I N T RO D U C T I O N T O L O G I C

Lecture 4
The Syntax of Predicate Logic
Dr. James Studd
I counsel you, dear friend, in sum,
That first you take collegium logicum.
Your spirit’s then well broken in for you,
In Spanish boots laced tightly to,
That you henceforth may more deliberately keep
The path of thought and straight along it creep,
And not perchance criss-cross may go,
A- will-o’-wisping to and fro.
Then you’ll be taught full many a day
What at one stroke you’ve done alway,
Like eating and like drinking free,
It now must go like: One! Two! Three!
Goethe, Faust I
Outline
1 Introduction to L2
2 Straightforward predicate formalisation
3 The syntax of L2
 Introduction

Recall argument 2 from week 1.

Argument 2
(1) Zeno is a tortoise.
(2) All tortoises are toothless.
Therefore, (C) Zeno is toothless.
 Introduction

Recall argument 2 from week 1.

Argument 2 Valid
(1) Zeno is a tortoise.
(2) All tortoises are toothless.
Therefore, (C) Zeno is toothless.
 Introduction

Recall argument 2 from week 1.

Argument 2 Valid
(1) Zeno is a tortoise.
(2) All tortoises are toothless.
Therefore, (C) Zeno is toothless.
Is the argument propositionally valid?
 Introduction

Recall argument 2 from week 1.

Argument 2 Valid
(1) Zeno is a tortoise.
(2) All tortoises are toothless.
Therefore, (C) Zeno is toothless.
Is the argument propositionally valid?
Propositional Formalisation
 Introduction

Recall argument 2 from week 1.

Argument 2 Valid
(1) Zeno is a tortoise.
(2) All tortoises are toothless.
Therefore, (C) Zeno is toothless.
Is the argument propositionally valid?
Propositional Formalisation
(1) T

Dictionary: T : Zeno is a tortoise.

 Introduction

Recall argument 2 from week 1.

Argument 2 Valid
(1) Zeno is a tortoise.
(2) All tortoises are toothless.
Therefore, (C) Zeno is toothless.
Is the argument propositionally valid?
Propositional Formalisation
(1) T
(2) A

Dictionary: T : Zeno is a tortoise.

A: All tortoises are toothless.
 Introduction

Recall argument 2 from week 1.

Argument 2 Valid
(1) Zeno is a tortoise.
(2) All tortoises are toothless.
Therefore, (C) Zeno is toothless.
Is the argument propositionally valid?
Propositional Formalisation
(1) T
(2) A
(C) L
Dictionary: T : Zeno is a tortoise.
A: All tortoises are toothless. L: Zeno is toothless.
 Introduction

Recall argument 2 from week 1.

Argument 2 Valid
(1) Zeno is a tortoise.
(2) All tortoises are toothless.
Therefore, (C) Zeno is toothless.
Is the argument propositionally valid?
Propositional Formalisation
(1) T
(2) A
(C) L
Dictionary: T : Zeno is a tortoise.
A: All tortoises are toothless. L: Zeno is toothless.
But T, A 6|= L.
 Introduction

Recall argument 2 from week 1.

Argument 2 Valid
(1) Zeno is a tortoise.
(2) All tortoises are toothless.
Therefore, (C) Zeno is toothless.
Is the argument propositionally valid?
Propositional Formalisation Not Valid
(1) T
(2) A
(C) L
Dictionary: T : Zeno is a tortoise.
A: All tortoises are toothless. L: Zeno is toothless.
But T, A 6|= L.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Subject-Predicate form.
To capture the validity of Argument 2 we need a richer
formal language:
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Subject-Predicate form.
To capture the validity of Argument 2 we need a richer
formal language:
One that can capture some of the internal structure of
sentences like ‘Zeno is a tortoise’ and ‘All tortoises are
toothless’.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Subject-Predicate form.
To capture the validity of Argument 2 we need a richer
formal language:
One that can capture some of the internal structure of
sentences like ‘Zeno is a tortoise’ and ‘All tortoises are
toothless’.
Zeno
| {z } is
| a tortoise
{z }
Designator Predicate
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Subject-Predicate form.
To capture the validity of Argument 2 we need a richer
formal language:
One that can capture some of the internal structure of
sentences like ‘Zeno is a tortoise’ and ‘All tortoises are
toothless’.
Zeno
| {z } is
| a tortoise
{z }
Designator Predicate

The language we use is the language of predicate logic: L2

 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Designators/Constants
In English, designators are singular noun phrases that
(purport to) refer to a single thing.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Designators/Constants
In English, designators are singular noun phrases that
(purport to) refer to a single thing.
English designators
Proper names: ‘Zeno’, ‘London’, ‘Elizabeth II’
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Designators/Constants
In English, designators are singular noun phrases that
(purport to) refer to a single thing.
English designators
Proper names: ‘Zeno’, ‘London’, ‘Elizabeth II’
Definite descriptions: ‘The capital of France’,‘The
Queen’, ‘England’s capital’, ‘Volker’s tortoise’.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Designators/Constants
In English, designators are singular noun phrases that
(purport to) refer to a single thing.
English designators
Proper names: ‘Zeno’, ‘London’, ‘Elizabeth II’
Definite descriptions: ‘The capital of France’,‘The
Queen’, ‘England’s capital’, ‘Volker’s tortoise’.
In L2 , the equivalent of designators are constants
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Designators/Constants
In English, designators are singular noun phrases that
(purport to) refer to a single thing.
English designators
Proper names: ‘Zeno’, ‘London’, ‘Elizabeth II’
Definite descriptions: ‘The capital of France’,‘The
Queen’, ‘England’s capital’, ‘Volker’s tortoise’.
In L2 , the equivalent of designators are constants
L2 constants
a, b, c, etc.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicates
In English, a predicate is the result of deleting one or more
designators from a sentence.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicates
In English, a predicate is the result of deleting one or more
designators from a sentence.
English predicates
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicates
In English, a predicate is the result of deleting one or more
designators from a sentence.
English predicates
Zeno is a tortoise
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicates
In English, a predicate is the result of deleting one or more
designators from a sentence.
English predicates
is a tortoise
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicates
In English, a predicate is the result of deleting one or more
designators from a sentence.
English predicates
is a tortoise
London is bigger than the capital of France
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicates
In English, a predicate is the result of deleting one or more
designators from a sentence.
English predicates
is a tortoise
is bigger than the capital of France
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicates
In English, a predicate is the result of deleting one or more
designators from a sentence.
English predicates
is a tortoise
is bigger than
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicates
In English, a predicate is the result of deleting one or more
designators from a sentence.
English predicates
is a tortoise
is bigger than
John opened the bottle with his keyring
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicates
In English, a predicate is the result of deleting one or more
designators from a sentence.
English predicates
is a tortoise
is bigger than
opened the bottle with his keyring
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicates
In English, a predicate is the result of deleting one or more
designators from a sentence.
English predicates
is a tortoise
is bigger than
opened with his keyring
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicates
In English, a predicate is the result of deleting one or more
designators from a sentence.
English predicates
is a tortoise
is bigger than
opened with
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicates
In English, a predicate is the result of deleting one or more
designators from a sentence.
English predicates
is a tortoise
is bigger than
opened with

Arity
A predicate’s arity is the number of occurrences of
designators it takes to make a whole sentence again.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicates
In English, a predicate is the result of deleting one or more
designators from a sentence.
English predicates
is a tortoise Arity: 1
is bigger than
opened with

Arity
A predicate’s arity is the number of occurrences of
designators it takes to make a whole sentence again.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicates
In English, a predicate is the result of deleting one or more
designators from a sentence.
English predicates
is a tortoise Arity: 1
is bigger than Arity: 2
opened with

Arity
A predicate’s arity is the number of occurrences of
designators it takes to make a whole sentence again.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicates
In English, a predicate is the result of deleting one or more
designators from a sentence.
English predicates
is a tortoise Arity: 1
is bigger than Arity: 2
opened with Arity: 3

Arity
A predicate’s arity is the number of occurrences of
designators it takes to make a whole sentence again.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In L2 , we simply stipulate what the predicates are.

 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In L2 , we simply stipulate what the predicates are.

L2 -predicates
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In L2 , we simply stipulate what the predicates are.

L2 -predicates
P 1 , Q1 , R1 , P11 , Q136 , etc
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In L2 , we simply stipulate what the predicates are.

L2 -predicates
P 1 , Q1 , R1 , P11 , Q136 , etc
P 2 , P12 , R43
2
, etc.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In L2 , we simply stipulate what the predicates are.

L2 -predicates
P 1 , Q1 , R1 , P11 , Q136 , etc
P 2 , P12 , R43
2
, etc.
P 3 , P13 , R43
3
, etc
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In L2 , we simply stipulate what the predicates are.

