EMG 2208: Mechanics of Machines I

Lecture Notes Compiled By:

Dr. Mũtukũ Mũvengei

January 2020

Students are reminded not to treat these lecture notes as a comprehensive and solely sufficient
material for their studies since the purpose of the notes is not meant to be a substitute for
regularly attending classes, reading relevant textbooks and recommended books. The notes are
aimed at providing a quick reference and a brief guidance for the students.

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Expected Outcomes
At the end of this course, students should be able to;

• Apply the Gruebler’s equation in determining the degrees of freedom of planar

mechanisms.
• Carry out kinematic (position, velocity and acceleration) analysis of various planar
mechanisms.
• Analyze mechanisms involving Coriolis component of acceleration.
• Write computer programs to solve the analytical position, velocity and acceleration
problems in planar mechanisms.
• Differentiate between the various types of power transmission systems and their
applicability.
• Understand the construction of various types of power transmission systems.

Course Outline
1. Fundamentals of mechanisms and machines - Introduction to mechanisms and ma-
chines, Four bar linkage and its inversions, Slider-crank linkage and its inversions,
Degrees of freedom: Mobility Criteria, Coupler curves of a four bar linkage.
2. Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms
2.1 Position/Displacement analysis: Analytical method (Loop-closure equation)
and graphical method.
2.2 Velocity analysis: Velocity diagrams, instantaneous Centers, Aronhold-Kennedy
theorem of three centers, Angular-velocity ratio theorem, Analytical methods.
2.2 Acceleration Analysis: Acceleration diagrams, Coriolis theorem, Analytical
methods.
3. Power Transmission Systems in Machines - Definitions. Clutches: Friction, flat
plate, conical and centrifugal clutches. Belts and pulleys, chains and sprockets,
Gear train systems: Simple, compound and epicyclic. Dynamics of power screw
thread.

Practicals
1. To verify the forces required to operate a screw.
2. To determine the coefficient of friction for a square threaded screw.
3. To determine the coefficient of friction between a belt and a pulley and check the
effect of the lap angle on the grip of the belt

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Prerequisites
• Engineering Mechanics

• Algebra - Trigonometry

• Differential and Integral Calculus

Reference Textbooks
1. Hannah, J. and Stephens, R.C., Mechanics of Machines -Elementary Theory and
Examples, Arnold International Publishers.

2. Hannah, J. and Stephens, R.C, Mechanics of Machines -Advanced Theory and

Examples, Arnold International Publishers.

3. Ryder, G.H. and Bennett, M.D., Mechanics of Machines, McMillan Education Ltd
Publishers, 2nd Ed., 1990.

4. Hamilton, H.M and Charles F.R., Mechanics and Dynamics of Machinery,

5. Shigley J. and Uicker, Theory of Machines and Mechanisms,

6. Norton, R.L., Design of Machinery - An Introduction to the Synthesis and Analysis

of Mechanisms and Machines, McGraw-Hill Publishers, 3rd Ed., 2004.

7. Grosjean, J., Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanisms, McGraw-Hill Book Co.

(UK) Ltd, 1991.

Course Policies

Assignments
• Are part of course work and shall constitute 5%.

• Shall be due a week after it is assigned unless otherwise specified.

• The objective of the homework is to train you to use the principles we covered in
class. Please feel free to solve homework in groups or individually.

• Solution to any assignment problem will be posted after homework is collected.

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Continuous Assessment Tests (CATS)
• There will be a total of three CATS which will be held at times scheduled on
mutual agreement in class, but within the periods proposed by the Registrar AA.

• Are part of course work and shall constitute 10%.

• Each CAT will be revised in class on the day the marked scripts are returned.

Practicals
• Are part of course work and constitute 15%.

• They shall be done in groups which will be formed alphabetically unless there is a
strong reason not to do so.

• Each student shall submit a practical report two weeks after the practical is done.
Collusion will not be accepted and both parties will be penalized.

• Note that marks will be awarded for good conduct in the laboratories. This infor-
mation will be obtained from the technician in charge.

End Semester Exam

• University exam rules and regulations apply.

• Shall constitute 70%

• The objective of exams is to test your understanding of material covered. Therefore,

please do not expect to see one of the homework problems, slightly masked, in the
test. You should not also expect to see something totally new in an exam, as you
will not have enough time to consider it.

• My experience tells me that your chance of passing an exam is greatly enhanced if

you solve assignments and tutorials regularly.

Therefore the exam constitutes of the Course work and End Semester Exam as;

30% Course work - Assignments (5%), CATS (10%) and Practicals (15%).

70% End Semester Exam.

