An InTech e-edition covering the

MARCH 2020 fundamentals of automation

Flow and
Level
How to get smart
instrument data into IIoT
software

Overcoming flow
measurement challenges

Noncontact level
measurement

Fluid turbulence, velocity,

and flow measurement

Radar technology for

measuring tank level

1 INTECH FOCUS MARCH 2020 [Link]

intech focus
INTECH FOCUS| FLOW
| FLOW & LEVEL


Introduction

INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

One of the long-standing philosophical questions of life is whether the light goes off in a refrigerator
when the door is closed. For process engineers, an even deeper question is knowing what is happening
inside pipes and tanks. The movement of fluids and the level of material within a tank is a mystery—
unless you have the right technology and know how to use it. This edition of InTech Focus explains
the basics of some remarkable technologies, including frequency-modulated continuous-wave radar,
pulsed-wave or pulsed-width radar, ultrasonic level measurement, and more.
InTech Focus is an electronic periodical from ISA, brought to you in conjunction with Automation.
com. This series of electronic magazines focuses on the fundamentals of essential automation compo-
nents, such as instrumentation, final control elements, networks, drives, and more. Readers will learn
how to choose them, apply them, calibrate them, and optimize their contribution to efficient operations.

[Link] is a subsidiary of the International Society of Automation. Find other ebooks in the
InTech Focus series at [Link]

Renee Bassett, Chief Editor

rbassett@[Link]

Our Sponsors:

2 INTECH FOCUS MARCH 2020 [Link]

INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

In This Issue

5 IIoT and Sensing on the Edge

By Ryan Williams
Modern instrumentation provides plenty of information. This article explains how to get it into IIoT
software.

10 Overcoming Flow Measurement Challenges in Wet Gas and Open

Stack, Rain-down Installations
By Eric Wible
No matter the industry, application, or pipe size, process engineers need to be able to measure wet
gas flow accurately and independently of the fluid conditions in the pipe.

15 Noncontact Level Measurement Technology Comparison

By Greg Tischler
Consider these variables when choosing between 80 GHz radar sensors with ultrasonic transmitters
for liquid and solid level measurements.

20 Demystifying Fluid Turbulence, Velocity, and Flow Measurement

By Dan Cychosz
Being able to solve specific application challenges depends on having the right tools.

25 Understanding Radar Technology for Measuring Tank Level

By Dave Grumney
Pulsed wave and frequency-modulated continuous wave are two main forms of radar technology.

Upcoming Issues: Account Managers:

May: Temperature & Pressure Chris Nelson

+1 919-990-9265
July: Process Controllers cnelson@[Link]
Elena Pitt
September: Process Safety
+1 919-323-4023
November: Final Control Elements epitt@[Link]
Richard Simpson
+1 919-414-7395
rsimpson@[Link]

3 INTECH FOCUS MARCH 2020 [Link]

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INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

IIoT and Sensing on the Edge

Modern instrumentation provides plenty of information—
here’s how to get it into IIoT software

Figure 1. A process plant may have thousands

of smart instruments, all providing status and
diagnostic data needed by IIoT software.
By Ryan Williams, Endress+Hauser

S
mart instruments have been available since the mid-1980s, when 4–20 mA HART devices entered
the market, quickly followed by fieldbus-based devices. These digital communication technologies
made it possible for instruments to provide more than just a process signal. Using digital interfaces,
these devices were now able to send status, diagnostics, and other information.
Endress+Hauser estimates that of its 40 million process instruments installed worldwide, 90 percent
are digital, smart devices. These smart instruments provide an incredible amount of information at “the
edge” that is of immense benefit to a wide range of host systems and Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)
applications, such as maintenance management, asset management, inventory control, manufacturing
execution systems (MES), and enterprise resource planning (ERP). But one major problem facing industrial
plants is: How do we manage all this data?
If a single smart instrument, such as a Coriolis meter, can provide a few dozen items of status and
diagnostic information, and a plant has several thousand similar instruments (figure 1), the host systems
have to deal with huge amounts of data arriving in real time.
Because of the immense amount of data, and the problems involved in managing it, Endress+Hauser
estimates that 97 percent of the data is not being used. Instead, automation systems use the flow, pres-
sure, temperature, level, and other data needed to control the process, and ignore or discard the status,
diagnostic, and other data.
Major instrument manufacturers are well aware of the problem, and several are now providing solu-
tions to acquire data from the edge and provide it to specialized IIoT software—all without affecting or
involving the automation system. This article explains how these concepts work.

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INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

Handling massive amounts of data

As noted above, a smart instrument generates a great deal of status, diagnostic, and other information.
An Endress+Hauser Proline® flowmeter, for example, can detect entrained air, vibration (which could be
caused by pump cavitation), coating, corrosion, and inhomogeneous or unsuitable media. The flow-
meter can detect 125 different problems. When process conditions warrant a notification (figure 2), the
flowmeter generates an event message.
Error code Error Actions Alarm type
843 Process limit Check process conditions. Alarm
962 Partially filled pipe Check for gas in process. Warning
Adjust detection limits.
910 Tubes not oscillating Check input configuration. Alarm
Check external device or
process conditions.
912 Medium inhomogeneous Check process condition. Warning
Increase system pressure.
913 Medium unsuitable Check process conditions. Alarm
Check sensor.
948 Oscillation damping too high Check process conditions. Warning

Figure 2. Typical errors that can be generated by an Endress+Hauser Proline flowmeter.