L2 -predicates
P 1 , Q1 , R1 , P11 , Q136 , etc
P 2 , P12 , R43
2
, etc.
P 3 , P13 , R43
3
, etc

Arity
The superscript (or ‘arity index’) tells us what the arity is.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In L2 , we simply stipulate what the predicates are.

L2 -predicates
P 1 , Q1 , R1 , P11 , Q136 , etc Arity: 1
P 2 , P12 , R43
2
, etc.
P 3 , P13 , R43
3
, etc

Arity
The superscript (or ‘arity index’) tells us what the arity is.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In L2 , we simply stipulate what the predicates are.

L2 -predicates
P 1 , Q1 , R1 , P11 , Q136 , etc (1-place, unary) Arity: 1
P 2 , P12 , R43
2
, etc.
P 3 , P13 , R43
3
, etc

Arity
The superscript (or ‘arity index’) tells us what the arity is.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In L2 , we simply stipulate what the predicates are.

L2 -predicates
P 1 , Q1 , R1 , P11 , Q136 , etc (1-place, unary) Arity: 1
P 2 , P12 , R43
2
, etc. Arity: 2
P 3 , P13 , R43
3
, etc

Arity
The superscript (or ‘arity index’) tells us what the arity is.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In L2 , we simply stipulate what the predicates are.

L2 -predicates
P 1 , Q1 , R1 , P11 , Q136 , etc (1-place, unary) Arity: 1
P 2 , P12 , R43
2
, etc. (2-place, binary) Arity: 2
P 3 , P13 , R43
3
, etc

Arity
The superscript (or ‘arity index’) tells us what the arity is.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In L2 , we simply stipulate what the predicates are.

L2 -predicates
P 1 , Q1 , R1 , P11 , Q136 , etc (1-place, unary) Arity: 1
P 2 , P12 , R43
2
, etc. (2-place, binary) Arity: 2
P 3 , P13 , R43
3
, etc Arity: 3

Arity
The superscript (or ‘arity index’) tells us what the arity is.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In L2 , we simply stipulate what the predicates are.

L2 -predicates
P 1 , Q1 , R1 , P11 , Q136 , etc (1-place, unary) Arity: 1
P 2 , P12 , R43
2
, etc. (2-place, binary) Arity: 2
P 3 , P13 , R43
3
, etc (3-place, ternary) Arity: 3

Arity
The superscript (or ‘arity index’) tells us what the arity is.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In L2 , we simply stipulate what the predicates are.

L2 -predicates
P 1 , Q1 , R1 , P11 , Q136 , etc (1-place, unary) Arity: 1
P 2 , P12 , R43
2
, etc. (2-place, binary) Arity: 2
P 3 , P13 , R43
3
, etc (3-place, ternary) Arity: 3

Arity
The superscript (or ‘arity index’) tells us what the arity is.
Combining n occurrences of constants with an n-ary
predicate makes an L2 -sentence.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In L2 , we simply stipulate what the predicates are.

L2 -predicates
P 1 , Q1 , R1 , P11 , Q136 , etc (1-place, unary) Arity: 1
P 2 , P12 , R43
2
, etc. (2-place, binary) Arity: 2
P 3 , P13 , R43
3
, etc (3-place, ternary) Arity: 3

Arity
The superscript (or ‘arity index’) tells us what the arity is.
Combining n occurrences of constants with an n-ary
predicate makes an L2 -sentence.
Some L2 -sentences
Examples: P 1 a
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In L2 , we simply stipulate what the predicates are.

L2 -predicates
P 1 , Q1 , R1 , P11 , Q136 , etc (1-place, unary) Arity: 1
P 2 , P12 , R43
2
, etc. (2-place, binary) Arity: 2
P 3 , P13 , R43
3
, etc (3-place, ternary) Arity: 3

Arity
The superscript (or ‘arity index’) tells us what the arity is.
Combining n occurrences of constants with an n-ary
predicate makes an L2 -sentence.
Some L2 -sentences
Examples: P 1 a, R2 ab
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In L2 , we simply stipulate what the predicates are.

L2 -predicates
P 1 , Q1 , R1 , P11 , Q136 , etc (1-place, unary) Arity: 1
P 2 , P12 , R43
2
, etc. (2-place, binary) Arity: 2
P 3 , P13 , R43
3
, etc (3-place, ternary) Arity: 3

Arity
The superscript (or ‘arity index’) tells us what the arity is.
Combining n occurrences of constants with an n-ary
predicate makes an L2 -sentence.
Some L2 -sentences
Examples: P 1 a, R2 ab, R2 aa
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In L2 , we simply stipulate what the predicates are.

L2 -predicates
P 1 , Q1 , R1 , P11 , Q136 , etc (1-place, unary) Arity: 1
P 2 , P12 , R43
2
, etc. (2-place, binary) Arity: 2
P 3 , P13 , R43
3
, etc (3-place, ternary) Arity: 3

Arity
The superscript (or ‘arity index’) tells us what the arity is.
Combining n occurrences of constants with an n-ary
predicate makes an L2 -sentence.
Some L2 -sentences
Examples: P 1 a, R2 ab, R2 aa, P23
4
abca
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicate formalisation
We can now formalise the first premise
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicate formalisation
We can now formalise the first premise
Formalise: Zeno is a tortoise
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicate formalisation
We can now formalise the first premise
Formalise: Zeno is a tortoise
Formalisation: P 1 a
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicate formalisation
We can now formalise the first premise
Formalise: Zeno is a tortoise
Formalisation: P 1 a
Dictionary: a: Zeno. P 1 : . . . is a tortoise.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicate formalisation
We can now formalise the first premise
Formalise: Zeno is a tortoise
Formalisation: P 1 a
Dictionary: a: Zeno. P 1 : . . . is a tortoise.

More examples Formalisation

(1) Alice paid Beatrice.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicate formalisation
We can now formalise the first premise
Formalise: Zeno is a tortoise
Formalisation: P 1 a
Dictionary: a: Zeno. P 1 : . . . is a tortoise.

More examples Formalisation

(1) Alice paid Beatrice.

Dictionary: a: Alice. b: Beatrice. P 2 : . . . paid . . . .

 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicate formalisation
We can now formalise the first premise
Formalise: Zeno is a tortoise
Formalisation: P 1 a
Dictionary: a: Zeno. P 1 : . . . is a tortoise.

More examples Formalisation

(1) Alice paid Beatrice. P 2 ab

Dictionary: a: Alice. b: Beatrice. P 2 : . . . paid . . . .

 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicate formalisation
We can now formalise the first premise
Formalise: Zeno is a tortoise
Formalisation: P 1 a
Dictionary: a: Zeno. P 1 : . . . is a tortoise.

More examples Formalisation

(1) Alice paid Beatrice. P 2 ab
(2) Beatrice paid Alice.

Dictionary: a: Alice. b: Beatrice. P 2 : . . . paid . . . .

 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicate formalisation
We can now formalise the first premise
Formalise: Zeno is a tortoise
Formalisation: P 1 a
Dictionary: a: Zeno. P 1 : . . . is a tortoise.

More examples Formalisation

(1) Alice paid Beatrice. P 2 ab
(2) Beatrice paid Alice. P 2 ba

Dictionary: a: Alice. b: Beatrice. P 2 : . . . paid . . . .

 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicate formalisation
We can now formalise the first premise
Formalise: Zeno is a tortoise
Formalisation: P 1 a
Dictionary: a: Zeno. P 1 : . . . is a tortoise.

More examples Formalisation

(1) Alice paid Beatrice. P 2 ab
(2) Beatrice paid Alice. P 2 ba
(3) Alice was paid by Beatrice.

Dictionary: a: Alice. b: Beatrice. P 2 : . . . paid . . . .

 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicate formalisation
We can now formalise the first premise
Formalise: Zeno is a tortoise
Formalisation: P 1 a
Dictionary: a: Zeno. P 1 : . . . is a tortoise.

More examples Formalisation

(1) Alice paid Beatrice. P 2 ab
(2) Beatrice paid Alice. P 2 ba
(3) Alice was paid by Beatrice.
Paraphrase: Beatrice paid Alice.

Dictionary: a: Alice. b: Beatrice. P 2 : . . . paid . . . .

 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicate formalisation
We can now formalise the first premise
Formalise: Zeno is a tortoise
Formalisation: P 1 a
Dictionary: a: Zeno. P 1 : . . . is a tortoise.

More examples Formalisation

(1) Alice paid Beatrice. P 2 ab
(2) Beatrice paid Alice. P 2 ba
(3) Alice was paid by Beatrice. P 2 ba
Paraphrase: Beatrice paid Alice.

Dictionary: a: Alice. b: Beatrice. P 2 : . . . paid . . . .