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Contents

Expected Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Course Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Practicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Reference Textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Course Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

1 Fundamentals of Machines and Mechanisms 1

1.1 Introduction to Machines and Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Kinematic link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Kinematic pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.4 Planar and Spatial mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.5 Kinematic Analysis and Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.6 Kinematic chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.7 Four bar chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Degrees of Freedom of a rigid body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.1 Degree of freedom of a rigid body in plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.2 Degree of freedom of a rigid body in space . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.3 Kinematic Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.4 Mobility Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Tutorial 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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2 Position/Displacement Analysis 18
2.1 Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Graphical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 Analytical method: Loop-closure equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4.1 Loop-closure equation of an offset four bar slider crank linkage . . 24
2.5 Tutorial 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3 Velocity Analysis 29
3.1 Definition of velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1.1 Relative velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2 Graphical methods in velocity analysis of linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.1 Velocity diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.2 Use of Instant centers of velocity method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3 Analytical methods for velocity analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4 Tutorial 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

4 Acceleration analysis 51
4.1 Definition of acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.1.1 Relative acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2 Graphical acceleration analysis - Acceleration diagrams . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2.1 Four-bar linkage as a typical case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.2.2 Acceleration of a block sliding on a rotating link: Coriolis compo-
nent of acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.3 Tutorial 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

5 Power transmission systems in machines 68

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.2 Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.2.1 Coefficient of Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.2.2 Angle of Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.2.3 Motion on an inclined plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

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5.3 Power Screw or Screw jack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.4 Belt and pulley drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.4.1 Initial tension in belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.4.2 Materials of the belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.4.3 Types of belt drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.4.4 Velocity ratio in belt drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.4.5 Slip of the belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.4.6 Length of the belt and the center distance of the pulleys . . . . . 83
5.5 Gear train systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.5.1 Classification of Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.5.2 Terms used in Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.5.3 Gear Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.5.4 Gear Trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

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Chapter 1

Fundamentals of Machines and

Mechanisms

1.1 Introduction to Machines and Mechanisms

1.1.1 Introduction

Mechanism is a combination of several rigid bodies formed and connected so that they
produce a definite relative motions with respect to one another. For example the assem-
bly of piston, cylinder, connecting rod and crank forms a mechanism called slider-crank
mechanism, which converts reciprocating motion of piston into a rotary motion of crank
or vice-versa.
On the other hand, a machine is the combination of mechanisms which apart from
producing relative motion, also does useful work. Examples of machines include, engine,
lathe, drill, shaper among others. Hence, a machine is a combination of rigid or resistant
bodies, formed and connected so that they move with definite relative motions and
transmit force and couples from the source of power to the resistance to be overcome. A
machine has two functions: transmitting definite relative motion and transmitting force.
The similarity between machines and mechanisms is that;

• they are both combinations of rigid bodies.

• the relative motion among the rigid bodies are definite.

The difference between machine and mechanism is that machines transform energy to do
work, while mechanisms do not necessarily perform this function. The term machinery
generally means machines and mechanisms
The theory of mechanisms and machines is an applied science which involves the study of
relationships between the geometry and motion of the parts of a mechanism or machine,
and the study of forces which act on those parts. Hence the theory of mechanisms and
machines can be broadly classified into,

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 • Kinematics: Which is the study of of geometric relationship and the relative motion
between the parts.

• Dynamics: which deals with the study of forces acting on various parts of the
machine. The forces can either be static or dynamic.

1.1.2 Kinematic link

A link is defined as a rigid body having two or more pairing elements which connect it
to other bodies for the purpose of transmitting force or motion. Therefore a mechanism
consists of links which are joined together by use of mechanical joints (pairs).
A rigid body is one which does not change its physical form on application of forces.
Although a truly rigid body does not exist, many engineering components are assumed
to be rigid because their deformations and distortions are negligible in comparison with
their relative movements.
In mechanisms two types of links, that is rigid and flexible links are most widely used.
A rigid link, depending upon its ends with which connection between the other links is
formed, can be classified into the following three categories,

(a) Binary link: A link which has two ends for connection.

(b) Ternary link: A link which forms three connections.

(c) Quaternary link: A link which has four ends for connection.

A ternary and quaternary links do not have any relative motion between the joints.

1.1.3 Kinematic pairs

A pair is a joint between the surfaces of two rigid bodies that keeps them in contact and
relatively movable. A kinematic pair can be classified according to the following criteria:

(a) Nature of contact between the links: Under this classification, a kinematic pair is
either lower or higher pair.