While the automation system is mostly interested in flow values and alarms, IIoT software wants to
know about the warnings shown in figure 2, as well as diagnostics and other data.
Many smart instruments can provide diagnostics to indicate problems with electronics or subcom-
ponents. For example, Proline Coriolis flowmeters can monitor oscillation damping and frequency, tem-
perature, signal asymmetry, exciter current, carrier pipe temperature, frequency fluctuation, and other
parameters. Changes in these parameters can indicate potential problems.
Every instrument manufacturer’s diagnostics differ, but each typically monitors internal parameters,
observes changes, and diagnoses problems. Any further analysis must be done by IIoT maintenance soft-
ware, which means status and diagnostic data needs to be transmitted to this software.
In many cases, this is accomplished by the automation system, which periodically asks each instru-
ment for the data, then stores it in an online database, such as a process historian. Maintenance man-
agement software accesses what it needs from the historian and performs its analysis.
This type of solution presents problems. Networks can be unduly burdened with data transmissions,
historians can become bloated, and there can be lags between data collection and recognition by the IIoT
software. Data is collected only periodically, because the automation system cannot deal with the massive
amount of status and diagnostic data from hundreds or thousands of instruments. The data is stored in a
database, which has to be accessed from the maintenance software, adding even more delays.
A better solution—now being offered by several major instrument manufacturers—is to provide all the
data available at the edge to IIoT software via the cloud, thus bypassing the automation system completely.

Connecting at the edge

The 30+ million digital instruments currently installed worldwide communicate with their automation
systems via different interfaces, including Profibus®, 4–20 mA HART, WirelessHART™, and EtherNet/
IP™. However, many eventually connect to an Ethernet-based network (figure 3), where the data can be
acquired by a specialized “edge device.”
The edge device is programmed to extract instrument data from the network and transmit it to IIoT
software in the cloud.

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INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

Typical network architecture, from the field up to the Netilion Services

Netilion

Figure 3. An edge device (upper right) takes instrument data from the plant’s Ethernet
network and sends it to Endress+Hauser Netilion IIoT software in the cloud.

An edge device can also be installed on a smaller system, such as a pumping station, that may or
may not be connected to a plant’s Ethernet network, or to instruments that are connected to an older,
non-Ethernet system. In that case, each instrument is wired to a nearby “edge gateway” device, which
collects data from devices and transmits it to the cloud.
Once the instruments are connected to an Ethernet-based network that is ready for IoT connection,
the appropriate edge device is selected. Various edge devices are available from instrument manufactur-
ers to handle expected data rates.
For example, Endress+Hauser has multiple approaches to select the right edge device for the right
quantity of instruments transmitting information to the cloud. At a site where there are hundreds of
instruments, the edge device has high-speed data acquisition to push the information to the IoT cloud.
Conversely, Endress+Hauser also offers instrument-based edge devices that run at basic speed, transmit-
ting small amounts of information to the IoT cloud.
All data transmission is one way from the device to the cloud. Cybersecurity is deployed within data
transmission, edge devices, and cloud services connectivity.

Inside the cloud

Major instrument manufacturers provide software that uses data from the edge to diagnose problems,
schedule maintenance activities, analyze processes, predict problems, and so on. Using Endress+Hauser
as an example, cloud software consists of several components:
Instrument diagnostics—Software built into modern instruments monitors device status and process
conditions, and provides data needed for further analysis. Endress+Hauser embeds Heartbeat Technology®
into its instruments to provide status and diagnostic information, and to perform vital functions, such as
condition monitoring and in-situ verification.
During verification, the current conditions of various parameters are compared with their reference
values, thereby determining the device status. Heartbeat Technology produces a “pass” or a “fail” state-

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INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

ment based on the tests, which are performed by traceable and redundant internal references. The indi-
vidual tests and results are automatically recorded and used to print a verification report.
Cloud connection—Software and hardware are needed to extract data from the plant’s Ethernet
network or from individual devices and to transmit it to the cloud-based software. At Endress+Hauser,
this is accomplished with Netilion Connect, which consists of edge devices that acquire the data, a cloud
platform that hosts the IIoT software, and an application programmable interface (API).
The API provides a simplified way to connect cloud-to-cloud or cloud-to-apps. It enables customers to
use IoT in a simple and efficient way without the complexity of IT computer science.
Netilion is Endress+Hauser’s brand name for its IoT ecosystem. The ecosystem is based on an open
source technology platform that is common in our industry and—like other vendor’s ecosystems—offers
these functions:
Analytical software—Analytics processes data generated by Heartbeat Technology to assess instru-
ment health, analyze and predict problems, schedule maintenance, etc.
Process health—Health software analyzes instrumentation at the edge to determine if the process is
getting more difficult to control, if external influences are having a detrimental effect on performance, or
if changes need to be made. For example, Netilion Smart System for Surface Water can be used by water
treatment plants to monitor incoming surface water. The system monitors conductivity, pH, dissolved
oxygen and other parameters, and issues warnings to operators.
Equipment documentation—Maintenance technicians need access to equipment manuals, trouble-
shooting instructions, and other materials describing each instrument. Library software logs in all perti-
nent information and makes it available to technicians on request.

Getting started
Implementing a system like Netilion might appear challenging, but several factors help simplify the
effort. First, few plants are exclusive to a single instrument vendor. All this instrumentation has to be
identified and entered into the system, along with their manuals, error codes, diagnostic information,
etc. This is normally done during an installed base analysis.
Fortunately, modern instruments typically are identified with bar codes or labels that can be scanned
to identify the vendor and product. Then, the necessary data can easily be downloaded from the vendor’s
website.
Second, there is no need to implement a plantwide system right away. Most vendors provide a
“startup kit” that allows a plant to try out the concept. For example, Endress+Hauser offers a free trial
version for up to 15 assets with a typical plant introductory IoT package that can connect up to 500
instruments to its cloud software.

Wealth of information
Modern instruments provide a wealth of information about their health and the process they are moni-
toring, but few plants use all that data. Today, major instrument manufacturers are providing hardware
and software solutions that bring all the data available at the edge to IIoT software for analysis and cor-
rective actions.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Ryan Williams is the national product manager for services and solutions at
Endress+Hauser. Williams graduated from Purdue University in 2005 with a degree
in electrical and computer engineering technology. He came to Endress+Hauser with
more than 14 years of experience at Rockwell Automation and has been with the
Endress+Hauser since 2018.

8 INTECH FOCUS MARCH 2020 [Link]

 Wherever
gases flow,
that’s where
we go.