 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicate formalisation
We can now formalise the first premise
Formalise: Zeno is a tortoise
Formalisation: P 1 a
Dictionary: a: Zeno. P 1 : . . . is a tortoise.

More examples Formalisation

(1) Alice paid Beatrice. P 2 ab
(2) Beatrice paid Alice. P 2 ba
(3) Alice was paid by Beatrice. P 2 ba
Paraphrase: Beatrice paid Alice.
(4) Alice paid Beatrice or was paid by Beatrice

Dictionary: a: Alice. b: Beatrice. P 2 : . . . paid . . . .

 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicate formalisation
We can now formalise the first premise
Formalise: Zeno is a tortoise
Formalisation: P 1 a
Dictionary: a: Zeno. P 1 : . . . is a tortoise.

More examples Formalisation

(1) Alice paid Beatrice. P 2 ab
(2) Beatrice paid Alice. P 2 ba
(3) Alice was paid by Beatrice. P 2 ba
Paraphrase: Beatrice paid Alice.
(4) Alice paid Beatrice or was paid by Beatrice
Paraphrase: Alice paid Beatrice or Beatrice paid Alice
Dictionary: a: Alice. b: Beatrice. P 2 : . . . paid . . . .
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Predicate formalisation
We can now formalise the first premise
Formalise: Zeno is a tortoise
Formalisation: P 1 a
Dictionary: a: Zeno. P 1 : . . . is a tortoise.

More examples Formalisation

(1) Alice paid Beatrice. P 2 ab
(2) Beatrice paid Alice. P 2 ba
(3) Alice was paid by Beatrice. P 2 ba
Paraphrase: Beatrice paid Alice.
(4) Alice paid Beatrice or was paid by Beatrice P 2 ab ∨ P 2 ba
Paraphrase: Alice paid Beatrice or Beatrice paid Alice
Dictionary: a: Alice. b: Beatrice. P 2 : . . . paid . . . .
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Argument 2 revisited, again

What about the second premiss?

All tortoises are toothless

 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Argument 2 revisited, again

What about the second premiss?

All tortoises are toothless

This cannot be formalised as a designator-predicate sentence.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Argument 2 revisited, again

What about the second premiss?

All tortoises are toothless

This cannot be formalised as a designator-predicate sentence.
To formalise this sentence we additionally need to deal with
quantifiers and pronouns.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Argument 2 revisited, again

What about the second premiss?

All tortoises are toothless

This cannot be formalised as a designator-predicate sentence.
To formalise this sentence we additionally need to deal with
quantifiers and pronouns.

Everything
|
is such that} |{z}
{z
it has
| mass}
{z 15

Quantifier Pronoun Predicate

 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Argument 2 revisited, again

What about the second premiss?

All tortoises are toothless

This cannot be formalised as a designator-predicate sentence.
To formalise this sentence we additionally need to deal with
quantifiers and pronouns.

Everything
|
is such that} |{z}
{z
it has
| mass}
{z 15

Quantifier Pronoun Predicate

 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Argument 2 revisited, again

What about the second premiss?

All tortoises are toothless

This cannot be formalised as a designator-predicate sentence.
To formalise this sentence we additionally need to deal with
quantifiers and pronouns.

Everything
|
is such that} |{z}
{z
it has
| mass}
{z 15

Quantifier Pronoun Predicate

 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Argument 2 revisited, again

What about the second premiss?

All tortoises are toothless

This cannot be formalised as a designator-predicate sentence.
To formalise this sentence we additionally need to deal with
quantifiers and pronouns.

Everything
|
is such that} |{z}
{z
it has
| mass}
{z 15

Quantifier Pronoun Predicate

 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Pronouns/Variables
In English, pronouns are expressions used instead of nouns
English pronouns
‘she’, ‘him’, ‘it’
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Pronouns/Variables
In English, pronouns are expressions used instead of nouns
English pronouns
‘she’, ‘him’, ‘it’
Distinguish two uses of pronouns: lazy and quantificational.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Pronouns/Variables
In English, pronouns are expressions used instead of nouns
English pronouns
‘she’, ‘him’, ‘it’
Distinguish two uses of pronouns: lazy and quantificational.
Lazy use
Tom likes Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter and she likes him.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Pronouns/Variables
In English, pronouns are expressions used instead of nouns
English pronouns
‘she’, ‘him’, ‘it’
Distinguish two uses of pronouns: lazy and quantificational.
Lazy use
Tom likes Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter and she likes him.
The pronouns each refer to a particular person
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Pronouns/Variables
In English, pronouns are expressions used instead of nouns
English pronouns
‘she’, ‘him’, ‘it’
Distinguish two uses of pronouns: lazy and quantificational.
Lazy use
Tom likes Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter and she likes him.
The pronouns each refer to a particular person
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Pronouns/Variables
In English, pronouns are expressions used instead of nouns
English pronouns
‘she’, ‘him’, ‘it’
Distinguish two uses of pronouns: lazy and quantificational.
Lazy use
Tom likes Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter and Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter
likes him.
The pronouns each refer to a particular person
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Pronouns/Variables
In English, pronouns are expressions used instead of nouns
English pronouns
‘she’, ‘him’, ‘it’
Distinguish two uses of pronouns: lazy and quantificational.
Lazy use
Tom likes Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter and Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter
likes Tom.
The pronouns each refer to a particular person
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Pronouns/Variables
In English, pronouns are expressions used instead of nouns
English pronouns
‘she’, ‘him’, ‘it’
Distinguish two uses of pronouns: lazy and quantificational.
Lazy use
Tom likes Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter and Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter
likes Tom.
The pronouns each refer to a particular person
Quantificational use
If a girl likes Tom, Tom likes her.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Pronouns/Variables
In English, pronouns are expressions used instead of nouns
English pronouns
‘she’, ‘him’, ‘it’
Distinguish two uses of pronouns: lazy and quantificational.
Lazy use
Tom likes Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter and Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter
likes Tom.
The pronouns each refer to a particular person
Quantificational use
If a girl likes Tom, Tom likes her.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Pronouns/Variables
In English, pronouns are expressions used instead of nouns
English pronouns
‘she’, ‘him’, ‘it’
Distinguish two uses of pronouns: lazy and quantificational.
Lazy use
Tom likes Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter and Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter
likes Tom.
The pronouns each refer to a particular person
Quantificational use
If a girl likes Tom, Tom likes her.
The pronoun cannot be replaced by the noun to which it refers
back (without changing the meaning).
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Pronouns/Variables
In English, pronouns are expressions used instead of nouns
English pronouns
‘she’, ‘him’, ‘it’
Distinguish two uses of pronouns: lazy and quantificational.
Lazy use
Tom likes Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter and Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter
likes Tom.
The pronouns each refer to a particular person
Quantificational use
If a girl likes Tom, Tom likes a girl.
The pronoun cannot be replaced by the noun to which it refers
back (without changing the meaning).
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Pronouns/Variables
In English, pronouns are expressions used instead of nouns
English pronouns
‘she’, ‘him’, ‘it’
Distinguish two uses of pronouns: lazy and quantificational.
Lazy use
Tom likes Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter and Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter
likes Tom.
The pronouns each refer to a particular person
Quantificational use
If a girl likes Tom, Tom likes her.
The pronoun cannot be replaced by the noun to which it refers
back (without changing the meaning).
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Pronouns/Variables
In English, pronouns are expressions used instead of nouns
English pronouns
‘she’, ‘him’, ‘it’
Distinguish two uses of pronouns: lazy and quantificational.
Lazy use
Tom likes Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter and Miranda Fitzwilliam-Carter
likes Tom.
The pronouns each refer to a particular person
Quantificational use
If a girl likes Tom, Tom likes her.
The pronoun cannot be replaced by the noun to which it refers
back (without changing the meaning).
The pronoun ‘her’ does not refer to a single person: it is used to
make a general claim.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In English, we rely on contextual clues to keep track of what

pronouns and other expressions are referring back to.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In English, we rely on contextual clues to keep track of what

pronouns and other expressions are referring back to.
‘Part’ expresses a transitive relation
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In English, we rely on contextual clues to keep track of what

pronouns and other expressions are referring back to.
‘Part’ expresses a transitive relation
If an object is part of another object and this object is part
of yet another object, then it is part of that object.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In English, we rely on contextual clues to keep track of what

pronouns and other expressions are referring back to.
‘Part’ expresses a transitive relation
If an object is part of another object and this object is part
of yet another object, then it is part of that object.
We could instead express this as:

If an object x1 is part of another object x2 and x2 is part of

yet another object x3 , then x1 is part of x3 .
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In English, we rely on contextual clues to keep track of what

pronouns and other expressions are referring back to.
‘Part’ expresses a transitive relation
If an object is part of another object and this object is part
of yet another object, then it is part of that object.
We could instead express this as:

