PHONETIC LEVEL

Alliteration - is derived from Latin’s “Latira”. It means “letters of alphabet”. It is a stylistic device in
which a number of words, having the same first consonant sound, occur close together in a series.

 Ronald Reagan
 Sammy Sosa
 Jesse Jackson
 Michael Moore
 William Wordsworth
 Mickey Mouse
 Porky Pig
 Lois Lane
 Marilyn Monroe
 Fred Flintstone
 Donald Duck
 Spongebob Squarepants
 Seattle Seahawks
 A big bully beats a baby boy

Onomatopoeia - is defined as a word, which imitates the natural sounds of a thing. It creates a sound
effect that mimics the thing described, making the description more expressive and interesting.

 The buzzing bee flew away.

 The sack fell into the river with a splash.
 The books fell on the table with a loud thump.
 He looked at the roaring sky.
 The rustling leaves kept me awake.

The different sounds of animals are also considered as examples of onomatopoeia. You will recognize
the following sounds easily:

 Meow
 Moo
 Neigh
 Tweet
 Oink
 Baa

LEXICAL LEVEL
A simile is a figure of speech that makes a comparison, showing similarities between two different things.
Unlike a metaphor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of the words “like” or “as”. Therefore, it is a
direct comparison.

 Our soldiers are as brave as lions.

 Her cheeks are red like a rose.
 He is as funny as a monkey.
 The water well was as dry as a bone.
 He is as cunning as a fox.

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Metaphor - is a figure of speech which makes an implicit, implied or hidden comparison between two
things that are unrelated but share some common characteristics. In other words, a resemblance of two
contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some common characteristics.

 My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was too angry.)

 The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the assignment was not difficult.)
 It is going to be clear skies from now on. (This implies that clear skies are not a threat and life is
going to be without hardships)
 The skies of his future began to darken. (Darkness is a threat; therefore, this implies that the
coming times are going to be hard for him.)
 Her voice is music to his ears. (This implies that her voice makes him feel happy)
 Welcome to the Hotel California
Such a lovely place (Such a lovely place)
Such a lovely face
They livin’ it up at the Hotel California
What a nice surprise (what a nice surprise)

In this song, the Eagles compare the fickle (changeable), temporary, and false nature of all the glamor
found out west in Hollywood-land to that of a short stay in a hotel. No one knows how long they are
going to be famous, so they have to make the most out of it.

Irony is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their intended meaning is different
from the actual meaning of the words. It may also be a situation that may end up in quite a different way
than what is generally anticipated. In simple words, it is a difference between the appearance and the
reality.

 The name of Britain’s biggest dog was “Tiny”.

 You laugh at a person who slipped stepping on a banana peel and the next thing you know, you
slipped too.
 The butter is as soft as a marble piece.
 “Oh great! Now you have broken my new camera.”

Allegory is a figure of speech in which abstract ideas and principles are described in terms of characters,
figures and events.

“Animal Farm”, written by George Orwell, is an allegory that uses animals on a farm to describe the
overthrow of the last of the Russian Tsar Nicholas II and the Communist Revolution of Russia before
WW I. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the
revolution. It also describes how powerful people can change the ideology of a society. One of the
cardinal rules on the farm for the animals is: “All animals are equal but a few are more equal than others.”

Personification - is a figure of speech in which a thing, an idea or an animal is given human attributes.
The non-human objects are portrayed in such a way that we feel they have the ability to act like human
beings.

 Look at my car. She is a beauty, isn’t it so?

 The wind whispered through dry grass.
 The flowers danced in the gentle breeze.
 Time and tide waits for none.
 The fire swallowed the entire forest.

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Periphrasis is a device which denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and
plainer form of expression. It is also called circumlocution due to the round-about or indirect way used to
name a familiar object or phenomenon: the cap and gown (student body); a gentleman of the long robe
(a lawyer); the fair sex (women); my better half (my wife).
Euphemism is the substitution of an inoffensive expression (such as "passed away") for one considered
offensively explicit ("died"). Contrast with dysphemism. Euphemism is frequently used in everyday life.
Let us look at some common euphemism examples:

 You are becoming a little thin on top (bald).

 Our teacher is in the family way (pregnant).
 He is always tired and emotional (drunk).
 We do not hire mentally challenged (stupid) people.
 He is a special child (disabled or retarded (отсталый)).