More thermal flow meters

for more applications in
more industries.
For more than five decades, FCI has been precisely where you need us. In pipe sizes from 1/4-inch to the largest
of stacks, and everything in-between. Measuring more than 200 gases, pure or mixed. Operating over flow rates
from 0.2 to 1000 fps, with turndowns from 100:1 to 1000:1. In temperatures up to 850°F. Generating analog
outputs and digital bus I/O to go with your DCS, PLC, or SCADA. For the definitive choice in gas flow measuring
solutions—for any industry, anywhere—there’s only one way to go.

For specs, sales and expertise, go to [Link]

© 2020 Fluid Components International, LLC. All rights reserved.
INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

Overcoming Flow
Measurement Challenges
in Wet Gas and Open Stack,
Rain-Down Installations
By Eric Wible, Fluid Components International (FCI)

W
et gas is a challenge to measure in
a number of industries, including
those with combustible gases that
represent a safety hazard. In the laboratory,
today’s air/gas flow sensors and measurement
technologies operate at their highest accura-
cy and greatest reliability in air or gas free of
moisture, droplets, and particulates. The real
industrial world, however, is a very different envi-
ronment. Moisture can be entrapped in one form
or another in air or gas flow streams with variable
gas compositions and flow rates.
There is no single definition of what
constitutes wet gas (figure 1). It
is instead a variable condition
that ranges from mild hu-
midity in the pipe to gas that
presents itself as a multiphase
flow with, for example, a 90
percent volume of gas and a 10
percent volume of other fluid in
various forms. At the other end of
the spectrum, pollution monitoring
systems that measure air/gas flow in
large vertical stacks must at times con-
tend with the natural phenomenon of fre-
Figure 1. Wet gas flow in the pipe.
quent rain in the pipe.

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No matter the industry, the application, or the pipe size, process engineers need to be able to mea-
sure wet gas flow accurately and consistently independent of the fluid composition in the pipe or the
weather conditions. Failing to achieve accurate air/gas flow measurement creates inefficiencies in pro-
cesses, reduces product volume throughput, causes maintenance issues, etc. The result of inaccurate
measurement is higher costs and competitive weakness.

Wet gas solutions

For entrained moisture, eliminating the moisture from the gas stream is always the preferred, best prac-
tice. Common methods for this include the installation of a gas dryer or the installation of a knockout
drum or knockout pot upstream from the flowmeter’s point of installation. Another option is to insulate
or heat wrap the pipe to prevent condensation.
Although these wet gas mitigation options are often effective and completely solve the problem,
there are instances where either the gas composition or the variables in the process, installed equipment,
or piping layout frustrate the best efforts. If none of these moisture elimination practices are feasible or
adequate to solve the problem, then there are several more solutions to consider at the instrument level.
Option 1. Install a standard thermal
Figure 2. Angle-mounted standard thermal flowmeter.
flowmeter using constant power (CP)
technology and optimize the installa-
tion itself to minimize or prevent con-
densation from contacting the sensor.
During the flowmeter’s installation,
be sure the meter is angle-mounted
in the pipe (figure 2) so that gravity
moves the moisture away from the
sensor. If a knockout pot is already
employed, the installation of the Angled at 45° from horizontal
flowmeter as shown in figure
1 is also the recommended best
practice.
Another alternative is to install a ∆T (CT) method meter
that is extremely heated, to 300°C (572°F) to “flash off” any
moisture. There is an issue with inserting such a high heat
source into the flow stream. It could create an unsafe con-
dition, consume much more energy to operate, and cause
a shortened operating life cycle, accelerated aging, and a
susceptibility to drift and/or premature failure of the sensors.
Option 2. Install a special-purpose “wet gas” thermal
flowmeter, such as FCI’s new “wet gas” sensor head (figure
3). Its design shunts the condensate away and never allows
it to reach the sensors. As a mechanical design solution,
all safety approvals remain in place; there is no increase in
energy consumption to power the instrument; and there is
no impact on the sensors’ service life. Furthermore, there
is no de-rating of the instrument’s T-rating, and the sen-
sor is safe to touch. The recommended installation is side
mounted in either the 90°
or 270° position. Figure 3. New wet gas
MASSter flow sensor.

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INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

The wet gas sensor

The most effective of these approaches is the pre-
viously mentioned Wet Gas MASSter™ sensor for
the ST80 Series Flow Meter. This innovative me-
chanical design shunts moisture, condensation,
and water droplets away from the thermal sensor,
thus maintaining an accurate gas flow measure-
ment while minimizing errors that occur from a
cooling effect on the sensor that could cause a
spike or false high reading.
The Wet Gas MASSter can be used in applica-
tions that have either moisture entrained in the
gas (annular mist) or for protection against rain in
larger, vertical stacks. Why is it needed? This wet
gas sensor is designed specifically for applications
that have a high level of moisture or condensa-
tion present in the gas flow stream that cannot be Figure 4. Thermal dispersion principle of operation.
removed using traditional solutions.
The measuring principle of thermal mass flowmeters involves heat transfer caused by gas flow. Any
moisture or condensate in the gas stream that contacts the heated sensor can cause a sudden, momen-
tary change in the heat transfer that can result in a spiked or fluctuating output reading, creating inac-
curate or unstable flow measurement. Thermal flowmeters using the constant ∆T method are particu-
larly reactive to moisture droplets. Constant power method meters, because their slightly heated sensor
elevates the dew point, are less so (figure 4).
Common moist gas applications with condensation droplets are found in biogas recovery systems (waste-
water treatment digesters, landfill biogas production systems, and reactors). Rain droplets in open vertical
stacks and flues are common in power plants, oil and gas operations, chemical plants, and refineries.
The Wet Gas MASSter Sensor option for the ST80
meter is suitable for pipe diameters from 1 to 99 inch-
es (25 to 2500 mm) and air/gas temperatures up to
850°F (454°C). These meters are accurate to ±1 per-
cent of reading, ±0.5 percent of full scale, with re-
peatability of ±0.5 percent of reading for flow rates up
to 1000 SFPS (305 NMPS) and 100:1 turndown.
These meters are available with an extensive
choice of outputs and user interfaces to ensure inter-
facing with virtually any control system and/or setup
or configuration devices. Standard outputs include
dual 4–20 mA, NAMUR NE43–compliant analog out-
puts, HART (version 7), Modbus 485, and a USB port.
Foundation Fieldbus or Profibus PA can be optionally
added.
An intuitive, easy-to-read backlit LCD display
shows digital and bar graph readouts of the meter’s
flow rate and temperature, totalized flow, alarms,
and diagnostics feedback (figure 5). A user-defined
Figure 5. ST80 flowmeter photo. label field is also available. Technicians can easily spot
check flow data in person for reliability.