If an object x1 is part of another object x2 and x2 is part of

yet another object x3 , then x1 is part of x3 .
NB: not idiomatic English.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In English, we rely on contextual clues to keep track of what

pronouns and other expressions are referring back to.
‘Part’ expresses a transitive relation
If an object is part of another object and this object is part
of yet another object, then it is part of that object.
We could instead express this as:

If an object x1 is part of another object x2 and x2 is part of

yet another object x3 , then x1 is part of x3 .
NB: not idiomatic English.
In L2 , the equivalent of pronouns are variables.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In English, we rely on contextual clues to keep track of what

pronouns and other expressions are referring back to.
‘Part’ expresses a transitive relation
If an object is part of another object and this object is part
of yet another object, then it is part of that object.
We could instead express this as:

If an object x1 is part of another object x2 and x2 is part of

yet another object x3 , then x1 is part of x3 .
NB: not idiomatic English.
In L2 , the equivalent of pronouns are variables.
L2 variables
x, y, z,
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In English, we rely on contextual clues to keep track of what

pronouns and other expressions are referring back to.
‘Part’ expresses a transitive relation
If an object is part of another object and this object is part
of yet another object, then it is part of that object.
We could instead express this as:

If an object x1 is part of another object x2 and x2 is part of

yet another object x3 , then x1 is part of x3 .
NB: not idiomatic English.
In L2 , the equivalent of pronouns are variables.
L2 variables
x, y, z, x1 , y1 , z1 ,
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

In English, we rely on contextual clues to keep track of what

pronouns and other expressions are referring back to.
‘Part’ expresses a transitive relation
If an object is part of another object and this object is part
of yet another object, then it is part of that object.
We could instead express this as:

If an object x1 is part of another object x2 and x2 is part of

yet another object x3 , then x1 is part of x3 .
NB: not idiomatic English.
In L2 , the equivalent of pronouns are variables.
L2 variables
x, y, z, x1 , y1 , z1 , x2 , . . .
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers
In English, quantifiers are noun phrases typically used to
make general claims
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers
In English, quantifiers are noun phrases typically used to
make general claims
English quantifiers
(1) ‘Everything is such that’
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers
In English, quantifiers are noun phrases typically used to
make general claims
English quantifiers
(1) ‘Everything is such that’, ‘Something is such that’
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers
In English, quantifiers are noun phrases typically used to
make general claims
English quantifiers
(1) ‘Everything is such that’, ‘Something is such that’
(2) ‘Every philosopher’
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers
In English, quantifiers are noun phrases typically used to
make general claims
English quantifiers
(1) ‘Everything is such that’, ‘Something is such that’
(2) ‘Every philosopher’, ‘All tortoises’
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers
In English, quantifiers are noun phrases typically used to
make general claims
English quantifiers
(1) ‘Everything is such that’, ‘Something is such that’
(2) ‘Every philosopher’, ‘All tortoises’, ‘No people’
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers
In English, quantifiers are noun phrases typically used to
make general claims
English quantifiers
(1) ‘Everything is such that’, ‘Something is such that’
(2) ‘Every philosopher’, ‘All tortoises’, ‘No people’
(3) ‘Most people’
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers
In English, quantifiers are noun phrases typically used to
make general claims
English quantifiers
(1) ‘Everything is such that’, ‘Something is such that’
(2) ‘Every philosopher’, ‘All tortoises’, ‘No people’
(3) ‘Most people’, ‘Over half of all tortoises’
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers
In English, quantifiers are noun phrases typically used to
make general claims
English quantifiers
(1) ‘Everything is such that’, ‘Something is such that’
(2) ‘Every philosopher’, ‘All tortoises’, ‘No people’
(3) ‘Most people’, ‘Over half of all tortoises’
The L2 -quantifiers correspond to the quantifiers in (1).
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers
In English, quantifiers are noun phrases typically used to
make general claims
English quantifiers
(1) ‘Everything is such that’, ‘Something is such that’
(2) ‘Every philosopher’, ‘All tortoises’, ‘No people’
(3) ‘Most people’, ‘Over half of all tortoises’
The L2 -quantifiers correspond to the quantifiers in (1).
L2 -quantifiers
(1) ∀x
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers
In English, quantifiers are noun phrases typically used to
make general claims
English quantifiers
(1) ‘Everything is such that’, ‘Something is such that’
(2) ‘Every philosopher’, ‘All tortoises’, ‘No people’
(3) ‘Most people’, ‘Over half of all tortoises’
The L2 -quantifiers correspond to the quantifiers in (1).
L2 -quantifiers
(1) ∀x, ∃x
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers
In English, quantifiers are noun phrases typically used to
make general claims
English quantifiers
(1) ‘Everything is such that’, ‘Something is such that’
(2) ‘Every philosopher’, ‘All tortoises’, ‘No people’
(3) ‘Most people’, ‘Over half of all tortoises’
The L2 -quantifiers correspond to the quantifiers in (1).
L2 -quantifiers
(1) ∀x, ∃x; also: ∃y, ∃z34 , etc.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers
In English, quantifiers are noun phrases typically used to
make general claims
English quantifiers
(1) ‘Everything is such that’, ‘Something is such that’
(2) ‘Every philosopher’, ‘All tortoises’, ‘No people’
(3) ‘Most people’, ‘Over half of all tortoises’
The L2 -quantifiers correspond to the quantifiers in (1).
L2 -quantifiers
(1) ∀x, ∃x; also: ∃y, ∃z34 , etc.
L2 can formalise the quantifiers in (2) via paraphrase.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers
In English, quantifiers are noun phrases typically used to
make general claims
English quantifiers
(1) ‘Everything is such that’, ‘Something is such that’
(2) ‘Every philosopher’, ‘All tortoises’, ‘No people’
(3) ‘Most people’, ‘Over half of all tortoises’
The L2 -quantifiers correspond to the quantifiers in (1).
L2 -quantifiers
(1) ∀x, ∃x; also: ∃y, ∃z34 , etc.
L2 can formalise the quantifiers in (2) via paraphrase.
L2 cannot formalise the quantifiers in (3).
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Formalising general sentences

Formalise
Everything is such that it has mass
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Formalising general sentences

Formalise
Everything is such that it has mass
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Formalising general sentences

Formalise
Everything is such that it has mass
∀x corresponds to ‘Everything is such that’
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Formalising general sentences

Formalise
Everything is such that it has mass
∀x corresponds to ‘Everything is such that’
x corresponds to ‘it’
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Formalising general sentences

Formalise
Everything is such that it has mass
∀x corresponds to ‘Everything is such that’
x corresponds to ‘it’
Let M correspond to ‘has mass’
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Formalising general sentences

Formalise
Everything is such that it has mass
∀x corresponds to ‘Everything is such that’
x corresponds to ‘it’
Let M correspond to ‘has mass’
Then M x corresponds to ‘it has mass’
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Formalising general sentences

Formalise
Everything
| {z
it has
is such that} |{z} | mass}
{z
∀x x M

∀x corresponds to ‘Everything is such that’

x corresponds to ‘it’
Let M correspond to ‘has mass’
Then M x corresponds to ‘it has mass’

Formalisation: ∀xM x
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Formalising general sentences

Formalise
Everything
| {z
it has
is such that} |{z} | mass}
{z
∀x x M

∀x corresponds to ‘Everything is such that’

x corresponds to ‘it’
Let M correspond to ‘has mass’
Then M x corresponds to ‘it has mass’

Formalisation: ∀xM x
Dictionary: M : . . . has mass.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Formalising general sentences

Formalise
Everything
| {z
it has
is such that} |{z} | mass}
{z
∀x x M

∀x corresponds to ‘Everything is such that’

x corresponds to ‘it’
Let M correspond to ‘has mass’
Then M x corresponds to ‘it has mass’

Formalisation: ∀xM x
Dictionary: M : . . . has mass.
Note: it’s fine to omit the arity index when formalising.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples
(1) Everything has mass.
(2) Something has mass.
(3) Some person has mass.
(4) Every person has mass.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples
(1) Everything has mass.
(2) Something has mass.
(3) Some person has mass.
(4) Every person has mass.

Paraphrases.
(1) Everything is such that: it has mass.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples
(1) Everything has mass.
(2) Something has mass.
(3) Some person has mass.
(4) Every person has mass.

Paraphrases.
(1) Everything is such that: it has mass.
Every x is such that: x has mass.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples Formalisation

(1) Everything has mass. ∀xM x
(2) Something has mass.
(3) Some person has mass.
(4) Every person has mass.

Paraphrases.
(1) Everything is such that: it has mass.
Every x is such that: x has mass.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples Formalisation

(1) Everything has mass. ∀xM x
(2) Something has mass.
(3) Some person has mass.
(4) Every person has mass.
Dictionary: M :. . . has mass.