(i) When two links have a surface or area contact between them while in motion,
such a pair is called a lower pair. The relative motion in a lower pair is either
purely turning or sliding. Examples include, revolute, prismatic, cylindrical
or spherical joints.
(ii) When two links have point or line contact between them while in motion, the
pair so formed is called a higher pair. The relative motion in a higher pair
is a combination of turning and sliding. Examples include contacts between ,
gears, cams and follower, ball/roller bearings.

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 (b) Nature of relative motion between the links: A kinematic pair is classified into the
following,
(i) Sliding pair: when two links are connected such that one is constrained to
have a sliding motion relative to the other. Example, prismatic joint.
(ii) Turning pair: when two links are connected in such a way that only a con-
strained motion of rotation is possible between them. Example, revolute
joints, which are further categorized into,
• Rotational joints (R)- The rotation motion of one link is about an axis
perpendicular to the adjoining link.
A twisting joint (T) is also a rotational joint, where the rotation takes place about an axis that
• Twisting joint (T)- The rotation motion takes place about an axis that
is parallel to both adjoining links.
is parallel to both links.
• Revolving
A revolving joint
joint (V) (V)- The
is another rotation
rotational motion
joint, wheretakes place about
the rotation an axis
takes place that
about an axis
is parallel to one of the links. Usually the links are aligned perpendicular
that is parallel to one of the adjoining links. Usually, the links are aligned perpendicular to
to one
one another another
at this kind of, joint.
and the
The rotation involves
rotation involves revolution
revolution of link
of one one about
link about
another.
the other.

Types of Joints (a) linear joint, (b) rotational joint, (c) twisting joint, (d) revolving joint.
Figure 1.1: (a)Prismatic (b)Rotational (c)Twisting (d)Revolving joints

The Joint Notation:

(iii) Rolling pair: when two links have a rolling motion relative to each other.
Example, contact between ball or roller bearing, or pulley in a belt drive.
(iv) Spherical pair: when one link is in the form of a sphere which turns inside
a fixed link. Example, a ball and socket joint (spherical joint: in spatial
mechanisms).
(c) Screw pair: A pair of screw and threads which has both turning and sliding motion
between them. Also called helical pair.

1.1.4 Planar and Spatial mechanisms

Mechanisms can be divided into planar mechanisms and spatial mechanisms, according
to the relative motion of the rigid bodies.
In a planar mechanisms, all of the relative motions of the rigid bodies are in one plane
or in parallel planes. This implies that all the links of a planar mechanism are joined
using prismatic and/or revolute joints. In spatial mechanisms, there is a relative motion
that is not in the same plane or in parallel planes.
In other words, planar mechanisms are essentially two dimensional while spatial mecha-
nisms are three dimensional.

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1.1.5 Kinematic Analysis and Synthesis

In kinematic analysis, a particular given mechanism is investigated based on the mecha-

nism geometry plus other known characteristics (such as input angular velocity, angular
acceleration, etc.).
Kinematic synthesis, on the other hand, is the process of designing a mechanism to
accomplish a desired task

1.1.6 Kinematic chain

A kinematic chain is defined as a closed network of links connected by kinematic pairs

so that the motion between them is constrained. For motion to be constrained, the
following three conditions must be satisfied,

(i) A kinematic chain must have at least four links with four lower pairs.

(ii) The motion of each link relative to another should be definite.

Mathematically, these conditions can be fulfilled by satisfying the following Gruebler

equation,
3n
j= −2 (1.1)
2
where,

j is the number of binary joints. (= (2n2 + 3n3 + 4n4 )/4 with n2 , n3 and n4 as number
of binary, ternary and quaternary links respectively).

n is the number of links in he kinematic chain. (= n2 + n3 + n4 ).

Examples 1.1.1

Examine the chains shown in figure below, and determine whether these are kinematic
chains or not.

(a ) (b) (c ) (d )

Figure 1.2:

Solution:

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 (a) Number of links, n = 3, and number of binary joints, j = 3. Now check if equation
1.1 is satisfied.
3n
j = −2
2
3×3
3 = −2
2
3 > 2.5

The LHS parameter is not equal to RHS, therefore the chain is locked and is called
a structure.

(b) Number of links, n = 4, and number of binary joints, j = 4. Now check if equation
1.1 is satisfied.
3n
j = −2
2
3×4
4 = −2
2
4 = 4

Therefore the chain is a constrained kinematic chain.

(c) Number of links, n = n2 + n3 = 4 + 2 = 6, and number of binary joints, j =

2n2 +3n3
2
= 2×4+3×2
2
= 7. Now check if equation 1.1 is satisfied.