Antonomasia is that figure of speech that employs a suitable epithet or appellative to cite a person or
thing rather than the original name. This figure of speech is usually employed to give a general idea about
that person or thing. Antonomasia - 1. the substitution of an epithet or title etc. for a proper name (e.g.
the Maid of Orleans for Joan of Arc, his Grace for an archbishop); 2. the use of a proper name to express
a general idea (e.g. a Scrooge for a miser).
 You must pray to heaven’s guardian for relief.
 Excuse me Tarzan, could you please come down from that tree.
 "When I eventually met Mr. Right I had no idea that his first name was Always." - by Rita Rudner
 The answer for this question can be given only by Mr. Know-it-all

Metonymy, Synecdoche and Metaphor

Metonymy - it is a figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing with the name of something else
with which it is closely associated. We can come across examples of metonymy both from literature and
in everyday life.
Metonymy is often confused with another figure of speech called synecdoche. They resemble each other
but are not the same. Synecdoche refers to a thing by the name of one of its parts. For example, calling a
car “a wheel” is a synecdoche. A part of a car i.e. “a wheel” stands for the whole car. In a metonymy, on
the other hand, the word we use to describe another thing is closely linked to that particular thing, but is
not a part of it. For example, “Crown” which means power or authority is a metonymy.
Metonymy is different from a metaphor. A metaphor draws resemblance between two different things as
in “You are sunlight and I moon” – Sun And Moon from Miss Saigon. Sunlight (and moon) and human
are two different things without any association but it attempts to describe one thing in terms of another
based on a supposed similarity. Metonymy, however, develops relation on the grounds of close
associations as in “The White House is concerned about terrorism.” The White House here represents the
people who work in it.
We use metonymy frequently in our everyday life. For a better understanding, let us observe a few
metonymy examples:
 England decides to keep check on immigration. (England refers to the government.)
 The pen is mightier than the sword. (Pen refers to written words and sword to military force.)
 The Oval Office was busy in work. (“The Oval Office” is a metonymy as it stands for people at
work in the office.)
 Let me give you a hand. (Hand means help.)
Difference between Synecdoche and Metonymy
Synecdoche examples are often misidentified as metonymy (another literary device). Both may resemble
each other to some extent but they are not the same. Synecdoche refers to the whole of a thing by the
name of any one of its parts. For example, calling a car “wheels” is a synecdoche because a part of a car
“wheels” stands for the whole car. However, in metonymy, the word we use to describe another thing is

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closely linked to that particular thing, but is not necessarily a part of it. For example, “crown” that refers
to power or authority is a metonymy used to replace the word “king” or “queen”.
Synecdoche - common reference to a thing by the name of its parts

 The word “bread” refers to food or money as in “Writing is my bread and butter” or “sole
breadwinner”.
 The phrase “gray beard” refers to an old man.
 The word “sails” refers to a whole ship.
 The word “suits” refers to businessmen.
 The word “boots” usually refers to soldiers.
 The term “coke” is a common synecdoche for all carbonated drinks.
 “Pentagon” is a synecdoche when it refers to a few decision makers.
 The word “glasses” refers to spectacles.
 “Coppers” often refers to coins.

Epithet is a descriptive literary device that describes a place, a thing or a person in such a way that it
helps in making the characteristics of a person, thing or place more prominent than they actually are.
Also, it is known as a by-name or descriptive title.
Examples of Epithet:
Catherine the Great
Richard the Lion-Heart
The Great Emancipator (Abraham Lincoln)
The Piano Man (Billy Joel)
Examples of Epithets in Literature:
1. Epithets were often used in Greek Mythology to describe the gods or heroes:
a. Grey-eyed Athena
b. White-armed Hera
c. Swift-footed Achilles
2. Shakespeare also made use of epithets in his plays:
a. Star-crossed lovers-describes Romeo and Juliet in Romeo and Juliet
b. "Turn, hell-hound, turn."-Macduff to Macbeth in Macbeth
c. Fair Ophelia in Hamlet

Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create an effect. The common
oxymoron phrase is a combination of an adjective proceeded by a noun with contrasting meanings, e.g.
“cruel kindness” or “living death”.
Difference between Oxymoron and Paradox
It is important to understand the difference between a paradox and an oxymoron. A paradox may consist
of a sentence or even a group of sentences. An oxymoron, on the other hand, is a combination of two
contradictory or opposite words. A paradox seems contradictory to the general truth but it does contain an
implied truth. An oxymoron, however, may produce a dramatic effect but does not make sense. Examples
of oxymoron are found both in casual conversations and in literature.