Paraphrases.
(1) Everything is such that: it has mass.
Every x is such that: x has mass.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples Formalisation

(1) Everything has mass. ∀xM x
(2) Something has mass.
(3) Some person has mass.
(4) Every person has mass.
Dictionary: M :. . . has mass.

Paraphrases.
(1) Everything is such that: it has mass.
Every x is such that: x has mass.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples Formalisation

(1) Everything has mass. ∀xM x
(2) Something has mass.
(3) Some person has mass.
(4) Every person has mass.
Dictionary: M :. . . has mass.

Paraphrases.
(1) Everything is such that: it has mass.
Every x is such that: x has mass.
(2) Some x is such that: x has mass.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples Formalisation

(1) Everything has mass. ∀xM x
(2) Something has mass. ∃xM x
(3) Some person has mass.
(4) Every person has mass.
Dictionary: M :. . . has mass.

Paraphrases.
(1) Everything is such that: it has mass.
Every x is such that: x has mass.
(2) Some x is such that: x has mass.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples Formalisation

(1) Everything has mass. ∀xM x
(2) Something has mass. ∃xM x
(3) Some person has mass.
(4) Every person has mass.
Dictionary: M :. . . has mass.

Paraphrases.
(1) Everything is such that: it has mass.
Every x is such that: x has mass.
(2) Some x is such that: x has mass.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples Formalisation

(1) Everything has mass. ∀xM x
(2) Something has mass. ∃xM x
(3) Some person has mass.
(4) Every person has mass.
Dictionary: M :. . . has mass.

Paraphrases.
(1) Everything is such that: it has mass.
Every x is such that: x has mass.
(2) Some x is such that: x has mass.
(3) Something that is a person has mass.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples Formalisation

(1) Everything has mass. ∀xM x
(2) Something has mass. ∃xM x
(3) Some person has mass.
(4) Every person has mass.
Dictionary: M :. . . has mass.

Paraphrases.
(1) Everything is such that: it has mass.
Every x is such that: x has mass.
(2) Some x is such that: x has mass.
(3) Something that is a person has mass.
Something is such that (it is a person and it has mass).
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples Formalisation

(1) Everything has mass. ∀xM x
(2) Something has mass. ∃xM x
(3) Some person has mass.
(4) Every person has mass.
Dictionary: M :. . . has mass.

Paraphrases.
(1) Everything is such that: it has mass.
Every x is such that: x has mass.
(2) Some x is such that: x has mass.
(3) Something that is a person has mass.
Something is such that (it is a person and it has mass).
Some x is such that (x is a person and x has mass).
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples Formalisation

(1) Everything has mass. ∀xM x
(2) Something has mass. ∃xM x
(3) Some person has mass. ∃x(P x ∧ M x)
(4) Every person has mass.
Dictionary: M :. . . has mass.

Paraphrases.
(1) Everything is such that: it has mass.
Every x is such that: x has mass.
(2) Some x is such that: x has mass.
(3) Something that is a person has mass.
Something is such that (it is a person and it has mass).
Some x is such that (x is a person and x has mass).
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples Formalisation

(1) Everything has mass. ∀xM x
(2) Something has mass. ∃xM x
(3) Some person has mass. ∃x(P x ∧ M x)
(4) Every person has mass.
Dictionary: M :. . . has mass. P . . . is a person.

Paraphrases.
(1) Everything is such that: it has mass.
Every x is such that: x has mass.
(2) Some x is such that: x has mass.
(3) Something that is a person has mass.
Something is such that (it is a person and it has mass).
Some x is such that (x is a person and x has mass).
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples Formalisation

(1) Everything has mass. ∀xM x
(2) Something has mass. ∃xM x
(3) Some person has mass. ∃x(P x ∧ M x)
(4) Every person has mass.
Dictionary: M :. . . has mass. P . . . is a person.

Paraphrases.
(1) Everything is such that: it has mass.
Every x is such that: x has mass.
(2) Some x is such that: x has mass.
(3) Something that is a person has mass.
Something is such that (it is a person and it has mass).
Some x is such that (x is a person and x has mass).
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples Formalisation

(1) Everything has mass. ∀xM x
(2) Something has mass. ∃xM x
(3) Some person has mass. ∃x(P x ∧ M x)
(4) Every person has mass.
Dictionary: M :. . . has mass. P . . . is a person.

Paraphrases.
(1) Everything is such that: it has mass.
Every x is such that: x has mass.
(2) Some x is such that: x has mass.
(3) Something that is a person has mass.
Something is such that (it is a person and it has mass).
Some x is such that (x is a person and x has mass).
(4) Everything that is a person has mass.
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples Formalisation

(1) Everything has mass. ∀xM x
(2) Something has mass. ∃xM x
(3) Some person has mass. ∃x(P x ∧ M x)
(4) Every person has mass.
Dictionary: M :. . . has mass. P . . . is a person.

Paraphrases.
(1) Everything is such that: it has mass.
Every x is such that: x has mass.
(2) Some x is such that: x has mass.
(3) Something that is a person has mass.
Something is such that (it is a person and it has mass).
Some x is such that (x is a person and x has mass).
(4) Everything that is a person has mass.
Every x is such that (if x is a person, then x has mass).
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples Formalisation

(1) Everything has mass. ∀xM x
(2) Something has mass. ∃xM x
(3) Some person has mass. ∃x(P x ∧ M x)
(4) Every person has mass. ∀x(P x → M x)
Dictionary: M :. . . has mass. P . . . is a person.

Paraphrases.
(1) Everything is such that: it has mass.
Every x is such that: x has mass.
(2) Some x is such that: x has mass.
(3) Something that is a person has mass.
Something is such that (it is a person and it has mass).
Some x is such that (x is a person and x has mass).
(4) Everything that is a person has mass.
Every x is such that (if x is a person, then x has mass).
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

More examples Formalisation

(1) Everything has mass. ∀xM x
(2) Something has mass. ∃xM x
(3) Some person has mass. ∃x(P x ∧ M x)
(4) Every person has mass. ∀x(P x → M x)
Dictionary: M :. . . has mass. P . . . is a person.

Paraphrases.
(1) Everything is such that: it has mass.
Every x is such that: x has mass.
(2) Some x is such that: x has mass.
(3) Something that is a person has mass.
Something is such that (it is a person and it has mass).
Some x is such that (x is a person and x has mass).
(4) Everything that is a person has mass.
Every x is such that (if x is a person, then x has mass).
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Common variants
L2 standard connective some other formulations
∀x everything every, all, any, a
∃x something some, at least one, any, a
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Common variants
L2 standard connective some other formulations
∀x everything every, all, any, a
∃x something some, at least one, any, a
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Common variants
L2 standard connective some other formulations
∀x everything every, all, any, a
∃x something some, at least one, any, a
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Common variants
L2 standard connective some other formulations
∀x everything every, all, any, a
∃x something some, at least one, any, a
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Examples
(1) A dog barked.
(2) A dog barks.

Dictionary. D: . . . is a dog. B1 : . . . barked. B2 : . . . barks

 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Examples
(1) A dog barked.
(2) A dog barks.

Dictionary. D: . . . is a dog. B1 : . . . barked. B2 : . . . barks

Paraphrase (of the most natural readings)

(1) Some dog barked
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Examples Formalisations
(1) A dog barked. ∃x(Dx ∧ B1 x)
(2) A dog barks.

Dictionary. D: . . . is a dog. B1 : . . . barked. B2 : . . . barks

Paraphrase (of the most natural readings)

(1) Some dog barked
Some x is such that (x is a dog and x barked).
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Examples Formalisations
(1) A dog barked. ∃x(Dx ∧ B1 x)
(2) A dog barks.

