written Communication
Uses an informal register Uses a predominantly formal register
Makes use of contractions Contractions are seldom used
Sentence structure is not very rigid The sentence structure is more rigid
Colloquial expressions and slangs can be Colloquial expressions and slangs should
used be avoided
Four Main Modes of Writing
1. Exposition
2. Argument
3. Technical Writing
4. Narrative
Expository
In expository writing, the main purpose is to communicate information to a reader on a particular topic or
about a given process. Its purpose is to inform, explain, describe or define. Two other important qualities
are credibility and objectivity.
Argumentative
This is based on the position that people have different points of view on a particular issue. Each point of
view must therefore be supported by an appeal to evidence, authority or relevant experience. In formal
argument, a writer also considers important counter views or counter arguments, refutes them and
reinforces his/her position.
Technical
The emphasis is on reporting factual, objective information. It is impersonal in tone and is the type of
writing most often associated with the technical, scientific or engineering fields. The level of data is
largely influenced by the needs of the audience.
Narrative
This is recognizable by the attention paid to plot, characterization, theme and setting. Much emphasis is
on the imaginative, or the dramatic, rather than on the facts. They are free to ‘make up’ facts or interpret
them as necessary to the wider ‘truth’ of the human condition they wish to portray.
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Exposition Argumentative Narrative Technical
Purpose Communicate Communicate Communicate Communicate
information for information to information about information
explanation through support a human experience: solicited for
analysis, process, particular emphasis on the technical
comparison/contras controversial view imaginative/dramatic purposes
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Audience Seeking more Hold opposing Likely to share same Has a specific
information about view to the one cultural, moral need for technical
topic; Free to presented. Needs values as writer information
interpret to be convinced
information as they
please
Language Formal, standard, Formal/Informal; Formal/informal; Formal; objective;
objective can be emotive highly descriptive; impersonal;
emotive technical jargon
Categories of Language
1. Frozen - Normally reserved for written language of a highly impersonal and formal nature
2. Formal (Deliberative) - language that has been carefully considered and planned before use.
3. Consultative - language generally used with strangers or persons of only slight acquaintance.
4. Casual – relaxed style adopted in friendly surroundings.
5. Intimate – it corporates forms and vocabulary normally used between people who know one
another extremely well (family, close friends, lovers).
Methods of Exposition
1. Analysis by Division
2. Cause and Effect Analysis
3. Classification
4. Process Analysis
5. Comparison and Contrast
Parts of an Expository Essay
1. Introduction
2. Body
3. Conclusion
The Introduction (Thesis Statement)
In the introduction, the writer:
Explicitly identifies the topic
Defines and/or provides background information on the topic
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States the significance of the topic
States the specific aspects of the topic that will be developed in the essay
The Body
The body presents specific pieces of information that support the writer’s thesis, given earlier in the
introduction. It is usual to begin the paragraph with the sentence containing the main point (this is known
as the topic sentence). Three sentences normally make up a paragraph. All middle paragraphs must
support the thesis of the essay.
The Conclusion
The conclusion summarizes and/or reinforces the salient points of the body. It may also make a
prediction or recommendation. No new information is presented in the conclusion.
Theorists
Martin Joos (1967) – Five Clocks (pg. 7) – Frozen (the language of legal documents and religious /
traditional texts to Intimate – (exchanges between two people who share a close relationship with very fee
social barriers.
UNIT 2
The Sentence – The Thesis and the Outline
A phrase is a group of two or more related words that is neither a sentence nor a clause and does
not make complete sense on its own. However, it adds essential information when incorporated
into a sentence.
The sentence is the basic building block of the expository essay. It is the basic unit of written
communication and the foundation of the essay. A sentence must have a subject and a predicate.
Subject (It must be about something or somebody). Predicate (It must have something to say
about its subject-animal, person, place or thing). A compound sentence is made up of two or
more main clauses. A complex sentence is made up of main clause and one or more dependent
clauses (does not make sense on its own, it depends on the main clause for its complete
meaning). A Standard English sentence:
Can be a statement, question, command or exclamation
Must contain a subject and a predicate
Must have a verb which agrees in number and in person with the subject of the sentence
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The Thesis is that sentence which captures the essence or gist of what your essay is about. It
gives direction to your essay and helps with proper organization of your ideas.
Features of a Thesis Statement (see page 40)
1. It states the subject of the essay; the main elements of the topic can be clearly seen in the
thesis statement.
2. It reflects the purpose of the essay, the purpose may be to present information, persuade
the reader, or some other way.
3. It has a focus – cause, composition and age will be the points around which the essay
will be developed.
4. It uses specific language – precise terms are used in particular for the focus, imprecise,
vague words are avoided.
5. It may show the major subdivisions of the essay: The cause, composition and age also
indicate how the essay will be subdivided.
6. It must be one sentence. It cannot be a phrase or subordinate clause.
7. It must be substantial enough to yield the sub points that will be discussed in further
detail in the body of the essay.
8. It must also as far as it is possible indicate the expository method that will be used in the
body of the essay.
Methods to generate a thesis statement
1. Brainstorming
2. Clustering (see page 42)
3. Listing
4. Questioning
Don’t about the Thesis
1. The thesis is not the introduction to the essay. Do not use it to start your paper.
2. A thesis specifies the main points to be discussed in the paper.
3. The thesis is typically the last sentence of the introductory paragraph.
4. The thesis is not a mission statement. Do not put all the points you can think of in the
thesis.
5. The thesis must be relevant to the question.
6. The thesis is not an announcement.
7. The thesis must not be vague.
A thesis can be developed in two ways:
1. It can specifically state the precise point to be made about each aspect of the topic to be
developed in the essay
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2. It can be broad enough so that specific points as developed in the essay can logically be
seen to emanate from it.
The outline provides the structure of the essay. It is the framework on which the essay is built.
Topic to sentence outline structure
Topic: (Title of Paper)
Narrowed focus: (This is required if the topic is too broad)
Thesis: (Main idea to be developed)
Topic Sentence
Main point taken from /identified in the thesis Main point developed into a complete
sentence
The sentence that is developed from the topic becomes the topic sentence of the relevant
paragraph in the body of the essay. There should be 3 to 4 paragraphs in the body of the essay
and each paragraph would begin with its own topic sentence. The topic sentence provides
information as to what the paragraph is about. The rest of the information in the paragraph
provides specific details that support the general idea of the topic sentence.
The Sentence Outline
Thesis: The general organization of a speech, its delivery and use of visual
aids are integral components of a compelling oral presentation.
Topics Topic Sentence
General Organization In order to have a compelling oral presentation, the general
organization of a speech is important.
Delivery The delivery of a speech is an integral component of a compelling
oral presentation.
Use of visual aids The use of visual aids is necessary to ensure a compelling oral
presentation
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UNIT 3
Analysis by Division
Analysis by Division is an expository strategy that is used to explain a process or a concept by breaking
that process or concept up into its parts. The breaking up of the process or concept accounts for the
division aspect of the method. Examining or weighing the relevance of each part to the functioning of the
whole accounts for the analysis. Thus Analysis by Division is as relevant for discussing concrete subjects
as it is to abstract ones.
Factors for Consideration
1. Division of the subject must not be at a superficial level. It has to go deeper than that.
2. The parts identified in an Analysis by Division essay must also be logical ones.
3. It is not only important to break a subject down into logical parts but also into sufficient parts to
avoid making the division too narrow.
4. One has to be sensitive to key words in the topic given.
Analysis by Division tasks
Determine the level of detail needed.
Decide on significance of components.
Find reliable sources of information.
Utilize graphic organizers.