 Open secret
 Tragic comedy
 Seriously funny
 Awfully pretty
 Foolish wisdom
 Original copies
 Liquid gas

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Pleonasm is derived from a Greek word that means “excess”. It is a rhetorical device which can be
defined as the use of a second or more words (phrase) to express an idea. These words are redundant such
as in the following examples of pleonasm, “burning fire” and “black darkness.” Sometimes, pleonasm is
also called tautology, which is the repetition of words.
Difference between Oxymoron and Pleonasm

Oxymoron is a combination of two contradictory terms. It is the opposite of pleonasm. This can appear in
different types of texts due to an error or used advertently to give paradoxical meanings. For example, “I
like a smuggler. He is the only honest thief.” However, pleonasm is a combination of two or more words
which are more than those required for clear expression. For example: I saw it with my own eyes; This
was the most unkindest cut of all…

Antanaclasis is a rhetorical device in which a phrase or word is repeatedly used. However, the meaning
of a word changes in each case. It is the repetition of a similar word in a sentence with different
meanings, or a word is repeated in two or more than two different senses. May of Shakespeare’s literary
pieces contain examples of antanaclasis. Like in these lines, “put out the light, then put out the light…”
(Othello). The first meaning is that Othello would extinguish the candle and in the second reference its
meaning is that he would end Desdemona’s life.
The woods are lovely, dark, and deep,
But I have promises to keep,
And miles to go before I sleep,
And miles to go before I sleep.

(Stopping By Woods on Snowy Evening by Robert Frost)

Here, the poet uses Antanaclasis in the last two lines of the poem. The first use of a word, “sleep”, means
nocturnal rest and in the last line it has the meaning of death. This device is helping to draw the readers’
attention.

A pun is a play on words in which a humorous effect is produced by using a word that suggests two or
more meanings or by exploiting similar sounding words having different meanings.

 The life of a patient of hypertension is always at steak (стейк, бифштекс) – at stake – на кону, в
опасности, под угрозой.
 Why do we still have troops in Germany? To keep the Russians in Czech.
 A horse is a very stable animal.
 Time flies like an arrow. Fruit flies like a banana.
 An elephant’s opinion carries a lot of weight.
 What is the difference between a conductor and a teacher? The conductor minds the train and a
teacher trains the mind.

Hyperbole, derived from a Greek word meaning “over-casting” is a figure of speech, which involves an
exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis.

 My grandmother is as old as the hills.

 Your suitcase weighs a ton!
 She is as heavy as an elephant!
 I am dying of shame.
 I am trying to solve a million issues these days.

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It is important not to confuse hyperbole with simile and metaphor. It does make a comparison but
unlike simile and metaphor, hyperbole has a humorous effect created by an overstatement.

Litotes, derived from a Greek word meaning “simple”, is a figure of speech which employs an
understatement by using double negatives or, in other words, positive statement is expressed by negating
its opposite expressions.
For example, using the expression “not too bad” for “very good” is an understatement as well as a double
negative statement that confirms a positive idea by negating the opposite. Similarly, saying “She is not
a beauty queen,” means “She is ugly” or saying “I am not as young as I used to be” in order to avoid
saying “I am old”. Litotes, therefore, is an intentional use of understatement that renders an ironical
effect.
In everyday life, it is common to experience litotes in conversations although not many people are aware
of this term and its usage. Below are a few examples of litotes from daily conversations:

 They do not seem the happiest couple around.

 The ice cream was not too bad.
 New York is not an ordinary city.
 Your comments on politics are not useless.
 You are not as young as you used to be.
 I cannot disagree with your point of view.
 William Shakespeare was not a bad playwright at all.
 He is not the cleverest person I have ever met.
 She is not unlike her mother.
 Ken Adams is not an ordinary man
 A million dollars is not a little amount.
 You are not doing badly at all.
 Your apartment is not unclean.

Interestingly, the use of understatement in the above litotes examples adds emphasis to the ideas rather
than decrease their importance. This is due to the ironical effect produced by the understatement.

SYNTACTICAL LEVEL

Ellipsis is a literary device that is used in narratives to omit some parts of a sentence or event, which
gives the reader a chance to fill the gaps while acting or reading it out. It is usually written between the
sentences as “…”.
Apart from being convenient, ellipsis also helps in advancing the story. The part of a sentence or an event
that is left out by substituting it with ellipses is often used to either save time or use it as a stylistic
element by allowing the reader to fill in the gaps by using their imagination. Ellipsis can be dated back to
Earnest Hemingway who also presented the Iceberg theory, which is also called the theory of omission.

Among the famous examples of ellipsis in literature, the best would be Virginia Woolf’s novel, To the
Lighthouse. The book involves two parts, one before the World War I was fought and won and the later
one accounts for the events occurring afterwards. All the events that occurred in between have not been
mentioned in the book. Rather it has left to the readers to deduce the events from the notable changes that
have occurred in the characters’ lives.