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INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

The meter’s transmitter enclosure is NEMA 4X/IP67 rated, selectable for NPT or metric conduit port
threading, and is available in both aluminum and stainless steel. It can be remotely located up to 1000
feet (305 m) apart from the flow element. In addition to SIL rating, the instrument with the wet gas
sensor also carries full global instrument Division 1/Zone 1 Ex hazardous location approvals of FM, FMc,
ATEX, and IECEx.

Solving challenges
Although wet gas is unavoidable in many industries and processes, solving wet gas measurement chal-
lenges can be easier than you think. There are multiple options to eliminate the moisture or to mitigate
any interference with flow measurement sensors.
Where possible, choosing a point of measurement and installation of the flowmeter downstream
from dryers, knock-out pots, or knock-out drums is the traditional and best solution. If that does not
work, then angle mounting the meter in the pipe helps isolate the flow sensor from the fluid in the pipe.
The newest option is the wet gas sensor designed for the ST80 thermal meter, which mechani-
cally shunts moisture away from the sensor head for accurate, repeatable measurement. Its unique
construction eliminates effects from moisture in the pipe, and it is suitable to use in large open stacks
where rainfall is an issue.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Eric Wible is the director of engineering at Fluid Components International (FCI)
with more than 30 years of experience working in the industrial automation indus-
try. He is responsible for managing all aspects of engineering at FCI, including new
product development, quality improvements, sustaining engineering, test/calibra-
tion, product certification, and compliance. Wible earned a BSME from San Diego
State University and holds a number of patents for various thermal flow meter and
flow sensor inventions.
Fluid Components International, 1755 La Costa Meadows Drive, San Marcos, California, 92078 USA,
Phone: 760-744-6950, Email: eflow@[Link]

13 INTECH FOCUS MARCH 2020 [Link]

 RADAR
IS THE BETTER
ULTRASONIC

Compact
80 GHz level sensor
with in-head display

$952
VEGAPULS 31

All advantages of the radar technology:

[Link]/vegapuls
INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

Noncontact Level Measurement

Technology Comparison

Consider these variables when choosing between 80 GHz

radar sensors with ultrasonic transmitters for liquid and solid
level measurements
By Greg Tischler, VEGA Americas, Inc.

W
hen it comes to noncontact continuous level measurement, radar and ultrasonic are two of
the most common technologies. Both technologies are used for similar applications across
industries, and both types of devices use similar principles to make a level measurement.
However, each technology has varying degrees of success in different applications.

How the technologies work

Radar and ultrasonic instruments operate similarly. They both face downward, emitting a signal that
reflects from the product surface, and the sensor electronics use the time of flight to calculate a mea-
surement. The type and shape of signal each technology uses is where they begin to diverge. All radars,
including 80 GHz radar sensors, emit radio microwaves, while ultrasonic transmitters use sound waves.

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INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

Radar
Radar signals are electromechanical waves.
Radar microwaves are electromagnetic waves,
which means the signal does not require a
medium—it can travel in a vacuum. This is why
radar signals are unaffected by process condi-
tions like temperature and pressure. This makes
radar technology a versatile level measurement
technology across industries and applications.
The newest radar sensors using a higher 80
GHz frequency have a very narrow beam an-
gle—as small as 3.6˚. Most of the energy from
the radar signal is focused in a small area, and
this allows the radar to avoid internal obstruc-
tions, mixers, or agitators inside the vessel. The
exceptional focus of the radar beam also mini-
mizes any additional “noise” or unwanted re-
flections that bounce around inside the vessel.

Ultrasonic
An ultrasonic sensor’s sound wave is a mechani-
cal wave, which means it needs a medium to Ultrasonic sensors use mechanical waves.
travel through, and most of the time, that medi-
um is the atmosphere or the air inside the vessel.
The speed of the signal is contingent upon the
environment in which it is traveling. Sound waves
travel at different speeds depending on the air
temperature, pressure, density, and gas compo-
sition. If any of these properties are changing
during the process, it can result in measurement
errors, which is why ultrasonic sensors are more
ideal for simple level measurements in processes
with few to no changing conditions.
Ultrasonic signals operate using frequencies
ranging between 30 kHz and 240 kHz. Unlike
radar, frequency is more of a function of mea-
suring range, with low frequencies used for
measuring longer distances and high frequencies used for measuring small distances. Some ultrasonic
sensors can focus most of their signal as small as a 4˚ or 5˚ beam angle, but because of the shape of the
acoustic waves, ultrasonic sensors are more likely to receive unwanted reflections from within the vessel.

Vessel size and construction

To begin choosing the right level measurement sensor, users must understand the shape, size, and material
of their vessel. This will give them a better understanding of the measurement required by the sensor. It can
also determine how and where the sensor will be mounted to obtain an accurate, reliable level measurement.
Radar sensors have traditionally been used for longer-range level measurements in bigger tanks,
while ultrasonic sensors have excelled with shorter distances. As technology has developed, however,
these conventions have begun to fade. Ultrasonic sensors are still more accurate with exceptionally small
measurements of less than six inches. For most small vessels, however, today’s 80 GHz radar sensors

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INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

perform just as well as their ultrasonic counterparts. Plus, these new sensors have small antennas with
correspondingly small process fittings that make them suitable for these small tanks.
In large tanks with longer measurement spans, both radar and ultrasonic sensors perform well. How-
ever, users should be ready for a trade-off when using ultrasonic sensors. The low frequency ultrasonic
sensors used for long ranges typically require a larger opening at the top of the tank. Plus, all ultrasonic
sensors have a near zone, or a “dead band,” which is essentially a blind spot near the sensor where
it cannot make a measurement. Long-range ultrasonic sensors may have near zones exceeding 3 feet,
while radar sensors enable users to measure all the way to the top of the tank.
The tank or vessel’s construction can also be a factor in determining which technology to choose,
because this can affect how a sensor is mounted. Radar signals can penetrate nonconductive materials
like polyethylene, fiberglass, and glass. This allows radar sensors to measure through plastic vessels or
sight glasses. An ultrasonic sensor would require a new process connection, while the radar can simply
be mounted above the vessel and make the same measurement nonintrusively.