Dictionary. D: . . . is a dog. B1 : . . . barked. B2 : . . . barks

Paraphrase (of the most natural readings)

(1) Some dog barked
Some x is such that (x is a dog and x barked).
(2) Every dog barks
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Examples Formalisations
(1) A dog barked. ∃x(Dx ∧ B1 x)
(2) A dog barks. ∀x(Dx → B2 x)

Dictionary. D: . . . is a dog. B1 : . . . barked. B2 : . . . barks

Paraphrase (of the most natural readings)

(1) Some dog barked
Some x is such that (x is a dog and x barked).
(2) Every dog barks
Every x is such that (if x is dog, then x barks).
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers at the end of sentences

Examples
(1) Everyone loves Zuleika
(2) Zuleika loves everyone
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers at the end of sentences

Examples
(1) Everyone loves Zuleika
(2) Zuleika loves everyone

Dictionary: a: Zuleika. P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers at the end of sentences

Examples
(1) Everyone loves Zuleika
(2) Zuleika loves everyone

Dictionary: a: Zuleika. P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

Paraphrases
(1) Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then x loves Zuleika)
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers at the end of sentences

Examples Formalisation
(1) Everyone loves Zuleika ∀x(P x → Lxa)
(2) Zuleika loves everyone

Dictionary: a: Zuleika. P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

Paraphrases
(1) Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then x loves Zuleika)
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers at the end of sentences

Examples Formalisation
(1) Everyone loves Zuleika ∀x(P x → Lxa)
(2) Zuleika loves everyone

Dictionary: a: Zuleika. P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

Paraphrases
(1) Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then x loves Zuleika)
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers at the end of sentences

Examples Formalisation
(1) Everyone loves Zuleika ∀x(P x → Lxa)
(2) Zuleika loves everyone

Dictionary: a: Zuleika. P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

Paraphrases
(1) Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then x loves Zuleika)
(2) Everyone is loved by Zuleika
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers at the end of sentences

Examples Formalisation
(1) Everyone loves Zuleika ∀x(P x → Lxa)
(2) Zuleika loves everyone

Dictionary: a: Zuleika. P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

Paraphrases
(1) Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then x loves Zuleika)
(2) Everyone is loved by Zuleika
Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then x is loved by Zuleika)
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers at the end of sentences

Examples Formalisation
(1) Everyone loves Zuleika ∀x(P x → Lxa)
(2) Zuleika loves everyone

Dictionary: a: Zuleika. P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

Paraphrases
(1) Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then x loves Zuleika)
(2) Everyone is loved by Zuleika
Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then x is loved by Zuleika)
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers at the end of sentences

Examples Formalisation
(1) Everyone loves Zuleika ∀x(P x → Lxa)
(2) Zuleika loves everyone

Dictionary: a: Zuleika. P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

Paraphrases
(1) Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then x loves Zuleika)
(2) Everyone is loved by Zuleika
Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then x is loved by Zuleika)
Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then Zuleika loves x)
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers at the end of sentences

Examples Formalisation
(1) Everyone loves Zuleika ∀x(P x → Lxa)
(2) Zuleika loves everyone

Dictionary: a: Zuleika. P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

Paraphrases
(1) Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then x loves Zuleika)
(2) Everyone is loved by Zuleika
Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then x is loved by Zuleika)
Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then Zuleika loves x)
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers at the end of sentences

Examples Formalisation
(1) Everyone loves Zuleika ∀x(P x → Lxa)
(2) Zuleika loves everyone ∀x(P x → Lax)

Dictionary: a: Zuleika. P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

Paraphrases
(1) Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then x loves Zuleika)
(2) Everyone is loved by Zuleika
Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then x is loved by Zuleika)
Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then Zuleika loves x)
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

Quantifiers at the end of sentences

Examples Formalisation
(1) Everyone loves Zuleika ∀x(P x → Lxa)
(2) Zuleika loves everyone ∀x(P x → Lax)

Dictionary: a: Zuleika. P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

Paraphrases
(1) Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then x loves Zuleika)
(2) Everyone is loved by Zuleika
Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then x is loved by Zuleika)
Every x is such that
(if x is a person, then Zuleika loves x)
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

We use the same trick to deal with multiple quantifiers.

Example
Someone loves everyone
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

We use the same trick to deal with multiple quantifiers.

Example
Someone loves everyone
Dictionary: P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

We use the same trick to deal with multiple quantifiers.

Example
Someone loves everyone
Dictionary: P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

Paraphrases
Some x is such that (x is a person and x loves everyone)
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

We use the same trick to deal with multiple quantifiers.

Example
Someone loves everyone
Dictionary: P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

Paraphrases
Some x is such that (x is a person and x loves everyone)
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

We use the same trick to deal with multiple quantifiers.

Example
Someone loves everyone
Dictionary: P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

Paraphrases
Some x is such that (x is a person and x loves everyone)
Some x is such that (x is a person and everyone is loved by x)
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

We use the same trick to deal with multiple quantifiers.

Example
Someone loves everyone
Dictionary: P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

Paraphrases
Some x is such that (x is a person and x loves everyone)
Some x is such that (x is a person and everyone is loved by x)
Some x is such that
(x is a person and everything is such that:
( if it is a person, then it is loved by x))
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

We use the same trick to deal with multiple quantifiers.

Example
Someone loves everyone
Dictionary: P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

Paraphrases
Some x is such that (x is a person and x loves everyone)
Some x is such that (x is a person and everyone is loved by x)
Some x is such that
(x is a person and everything is such that:
( if it is a person, then it is loved by x))
Some x is such that
(x is a person and every y is such that:
(if y is a person, then y is loved by x))
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

We use the same trick to deal with multiple quantifiers.

Example
Someone loves everyone
Dictionary: P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

Paraphrases
Some x is such that (x is a person and x loves everyone)
Some x is such that (x is a person and everyone is loved by x)
Some x is such that
(x is a person and everything is such that:
( if it is a person, then it is loved by x))
Some x is such that
(x is a person and every y is such that:
(if y is a person, then y is loved by x))
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

We use the same trick to deal with multiple quantifiers.

Example
Someone loves everyone
Dictionary: P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

Paraphrases
Some x is such that (x is a person and x loves everyone)
Some x is such that (x is a person and everyone is loved by x)
Some x is such that
(x is a person and everything is such that:
( if it is a person, then it is loved by x))
Some x is such that
(x is a person and every y is such that:
(if y is a person, then y is loved by x))
Some x is such that
(x is a person and every y is such that:
(if y is a person, then x loves y))
 4.1 Predicates and Quantification

We use the same trick to deal with multiple quantifiers.

Example Formalisation
Someone loves everyone ∃x(P x ∧ ∀y(P y → Lxy))
Dictionary: P : . . . is a person. L: . . . loves . . . .

Paraphrases
Some x is such that (x is a person and x loves everyone)
Some x is such that (x is a person and everyone is loved by x)
Some x is such that
(x is a person and everything is such that:
( if it is a person, then it is loved by x))
Some x is such that
(x is a person and every y is such that:
(if y is a person, then y is loved by x))
Some x is such that
(x is a person and every y is such that:
(if y is a person, then x loves y))
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

The syntax of L2
Here’s the official syntax of L2 40
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

The syntax of L2
Here’s the official syntax of L2 40

Definition (Predicate letters)

Pnk , Qkn , or Rnk are predicate letters, where k and n are
either missing (no symbol) or a numeral ‘1’, ‘2’, ‘3’, . . .
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

The syntax of L2
Here’s the official syntax of L2 40

Definition (Predicate letters)

Pnk , Qkn , or Rnk are predicate letters, where k and n are
either missing (no symbol) or a numeral ‘1’, ‘2’, ‘3’, . . .

P1 Q1 R1 P11 Q11 R11 P21 ...

 4.2 The Sentences of L2

The syntax of L2
Here’s the official syntax of L2 40

Definition (Predicate letters)

Pnk , Qkn , or Rnk are predicate letters, where k and n are
either missing (no symbol) or a numeral ‘1’, ‘2’, ‘3’, . . .

P1 Q1 R1 P11 Q11 R11 P21 ... Unary predicates

 4.2 The Sentences of L2

The syntax of L2
Here’s the official syntax of L2 40

Definition (Predicate letters)

Pnk , Qkn , or Rnk are predicate letters, where k and n are
either missing (no symbol) or a numeral ‘1’, ‘2’, ‘3’, . . .

P1 Q1 R1 P11 Q11 R11 P21 ... Unary predicates

P2 Q2 R2 P12 Q21 R12 P22 ...
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

The syntax of L2
Here’s the official syntax of L2 40

Definition (Predicate letters)

Pnk , Qkn , or Rnk are predicate letters, where k and n are
either missing (no symbol) or a numeral ‘1’, ‘2’, ‘3’, . . .

P1 Q1 R1 P11 Q11 R11 P21 ... Unary predicates

P2 Q2 R2 P12 Q21 R12 P22 ... Binary predicates
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

The syntax of L2
Here’s the official syntax of L2 40

Definition (Predicate letters)

Pnk , Qkn , or Rnk are predicate letters, where k and n are
either missing (no symbol) or a numeral ‘1’, ‘2’, ‘3’, . . .

P Q R P1 Q1 R1 P2 ... Sentence letters

P1 Q1 R1 P11 Q11 R11 P21 ... Unary predicates
P2 Q2 R2 P12 Q21 R12 P22 ... Binary predicates
..
.
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

The syntax of L2
Here’s the official syntax of L2 40

Definition (Predicate letters)

Pnk , Qkn , or Rnk are predicate letters, where k and n are
either missing (no symbol) or a numeral ‘1’, ‘2’, ‘3’, . . .