Zeugma, from Greek “yoking” or “bonding”, is a figure of speech in which a word, usually a verb or an
adjective, applies to more than one noun, blending together grammatically and logically different ideas.

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For instance, in a sentence “John lost his coat and his temper”, the verb “lost” applies to both noun “coat”
and “temper”. Losing a coat and losing temper are logically and grammatically different ideas that are
brought together in the above-mentioned sentence. Zeugma, when used skillfully, produces a unique
artistic effect making the literary works more interesting and effective as it serves to adorn expressions,
and to add emphasis to ideas in impressive style.

Chiasmus is a rhetorical device in which two or more clauses are balanced against each other by the
reversal of their structures in order to produce an artistic effect: “Down dropped the breeze, The sails
dropped down”, “Never let a Fool Kiss You or a Kiss Fool You.”

Parallelism is the use of components in a sentence that are grammatically the same; or similar in their
construction, sound, meaning or meter. Parallelism examples are found in literary works as well as in
ordinary conversations.

 Like father, like son.

 The escaped prisoner was wanted dead or alive.
 Easy come, easy go.
 Whether in class, at work or at home, Shasta was always busy.
 Flying is fast, comfortable, and safe.

Asyndeton is derived from a Greek word asyndeton which means unconnected. It is a stylistic device

used in literature and poetry to intentionally eliminate conjunctions between the phrases and in the
sentence, yet maintain the grammatical accuracy. This literary tool helps in reducing the indirect meaning
of the phrase and presents it in a concise form. It started to be seen in Greek and Latin literature.

“This is the villain among you who deceived you, who cheated you, who meant to betray you
completely…….” (Rhetoric by Aristotle). The word “and” is not featured in the given lines, which could
have functioned as a conjunction here. Aristotle believed that asyndeton could be effective if used in the
ending of the texts. Here he himself employed this device.

Polysyndeton is a stylistic device in which several coordinating conjunctions are used in succession in
order to achieve an artistic effect. Polysyndeton examples are found in literature and in day-to-day
conversations.

The term polysyndeton comes from a Greek word meaning “bound together”. It makes use of
coordinating conjunctions like “and”, “or”, “but” and “nor” (mostly and and or) which are used to join
successive words, phrases or clauses in such a way that these conjunctions are even used where they
might have been omitted. For example, in the sentence “We have ships and men and money and stores,”
the coordinating conjunction “and” is used in quick succession to join words occurring together. In a
normal situation, the coordinating conjunction “and” is used to join the last two words of the list and the
rest of the words in the list are separated or joined by a comma.

Antithesis, literal meaning opposite, is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put together in
a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect. Antithesis emphasizes the idea of contrast by parallel
structures of the contrasted phrases or clauses, i.e. the structures of phrases and clauses are similar in
order to draw the attention of the listeners or readers.

Some famous antithetical statements have become part of our everyday speech and are frequently used in
arguments and discussions. Below is the list of some antithetical statements:

 Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice.

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  Man proposes, God disposes.
 Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing.
 Speech is silver, but silence is gold.
 Patience is bitter, but it has a sweet fruit.
 Money is the root of all evils: poverty is the fruit of all goodness.
 You are easy on the eyes, but hard on the heart.

Aposiopesis is derived from a Greek word that means “becoming silent”. It is a rhetorical device that can
be defined as a figure of speech in which the speaker or writer breaks off abruptly and leaves the
statement incomplete, as if the speaker is not willing to state what is present in his mind due to being
overcome by passion, excitement or fear. In a piece of literature, it means to leave a sentence unfinished
so that the reader could determine his own meanings.

Parenthesis is a stylistic device that comes from a Greek word, meaning to place or alongside.
Parenthesis is a qualifying or explanatory sentence, clause or word that writers insert into a paragraph or
passage. However, if they leave it out, even then grammatically the it does not affect the text that is
correct without it.

Writers mark them off by round and square brackets or by commas, dashes, little lines and brackets. As
far as its purpose is concerned, this verbal unit provides extra information, interrupts syntactic flow of
words, and allows the readers to pay attention on explanation. However, the overuse of parenthesis may
make sentences look ambiguous and poorly structured.

“It is now necessary to warn you that your concern for the reader must be pure: you must sympathize with
the reader’s plight – condition, state (most readers are in trouble about half the time) but never seek to know
the reader’s wants. Your whole duty as a writer is to please and satisfy yourself…” (From “The Elements
of Style” by William Strunk, Jr. and E.B. White)

The following style guidebook provides parenthetical information several times. Here you can see how
author has explained the reader’s plight by giving descriptive sentence in brackets showing how readers
are in trouble.