Process conditions
Every process has its challenges to obtaining an accurate level measurement. Steady, predictable
conditions are a luxury in the process industry. Changing temperatures, foam, product reflectivity, dust,
condensation, buildup, and noise are just a handful of potential hurdles to obtaining an accurate level
measurement. It is up to the user to find the best technology for the task at hand.

Temperature
Radar level sensors are immune to any changing temperatures, while ultrasonic sensors’ accuracy can
vary drastically. To combat this, ultrasonic transducers come equipped with the ability to measure the
temperature at the transducer. However, if the transducer temperature significantly varies from the air
space near the product surface, the level measurement will be off.

Gas composition
Similar to temperature, the composition of the gas between the sensor and the liquid surface has an
effect on ultrasonic sensors’ sound waves. The speed of sound varies greatly depending on the gas type,
which can lead to measurement errors. Vapors from acids and solvents are especially susceptible to this,
and it can greatly affect the accuracy of ultrasonic devices. Radar microwaves, on the other hand, travel
at the same speed regardless of the air space, so the measurement will remain the same.

The measuring principle – Sound velocity in gases

Type Sound velocity Density (at 20ºC)
Hydrogen 1280 0.0899
Helium 981 0.1785
Air 343 1.2041
Oxygen 317.5 1.429
Carbon dioxide 266 1.98
Sulphur hexafluoride 129 6.63

Foam
Foaming is another universal setback for any noncontact level measurement technology, because foam
absorbs both microwaves and sound waves. Complete absorption is rare, and in those extreme instances,
a guided wave radar is the user’s best bet. In most applications with light foaming, an 80 GHz radar can
make a measurement through the foam as if it is not even there. Many ultrasonic manufacturers would
require a standpipe for the same application.

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INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

Product reflectivity
The high sensitivity of VEGA’s 80 GHz radar sensors allow them to measure even the most unreflective
products. Liquids and materials previously unmeasurable with older radar sensors can now provide a
strong enough signal for an accurate, reliable level measurement. Unlike radar’s electromagnetic waves,
an ultrasonic’s mechanical waves reflect off of most surfaces, despite its reflective properties.

Dust, condensation, and buildup

Users rarely find dust, condensation, and buildup in the same application, but all three have similar effects
on ultrasonic sensors. Sound waves emitted from ultrasonic sensors require a medium to transmit energy
from one place to another. Dust in the air presents a physical barrier for the energy transmission, which
weakens the amplitude of the return signal. With condensation or buildup, the transducer diaphragm acts
as the medium when it vibrates to produce a signal. Condensation or buildup here dampens the signal
from the start. Yet, some ultrasonic sensors with low frequencies are better at handling these situations
because the mechanical wave vibrates the sensor face, keeping it free of water droplets or buildup.
Radar sensors are unaffected by dust, condensation, and buildup. Sophisticated sensitivity software
in VEGA’s 80 GHz radar sensors ignores any signals returning to the sensor too quickly, removing the
possibility of a false high level resulting from condensation and most buildup. As for dust in the air,
dust particles are 0.5 to 1.0 micrometers in size, much too small to affect the radar’s microwaves with
wavelengths measuring 3.5 to 4 mm. This means radar is able to continue measuring during filling and
emptying cycles of the most dusty environments. This allows radar to accurately make a level measure-
ment in any application with dust, condensation, or buildup.

Noise
Loud noises are common in bulk solids applications and inside silos as falling material creates a deafening
environment. The loud noises create additional sound waves, and depending on an ultrasonic transmit-
ter’s frequency, this can interfere with the sound waves being used to make a measurement. This can
lead to measurement errors during filling, emptying, and in noisy processes. Because radar level sensors
use radio microwaves, the noise has no effect on the measurement.

Right instrument for the job

In most level measurement applications, users would be wise to choose an 80 GHz radar over an ultrasonic
transmitter. This does not mean ultrasonic sensors are obsolete by any means. Ultrasonic devices are a cost-
effective, noncontact means of level measurement, but they are not as reliable or accurate in changing or
difficult environments. Most industries do not have the luxury of a stationary product in a stable environ-
ment, which is why an 80 GHz radar sensor is the right instrument for the job more often than not.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Greg Tischler is a product manager at VEGA Americas, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio. VEGA
is a global manufacturer of sensors for measuring level, point level, and pressure,
as well as devices and software for integrating sensors into process control systems.
The company, based in Germany, employs more than 1,480 people worldwide and is
active in more than 80 countries.

18 INTECH FOCUS MARCH 2020 [Link]

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INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

Demystifying
Fluid Turbulence,
Velocity, and
Flow Measurement
By Dan Cychosz,
Emerson Automation
Solutions

O
ne of the long-standing philosophical questions of life is whether the light goes off in a refrig-
erator when the door is closed. For process engineers, an even deeper question relates to know-
ing what happens inside pipes. Like the refrigerator, it is difficult to see inside and ascertain the
answer. The behavior of fluids as they flow from place to place has caused much consternation and is
still a mystery to many.