P Q R P1 Q1 R1 P2 ... Sentence letters

P1 Q1 R1 P11 Q11 R11 P21 ... Unary predicates
P2 Q2 R2 P12 Q21 R12 P22 ... Binary predicates
..
.

Definition
The following are variables: x, y, z
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

The syntax of L2
Here’s the official syntax of L2 40

Definition (Predicate letters)

Pnk , Qkn , or Rnk are predicate letters, where k and n are
either missing (no symbol) or a numeral ‘1’, ‘2’, ‘3’, . . .

P Q R P1 Q1 R1 P2 ... Sentence letters

P1 Q1 R1 P11 Q11 R11 P21 ... Unary predicates
P2 Q2 R2 P12 Q21 R12 P22 ... Binary predicates
..
.

Definition
The following are variables: x, y, z, x1 , y1 , z1
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

The syntax of L2
Here’s the official syntax of L2 40

Definition (Predicate letters)

Pnk , Qkn , or Rnk are predicate letters, where k and n are
either missing (no symbol) or a numeral ‘1’, ‘2’, ‘3’, . . .

P Q R P1 Q1 R1 P2 ... Sentence letters

P1 Q1 R1 P11 Q11 R11 P21 ... Unary predicates
P2 Q2 R2 P12 Q21 R12 P22 ... Binary predicates
..
.

Definition
The following are variables: x, y, z, x1 , y1 , z1 , x2 , . . .
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

The syntax of L2
Here’s the official syntax of L2 40

Definition (Predicate letters)

Pnk , Qkn , or Rnk are predicate letters, where k and n are
either missing (no symbol) or a numeral ‘1’, ‘2’, ‘3’, . . .

P Q R P1 Q1 R1 P2 ... Sentence letters

P1 Q1 R1 P11 Q11 R11 P21 ... Unary predicates
P2 Q2 R2 P12 Q21 R12 P22 ... Binary predicates
..
.

Definition
The following are variables: x, y, z, x1 , y1 , z1 , x2 , . . .
The following are constants: a, b, c
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

The syntax of L2
Here’s the official syntax of L2 40

Definition (Predicate letters)

Pnk , Qkn , or Rnk are predicate letters, where k and n are
either missing (no symbol) or a numeral ‘1’, ‘2’, ‘3’, . . .

P Q R P1 Q1 R1 P2 ... Sentence letters

P1 Q1 R1 P11 Q11 R11 P21 ... Unary predicates
P2 Q2 R2 P12 Q21 R12 P22 ... Binary predicates
..
.

Definition
The following are variables: x, y, z, x1 , y1 , z1 , x2 , . . .
The following are constants: a, b, c, a1 , b1 , c1
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

The syntax of L2
Here’s the official syntax of L2 40

Definition (Predicate letters)

Pnk , Qkn , or Rnk are predicate letters, where k and n are
either missing (no symbol) or a numeral ‘1’, ‘2’, ‘3’, . . .

P Q R P1 Q1 R1 P2 ... Sentence letters

P1 Q1 R1 P11 Q11 R11 P21 ... Unary predicates
P2 Q2 R2 P12 Q21 R12 P22 ... Binary predicates
..
.

Definition
The following are variables: x, y, z, x1 , y1 , z1 , x2 , . . .
The following are constants: a, b, c, a1 , b1 , c1 , a2 , . . .
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

Definition (atomic formulae of L2 )

If Z is a predicate letter of arity n and each of t1 , . . . , tn is a
variable or a constant, then Zt1 . . . tn is an atomic formula
of L2 .
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

Definition (atomic formulae of L2 )

If Z is a predicate letter of arity n and each of t1 , . . . , tn is a
variable or a constant, then Zt1 . . . tn is an atomic formula
of L2 .

Definition (formulae of L2 )
1 All atomic formulae of L2 are formulae of L2 .
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

Definition (atomic formulae of L2 )

If Z is a predicate letter of arity n and each of t1 , . . . , tn is a
variable or a constant, then Zt1 . . . tn is an atomic formula
of L2 .

Definition (formulae of L2 )
1 All atomic formulae of L2 are formulae of L2 .
2 If φ and ψ are formulae of L2 , then ¬φ, (φ ∧ ψ),
(φ ∨ ψ), (φ → ψ) and (φ ↔ ψ) are formulae of L2 .
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

Definition (atomic formulae of L2 )

If Z is a predicate letter of arity n and each of t1 , . . . , tn is a
variable or a constant, then Zt1 . . . tn is an atomic formula
of L2 .

Definition (formulae of L2 )
1 All atomic formulae of L2 are formulae of L2 .
2 If φ and ψ are formulae of L2 , then ¬φ, (φ ∧ ψ),
(φ ∨ ψ), (φ → ψ) and (φ ↔ ψ) are formulae of L2 .
3 If v is a variable and φ is a formula, then ∀v φ and ∃v φ
are formulae of L2 .
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

Worked example: which of these are L2 -formulae?

(i) P a
(ii) Q3 axy
(iii) P
(iv) ∀vφ
(No bracketing conventions, etc. have been applied.)
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

Worked example: which of these are L2 -formulae?

(i) P a No
(ii) Q3 axy
(iii) P
(iv) ∀vφ
(No bracketing conventions, etc. have been applied.)
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

Worked example: which of these are L2 -formulae?

(i) P a No
(ii) Q3 axy
(iii) P
(iv) ∀vφ
(No bracketing conventions, etc. have been applied.)
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

Worked example: which of these are L2 -formulae?

(i) P a No
(ii) Q3 axy Yes
(iii) P
(iv) ∀vφ
(No bracketing conventions, etc. have been applied.)
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

Worked example: which of these are L2 -formulae?

(i) P a No
(ii) Q3 axy Yes
(iii) P
(iv) ∀vφ
(No bracketing conventions, etc. have been applied.)
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

Worked example: which of these are L2 -formulae?

(i) P a No
(ii) Q3 axy Yes
(iii) P Yes
(iv) ∀vφ
(No bracketing conventions, etc. have been applied.)
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

Worked example: which of these are L2 -formulae?

(i) P a No
(ii) Q3 axy Yes
(iii) P Yes
(iv) ∀vφ
(No bracketing conventions, etc. have been applied.)
 4.2 The Sentences of L2

Worked example: which of these are L2 -formulae?

(i) P a No
(ii) Q3 axy Yes
(iii) P Yes
(iv) ∀vφ No
(No bracketing conventions, etc. have been applied.)
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Formulae vs Sentences
An L2 formula φ is a sentence if every occurrence of each
variable v in φ is ‘bound’ by a quantifier ∃v or ∀v.
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Formulae vs Sentences
An L2 formula φ is a sentence if every occurrence of each
variable v in φ is ‘bound’ by a quantifier ∃v or ∀v.
Examples
P 1 x is not a sentence.
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Formulae vs Sentences
An L2 formula φ is a sentence if every occurrence of each
variable v in φ is ‘bound’ by a quantifier ∃v or ∀v.
Examples
P 1 x is not a sentence. No quantifier binds the variable.
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Formulae vs Sentences
An L2 formula φ is a sentence if every occurrence of each
variable v in φ is ‘bound’ by a quantifier ∃v or ∀v.
Examples
P 1 x is not a sentence. No quantifier binds the variable.
∀xP 1 x is a sentence:
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Formulae vs Sentences
An L2 formula φ is a sentence if every occurrence of each
variable v in φ is ‘bound’ by a quantifier ∃v or ∀v.
Examples
P 1 x is not a sentence. No quantifier binds the variable.
∀xP 1 x is a sentence: x is bound by ∀x.
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Formulae vs Sentences
An L2 formula φ is a sentence if every occurrence of each
variable v in φ is ‘bound’ by a quantifier ∃v or ∀v.
Examples
P 1 x is not a sentence. No quantifier binds the variable.
∀xP 1 x is a sentence: x is bound by ∀x.
∀yP 1 x is not a sentence:
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Formulae vs Sentences
An L2 formula φ is a sentence if every occurrence of each
variable v in φ is ‘bound’ by a quantifier ∃v or ∀v.
Examples
P 1 x is not a sentence. No quantifier binds the variable.
∀xP 1 x is a sentence: x is bound by ∀x.
∀yP 1 x is not a sentence: x is not bound by ∀y
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Formulae vs Sentences
An L2 formula φ is a sentence if every occurrence of each
variable v in φ is ‘bound’ by a quantifier ∃v or ∀v.
Examples
P 1 x is not a sentence. No quantifier binds the variable.
∀xP 1 x is a sentence: x is bound by ∀x.
∀yP 1 x is not a sentence: x is not bound by ∀y
(∀xP 1 x ∨ P 1 x) is not a sentence:
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Formulae vs Sentences
An L2 formula φ is a sentence if every occurrence of each
variable v in φ is ‘bound’ by a quantifier ∃v or ∀v.
Examples
P 1 x is not a sentence. No quantifier binds the variable.
∀xP 1 x is a sentence: x is bound by ∀x.
∀yP 1 x is not a sentence: x is not bound by ∀y
(∀xP 1 x ∨ P 1 x) is not a sentence: only the first
occurrence is bound by ∀x
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Bound variables
An occurrence of a variable v in φ is bound if it occurs
within the scope of ∀v or ∃v; otherwise it is free.
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Bound variables
An occurrence of a variable v in φ is bound if it occurs
within the scope of ∀v or ∃v; otherwise it is free.
The scope of an occurrence of a quantifier in φ is the
smallest subformula of φ that contains this occurrence.
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Bound variables
An occurrence of a variable v in φ is bound if it occurs
within the scope of ∀v or ∃v; otherwise it is free.
The scope of an occurrence of a quantifier in φ is the
smallest subformula of φ that contains this occurrence.