Being able to solve specific application challenges

depends on having the right tools

It is easy to imagine liquid flowing through a pipe as a uniform column, but we know it is anything
but. Piping characteristics or features cause a range of velocities across the pipe. The primary source is
friction. Although it may not look like there is much resistance to flow, it is a major consideration. Even
in straight pipe with a smooth interior, the liquid closest to the wall moves the slowest, because it is rub-
bing against the pipe wall. The next layer in is slowed by the outermost, and so on. As a result, liquid at

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INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

the center of the pipe moves the fastest (figure

1). This is a description of laminar flow, where
distinct layers are maintained. In turbulent flow
conditions, which occur at higher velocities,
vortices and eddies cause intermixing of these
layers as the fluid moves down the pipe. If we
talk about fluid velocity in a pipe, we are de-
scribing an average as if it is moving as a per-
fectly uniform column, but it is not.
Laminar flow is most efficient from a pure
energy loss point of view; however, this is not a
flow regime that can realistically be maintained
in process piping, since line sizes would have to
be very large compared to flow. Turbulent flow
is encountered in all but the most viscous fluid
flows. Turbulent flow resulting from higher Figure 1. Laminar flow is actually a distribution of
flow velocities should not be confused with velocity, with the fastest moving fluid at the center.
flow disturbances that add a velocity gradient
to the flow. These can be caused by piping configurations such as elbows and valves.

Taming flow disturbances

Flow disturbances are inherent in piping systems due to the need to change directions (elbows), control
flow (valves), and take measurements (thermowells), among other things. Proper design and acknowl-
edgement of these disturbances is critical in ensuring the overall process performs to expectations.
Disturbances can have many sources in piping:
● pipe fittings, such as elbows and tees

● pipe diameter changes

● valves

● obstructions, such as thermowells

● poor pipe alignment with welded joints.

There are many equations to calculate all sorts of values related to flow and piping. They are now
used primarily to torture engineering students, since instrumentation and modeling software tools now
handle most of these tasks. In the real world, the objective is generally to minimize flow disturbances,
which means avoiding creating sources of it wherever possible. Some devices are particularly sensitive
to turbulence, such as the inlet of a centrifugal pump, many types of spray nozzles, and most types of
flowmeters. The remedy for all of these is requiring some length of straight pipe (often in conjunction
with a flow straightener) ahead of and sometimes after the device. Let’s think about how this works.
Without getting too deeply into any math, two main variables affecting flow regimes are pipe diam-
eter and fluid velocity. The pipe diameter aspect is not difficult to conceptualize. As the diameter of the
liquid column increases, so does the complexity of the velocity profile, which is why straight pipe require-
ments are expressed in terms of pipe diameters.
Fluid velocity is also a factor, but is usually assumed to a large extent. The more slowly the liquid
moves through a pipe, the more drastic the flow profile. Again, this is not hard to conceptualize: slow
moving liquid creates less turbulence, allowing greater disparity between fluid velocity next to the pipe
wall and the center of the pipe. Velocity tends to be skipped in these discussions because it normally
falls within guidelines on pipe diameters required to handle flow volumes based on velocity. One rule of
thumb for liquids calls for a velocity of less than 7 feet per second (fps) for medium-size pipe. Smaller
diameters, such as less than 1-inch diameter, need a lower velocity.

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INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

Figure 2. A basic DP flow-

meter can take pressure
measurements in a variety
of locations.

Consequently, many of the straight pipe length recommendations assume a flow velocity within
these guidelines. However, in recent years, plant designers have pushed these limits in an effort to re-
duce cost. For example, if sizing pipe to handle a flow of 200 gallons per minute (gpm), a 4-inch pipe
would provide a velocity of about 5.0 fps and a pressure drop of barely 1 pound per square inch (psi)
over a distance of 100 feet. The designer might try to save some cost by reducing the pipe to 3 inches,
but velocity will go up significantly to about 8.7 fps, and pressure will drop by nearly 4 psi over 100 ft.
Whether or not to pursue this approach comes down to the expected higher pumping costs and
possible increased pipe wear due to the higher velocity.

Flow disturbances and flowmeters

For purposes of this discussion, we will limit the analysis to differential pressure (DP) flowmeters. This is
not a major limitation, since DP remains the most common technology. There are numerous variations on
the concept, but in its most basic implementation, an orifice with a bore diameter smaller than the pipe
diameter is inserted into a pipe between flanges. When the fluid flows through the restriction, it causes
a pressure drop, which can be measured by a DP transmitter (figure 2).
Placement of the taps in relation to the vena contracta will determine the exact calculation used.
The pressure taps can be located at different distances from the orifice plate (or other primary element),
which affects the differential pressure sensed by the DP transmitter. In any case, the flow rate will be
proportional to the square root of the differential pressure.
One of the reasons DP is so popular for measuring flow is its simplicity. Countless installations have
been created by users with every imaginable configuration because they all work, and can be tailored to
specific needs. The accuracy and precision of a DIY setup are in the eye of the builder, but so long as the
users understand the quirks of a given installation, this is a good approach.
Such is not the case for a commercially built DP flowmeter. A user wanting a flowmeter buys it with
the expectation that it can deliver the kind of performance outlined in the catalog. If the specifications
promise accuracy of ±1 percent with a turndown ratio of 10 to 1, it has to be able to deliver that perfor-
mance, provided the user complies with reasonable installation requirements.
Such requirements will likely call for a minimum length of straight, smooth pipe upstream and down-
stream from the primary element. The actual length will vary from design to design. Upstream require-
ments can be as low as zero, but are often 20 diameters and even higher. Downstream pipe length is
usually one-third to one-half the upstream length.

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INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

A disturbed flow profile is a problem for the actual DP reading. The taps are placed
in critical locations where the flow has known characteristics. It may be turbulent, but it
is predictably turbulent. If the flow has characteristics the flowmeter’s design-
ers did not anticipate, such as putting a globe valve only a few pipe
diameters from the primary element, the DP signal might
be highly erratic or change the flow profile sufficiently to
shift the reading well beyond the normal tolerance.
The range of velocity is implicit in the flowmeter’s
measuring range. For example, a flowmeter designed
for a 2-inch pipe will not likely extend past 100 gpm and
Figure 3. Some flowmeters, such
may top out even lower given the velocities necessary to move that
as a Rosemount 3051SFP, are built
much liquid through a 2-inch pipe. At the other extreme, there will with the straight pipe sections as
be a minimum flow required as well to create a high enough pressure part of the design.
drop across the primary element to generate a usable DP signal.

Reducing pipe requirements

Sometimes finding the room necessary for a straight pipe length can be a problem. For example, Emerson’s
Rosemount™ 3051SFP Integral Orifice Flow Meter (figure 3) uses a conventional single orifice primary
element and is built as a complete assembly. The unit sized for a 1-inch pipe includes straight pipe in both
directions with an overall length of almost 30 inches, so the required straight pipe is built into the design.
But what if the flowmeter has to be installed in a location where that much straight pipe simply is not
practical, say inside a skid unit where space is at a premium?
The installer might be tempted to saw off the pipe and see what happens. The likely effect will be
difficult to predict exactly, but will probably involve some loss of precision, which might be tolerable
depending on the application.
A better solution is to change the nature of the primary
element to minimize the effect of a flow disturbance. Replac-
ing one large orifice bore with four smaller ones (figure 4),
which are called conditioning orifices, can cause the same
Figure 4. Using
pressure drop and deliver the same measuring precision, but
a conditioning
orifice can reduce without the same need for straight pipe length. Naturally
the need for this comes at the cost of free passage, which slightly increas-
straight pipe es the potential for clogging, but at least it offers another
length.
mechanism to solve a difficult application conundrum.

What’s in your toolbox?

The ability to solve specific application challenges depends on having the right tools that are capable
of optimizing trade-offs when necessary. An accurate and effective flowmeter requires a precision-built
primary element combined with a precise and stable DP transmitter that has high-performing electronics.
This critical pairing is the heart of the measurement and is the place where accuracy and reliability begin.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dan Cychosz is a global DP flow product manager for Emerson Automation Solutions in Boulder,
Colo., responsible for Rosemount DP flowmeters. He has a BS in chemical engineering from Iowa
State University. Before joining Emerson, he worked in the chemical industry in a technical sales role.

23 INTECH FOCUS MARCH 2020 [Link]

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INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

Understanding
Radar Technology
for Measuring
Tank Level
Pulsed wave and frequency-modulated
continuous wave are two main forms
of radar technology
By Dave Grumney, Hawk Measurement

R
adar (or radio detection and ranging) was first demonstrated in 1935 by Sir Robert Watson-Watt.
Subsequently, it became of major importance for detecting aircraft in World War II, which greatly
accelerated its development. The principle is simple. A transmitter sends out a series of very short
pulses of microwaves. These travel outward from the antenna and are reflected off any object they strike.
Part of the radiation is reflected back to the location of the transmitter, where there is a receiver. Elec-
tronic circuitry measures the time between transmission of the pulse and the reception of its echo. The
time taken is proportional to the distance of the object, so the distance of the object can be calculated.
This time proportional to the distance of the object is now called time of flight.
Radar, as mentioned above, sends out very short pulses of microwaves. These microwaves operate in
the electromagnetic spectrum between 19 MHz and 300 GHz for typical radar frequencies. The ranges of
frequencies have different uses. For instance, 30 to 300 MHz radar frequencies are used today for very long-
range surveillance. This band designation is VHF. Four
to 8 GHz frequencies are used for long-range tracking For the same antenna diameter and different
of airborne weather detection, which is on the C band frequencies, the beam foot print is as shown below:

designation. The 27 to 40 GHz frequency range is used

Distance 10m | 32.8ft:
for very high-resolution mapping for airport surveil-
lance, and the band designation is Kå band. /m | /ft:
As you can see, radar has many uses and has a long 6 GHz 8.03 | 26.35
history of functional applications. Beside technical re-
strictions regarding the utilized bandwidth of a radar 10 GHz 4.17 | 13.7
system, special frequency bands in the 6 GHz range
(C-band), 10 GHz range (X-band), 24 GHz range (K-
band), and 80 GHz range (W-band) have been des- 24 GHz 1.76 | 5.77
ignated for industrial radar systems in the framework
of the worldwide harmonization of radio frequencies.
80 GHz 0.53 | 1.74
Radio regulations distinguish between “tank level
probing radar” inside closed metallic tanks or silos and
“level probing radar” outside with more restrictions.

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INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

Technology
Pulse radar Radar technology has proven itself to be one of the most
reliable, noncontacting forms of technologies used for mea-
Uif(t)
suring tank level. Microwaves pass seamlessly through thick,
condensing humidity in the air space of the tank. In dust,
high pressure, high temperature, and even full vacuum, ra-
envelope t
dar provides accurate, reliable measurements. This cannot be
|Uif(t)| said for other forms of through-the-air measuring technolo-
gies like ultrasonic or laser. Today there are two main forms
of normal radar functions: pulsed wave and frequency-mod-
t ulated continuous wave.

Pulsed-wave radar
FMCW radar Pulsed-wave radar uses electromag-
netic waves that are emitted from
Uif(t) the antenna in short bursts. The
waves are interrupted for a period
of time so that the wave can reach a
FFT t reflecting target or surface and a por-
tion of the energy can return to the
|Uif(f)| same antenna before the next burst of
waves are transmitted. If appropriate
timing devices are employed, it is pos-
f sible to determine the distance to the
target in suitable units of measure.
These units are measured in time increments, but since the waves travel at a
known velocity, we can easily convert the time measured into distance. The pulse
duration is called the “pulse length,” and is measured in microseconds. The pulse
length is usually called pulse width in radar systems. These listening times represent
one pulsed radar cycle time, normally called the interpulse period or (IPP) or pulse
repetition interval (PRI).
Pulsed-wave radar typically operates at frequencies between 6 and 28 GHz. This form usually func-
tions with no single pulse being emitted but a sequence of periodically repeated pulses. The echo signal
is sampled using a second sequence of pulses with a slightly different repetition time period. The energy
of each transmitted pulse is relatively small, because the peak amplitude is very limited. Along with the
sequential sampling, this generally results in a relatively small dynamic range of pulse radars and a relatively
bad signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
Generally, conductive liquids, such as water and water-based liquids, can be measured, even in a
lower dielectric medium. Nonconductive materials have a reflectivity based exclusively on the dielectric
constant. Materials with low dielectric constants absorb microwaves and provide a much lower re-
flected signal back to the antenna, resulting in lower signal strength than materials with high dielectric
constants. It is important to understand that when using time of flight measurements, the velocity
of wave travel in the ambient tank atmosphere must be known or measured. The velocity of radar
wave transmission is equal to the speed of light divided by the square root of the medium’s dielectric
constant. Radar waves are very similar to laser signals but are very different from ultrasonic waves in
this regard. Radar waves are only slightly affected by the differing air velocities, while ultrasonic waves
are greatly affected.