Underline the free variables in the following:

∀x(∀y(P 1 x → P 1 y) → R2 xy)
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Bound variables
An occurrence of a variable v in φ is bound if it occurs
within the scope of ∀v or ∃v; otherwise it is free.
The scope of an occurrence of a quantifier in φ is the
smallest subformula of φ that contains this occurrence.

Underline the free variables in the following:

∀x(∀y(P 1 x → P 1 y) → R2 xy)
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Bound variables
An occurrence of a variable v in φ is bound if it occurs
within the scope of ∀v or ∃v; otherwise it is free.
The scope of an occurrence of a quantifier in φ is the
smallest subformula of φ that contains this occurrence.

Underline the free variables in the following:

∀x(∀y(P 1 x → P 1 y) → R2 xy)
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Bound variables
An occurrence of a variable v in φ is bound if it occurs
within the scope of ∀v or ∃v; otherwise it is free.
The scope of an occurrence of a quantifier in φ is the
smallest subformula of φ that contains this occurrence.

Underline the free variables in the following:

∀x(∀y(P 1 x → P 1 y) → R2 xy)
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Bound variables
An occurrence of a variable v in φ is bound if it occurs
within the scope of ∀v or ∃v; otherwise it is free.
The scope of an occurrence of a quantifier in φ is the
smallest subformula of φ that contains this occurrence.

Underline the free variables in the following:

∀x(∀y(P 1 x → P 1 y) → R2 xy)
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Bound variables
An occurrence of a variable v in φ is bound if it occurs
within the scope of ∀v or ∃v; otherwise it is free.
The scope of an occurrence of a quantifier in φ is the
smallest subformula of φ that contains this occurrence.

Underline the free variables in the following:

∀x(∀y(P 1 x → P 1 y) → R2 xy)
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Bound variables
An occurrence of a variable v in φ is bound if it occurs
within the scope of ∀v or ∃v; otherwise it is free.
The scope of an occurrence of a quantifier in φ is the
smallest subformula of φ that contains this occurrence.

Underline the free variables in the following:

∀x(∀y(P 1 x → P 1 y) → R2 xy)
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Bound variables
An occurrence of a variable v in φ is bound if it occurs
within the scope of ∀v or ∃v; otherwise it is free.
The scope of an occurrence of a quantifier in φ is the
smallest subformula of φ that contains this occurrence.

Underline the free variables in the following:

∀x(∀y(P 1 x → P 1 y) → R2 xy)
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Bound variables
An occurrence of a variable v in φ is bound if it occurs
within the scope of ∀v or ∃v; otherwise it is free.
The scope of an occurrence of a quantifier in φ is the
smallest subformula of φ that contains this occurrence.

Underline the free variables in the following:

∀x(∀y(P 1 x → P 1 y) → R2 xy)
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Notational conventions
These aren’t part of the official syntax of L2 .
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Notational conventions
These aren’t part of the official syntax of L2 .
But it is permitted to apply the following conventions to
make it easier to read L2 -formulae.
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Notational conventions
These aren’t part of the official syntax of L2 .
But it is permitted to apply the following conventions to
make it easier to read L2 -formulae.
(We’ve been applying them already.)
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Notational conventions
These aren’t part of the official syntax of L2 .
But it is permitted to apply the following conventions to
make it easier to read L2 -formulae.
(We’ve been applying them already.)

The bracketing conventions from L1 may be applied to

drop brackets.
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Notational conventions
These aren’t part of the official syntax of L2 .
But it is permitted to apply the following conventions to
make it easier to read L2 -formulae.
(We’ve been applying them already.)

The bracketing conventions from L1 may be applied to

drop brackets.
Arity indices may be dropped.
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Notational conventions
These aren’t part of the official syntax of L2 .
But it is permitted to apply the following conventions to
make it easier to read L2 -formulae.
(We’ve been applying them already.)

The bracketing conventions from L1 may be applied to

drop brackets.
Arity indices may be dropped.
e.g P xy is used to abbreviate P 2 xy
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Notational conventions
These aren’t part of the official syntax of L2 .
But it is permitted to apply the following conventions to
make it easier to read L2 -formulae.
(We’ve been applying them already.)

The bracketing conventions from L1 may be applied to

drop brackets.
Arity indices may be dropped.
e.g P xy is used to abbreviate P 2 xy
Letters other than the official P, Q, R and a, b, c may be
used in formalisations.
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

Notational conventions
These aren’t part of the official syntax of L2 .
But it is permitted to apply the following conventions to
make it easier to read L2 -formulae.
(We’ve been applying them already.)

The bracketing conventions from L1 may be applied to

drop brackets.
Arity indices may be dropped.
e.g P xy is used to abbreviate P 2 xy
Letters other than the official P, Q, R and a, b, c may be
used in formalisations.
But you should stick to letters early in the alphabet for
constants and letters late in the alphabet (start with:
x, y, z) for variables.
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

What of argument 2?
Argument 2 Valid
(1) Zeno is a tortoise.
(2) All tortoises are toothless.
Therefore, (C) Zeno is toothless.
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

What of argument 2?
Argument 2 Valid
(1) Zeno is a tortoise.
(2) All tortoises are toothless.
Therefore, (C) Zeno is toothless.

Formalisation
(1) T a
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

What of argument 2?
Argument 2 Valid
(1) Zeno is a tortoise.
(2) All tortoises are toothless.
Therefore, (C) Zeno is toothless.

Formalisation
(1) T a
(2) ∀x(T x → Lx)
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

What of argument 2?
Argument 2 Valid
(1) Zeno is a tortoise.
(2) All tortoises are toothless.
Therefore, (C) Zeno is toothless.

Formalisation
(1) T a
(2) ∀x(T x → Lx)
(C) La
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

What of argument 2?
Argument 2 Valid
(1) Zeno is a tortoise.
(2) All tortoises are toothless.
Therefore, (C) Zeno is toothless.

Formalisation
(1) T a
(2) ∀x(T x → Lx)
(C) La

Dictionary: a: Zeno. T :. . . is a tortoise. L: . . . is toothless

 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

What of argument 2?
Argument 2 Valid
(1) Zeno is a tortoise.
(2) All tortoises are toothless.
Therefore, (C) Zeno is toothless.

Formalisation
(1) T a
(2) ∀x(T x → Lx)
(C) La

Dictionary: a: Zeno. T :. . . is a tortoise. L: . . . is toothless

What is it for this L2 -argument to be valid?
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

What of argument 2?
Argument 2 Valid
(1) Zeno is a tortoise.
(2) All tortoises are toothless.
Therefore, (C) Zeno is toothless.

Formalisation
(1) T a
(2) ∀x(T x → Lx)
(C) La

Dictionary: a: Zeno. T :. . . is a tortoise. L: . . . is toothless

What is it for this L2 -argument to be valid? (semantics: week 5)
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

What of argument 2?
Argument 2 Valid
(1) Zeno is a tortoise.
(2) All tortoises are toothless.
Therefore, (C) Zeno is toothless.

Formalisation
(1) T a
(2) ∀x(T x → Lx)
(C) La

Dictionary: a: Zeno. T :. . . is a tortoise. L: . . . is toothless

What is it for this L2 -argument to be valid? (semantics: week 5)
How can we show that it is valid?
 4.3 Free and Bound Occurrences of Variables

What of argument 2?
Argument 2 Valid
(1) Zeno is a tortoise.
(2) All tortoises are toothless.
Therefore, (C) Zeno is toothless.

Formalisation
(1) T a
(2) ∀x(T x → Lx)
(C) La

Dictionary: a: Zeno. T :. . . is a tortoise. L: . . . is toothless

What is it for this L2 -argument to be valid? (semantics: week 5)
How can we show that it is valid? (natural deduction: week 6)
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