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INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

Emits a continuous signal

Microwave pulses reflect off the surface

Measures the difference

Measures the difference between the transmitter
between emitted and and target by measuring
reflected signals the time of flight of the
Media reflected signal

FMCW RADAR PULSE RADAR

LEVEL TRANSMITTER LEVEL TRANSMITTER

Frequency-modulated continuous wave

Frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) uses electromagnetic wave forms or microwave energy
to emit what is considered a continuous wave of signal, which makes FMCW different from pulsed wave.
The concept of FMCW radar systems is completely different to achieve a much better SNR. A continuous-
wave signal is generated and emitted, i.e., a signal with a very large temporal duration and, accordingly,
with a much larger energy compared to the emitted signal of a pulse radar system (even in the case of
the same peak amplitude).
The frequency of the continuous-wave signal is linearly modulated over time (linear “frequency
sweep”), starting from the desired lower corner frequency and going up to the higher corner frequency
(or vice versa), covering the required frequency band. Advantageously with this approach, the sweep-
duration can be chosen independently from the bandwidth; the signal can simply be generated by
means of a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO); and the spectral purity of the signal is very high. The
latter makes it easy to avoid unintended emissions in adjacent frequency bands and to fulfill the given
radio regulations.
The approach for processing the echo (which is also a continuous-wave
signal) in an FMCW radar system is to mix (multiply) the received signal with
the transmit signal. After a subsequent low-pass filtering, a low-frequency
signal (the so-called intermediate-frequency signal) is directly obtained.
Another advantage of the FMCW concept, this signal can be digitized
directly using a low-cost analog-to-digital converter (ADC) (with a low
sampling frequency). No sequential sampling has to be performed.
With the more recent advances in the technological field of mono-
lithic microwave integrated circuits (MMIC) and with the much
better availability of MMICs, the majority of industrial manufac-
turers and suppliers of radar level measurement systems now are
also moving from pulse-radar systems to the FMCW radar technol-
ogy (at least in their latest systems). Beside this trend, which is motivated
by the largely improved performance of the FMCW concept, a large variety
of pulse radars are still available in the market.

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INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

Things to consider
Beam width or angular beam width
The antenna radiation field is inversely proportional to the aperture diameter of the antenna and to the
center frequency. Beam width decreases with increasing center frequency if the diameter of the antenna is
kept constant. Furthermore, in the case of keeping the frequency constant, the beam width also decreases
with the increasing diameter of the antenna. In conclusion, the beam width does not simply depend on one
single parameter, but both parameters—center frequency and antenna diameter are degrees of freedom
for determining the angular beam width. The choice of one specific antenna from a set of available anten-
nas with different beam widths has to be made dependent on the given application conditions.

Transmission loss
The transmission loss is the ratio be-
tween the transmitted power and the
As a rule of thumb, the received power generally
received power, and this parameter is
largely dependent on the properties increases with increasing frequency and with
of the antenna (gain and efficiency),
the utilized frequency, and the reflec- increasing diameter of the antenna.
tion or backscattering properties of
the liquid or bulk solid, respectively.
Although the reflection coefficient of the liquid surface does not change with frequency, the back-
scattering of fine granulated bulk solids largely increases with increasing frequency. Accordingly, the
penetration of microwaves into the bulk solid heap decreases.
As a general rule of thumb, the received power generally increases with increasing frequency and
with increasing diameter of the antenna. For this reason, the echo signal level can generally be increased
by using a high frequency and an antenna with a large diameter.

28 INTECH FOCUS MARCH 2020 [Link]

 INTECH FOCUS | FLOW & LEVEL

OUR
DELIVERY PROMISE:
Range resolution
There is another interesting parameter of the
modern radar system, range resolution, which de-
scribes the ability to separate different radar tar-
Same day shipping gets from each other over distance. This parameter

for all orders is inversely proportional to the bandwidth. For this

reason, a large bandwidth is required to allow a
received by 6pm good separation between echoes from the filling
medium and from other “disturbing” objects like
the antenna outlet reflection (being the root cause
for the so-called “upper dead zone”) or, for exam-
ple, weld seams in the tank or silo wall. Typically,
the bandwidth of a radar system is proportionally
increasing with its center frequency.

Choosing a noncontact level radar

The two types of noncontact level radars, pulse-
level radar and frequency-module continuous
wave level radar, have been widely used through-
out the process industry. Both noncontact “free
Our services: space” techniques are low maintenance, easy to
use, and effective, but FMCW is considered more
n 1.8+ million articles from accurate than pulse and is the preferred choice
500+ renowned manufacturers in challenging applications. With FMCW technol-
n 75,000+ articles in stock in Munich, Germany ogy, the transmitter emits a continuous signal and
n 500,000+ additional articles readily available determines the distance to the target by measur-
n Online Shop: [Link]
ing the frequency difference between the emit-
ted and the reflected signals. With pulse radar,
n Industry-focus line cards of well-known and
the transmitter sends a pulse and then stops and
reliable manufacturers
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n Sales representatives in Italy, France, United
Kingdom, Ireland, Scandinavia, Eastern Europe, ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Brazil and the Middle East Dave Grumney has more than 40 years of in-
dustry experience. In 1979, he started working
as an outside sales engineer for AO Grum-
ney Company. He then went on to become
[Link] a manufacturers rep for Siemens, Miltronics,
AMETEK, and many others. In 1989 Grumney
started his own company, FLO-CORP, a U.S.
YEARS
manufacturer of flow, level, and monitoring in-
strumentation. In 2019 FLO-CORP and HAWK
merged companies and Grumney is now VP of
Sales at HAWK.

29 INTECH FOCUS MARCH 2020 [Link]