3n
j = −2
2
3×6
7 = −2
2
7 = 7

Therefore the chain is a constrained kinematic chain.

(d) Number of links, n = 5, and number of binary joints, j = 5. Now check if equation
1.1 is satisfied.
3n
j = −2
2
3×5
5 = −2
2
5 > 2.5

Therefore the chain is unconstrained. Although such a chain is non-kinematic, it

is normally referred to as unstrained kinematic chain.

A mechanism can also be defined as a kinematic chain in which one link is fixed. In a
mechanism when we say that one link is fixed, we mean that it is chosen as a frame of
reference for all other links and the motion of all other points on the links are measured
with respect to this fixed link.
When a mechanism is used to transmit forces/couples or to do some useful work it is
called a machine. Figure below illustrates how kinematic links make up a machine,

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 Figure 1.3:

1.1.7 Four bar chain

A four bar (link) chain consists of four kinematic links of different lengths which are
connected by turning type of lower pairs. The fixed link is called the frame, and the link
which is not connected to frame is called coupler link. Among other two links hinged to
the frame, one which receives input is termed as the crank, and the output link is called
follower link
The four bar chain is the most common kinematic chain and has a wide engineering
applications. Its skeleton outline is represented as shown in figure 1.4,

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2

Figure 1.4: A four-bar kinematic chain

A variety of useful mechanisms can be formed from a four-link mechanism through slight
variations, such as changing the character of the pairs, proportions of links, etc. The
majority of four-link mechanisms fall into one of the following two classes, the typical
four-bar linkage mechanism, the slider-crank mechanism.

Inversions of a typical four bar linkage

Four different versions of four bar linkage can be obtained by fixing any one of the links
1, 2, 3 and 4. Such different versions of a mechanism obtained by fixing different links
are called its inversions. Inversions of the four bar linkage are shown in figure 1.5.
Kinematically speaking all the four inversions above are identical. However by changing
the proportions of lengths of the links several mechanisms with practical applications
are obtained as illustrated below.

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 3 3

4 4
2 2

1 1

3 3

4 4
2 2

1 1

Figure 1.5: Inversions of a four-bar mechanism

Classifications of a typical four bar linkage

In a four-bar linkage, we refer to the line segment between the joints on a given link as
a bar. Let,

• s = length of shortest bar.

• l = length of longest bar.

• p, q = lengths of the other bars.

Grashof ’s theorem states that a four-bar mechanism has at least one revolving link
if,

s+l ≤ p+q

otherwise the input and output links will only oscillate. Therefore, four-bar linkage can
be classified as,

(a) Double-crank mechanism: Both the input and output links make complete revolu-
tions. There are two different forms of this mechanism,

(i) Parallel crank mechanism: The length of the fixed link is equal to that of the
coupler, and also links 2 and 4 are of equal length, as shown in figure 1.6.
(ii) Drag link mechanism: This is shown in figure 1.7. It is such that s + l ≤ p + q
and the fixed link is the shortest.

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 A 3
B

4
2

1
O2 O4

Figure 1.6: Parallel crank mechanism

B
A 3

2
4

O2 O4

Figure 1.7: Drag-link mechanism

(b) Double-rocker mechanism: In this case both the links 2 and 4 can only oscillate.
It is such that s + l > p + q, that is the Grashof’s equation is not satisfied.
B
3 B2
A

2 A2
A1
4

B1
1
O2 O4

Figure 1.8: Double-rocker mechanism

(c) Crank-rocker mechanism: This mechanism is shown in figure 1.9. In this mech-
anism for every complete revolution of link 2 (crank link), the link 4 (lever link)
makes a complete oscillation. It is such that s + l ≤ p + q and one of the side links
is the shortest.

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 B
3 B2
A
B1
4
2
A2

1
O2 O4
A1

Figure 1.9: Crank-rocker mechanism

Assignment 1

With well-labeled diagrams, describe the inversions of a slider-crank linkage citing ex-
amples where each is applied in engineering mechanisms.

1.2 Degrees of Freedom of a rigid body

Any rigid body can be classified according to the number of degrees of freedom it pos-
sesses. The degrees of freedom (dof) of a rigid body is defined as the number of inde-
pendent movements it has.

1.2.1 Degree of freedom of a rigid body in plane

Consider link AB on a xy coordinate system as shown in figure 1.10 below;

Figure 1.10: Degree of freedom of a rigid body in plane

To determine the dof of this body we must consider how many distinct ways the link can
be moved. The link can be translated along the x axis, translated along the y axis, and

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rotated about the plane.
Therefore a rigid body in plane has three degrees of freedom.

1.2.2 Degree of freedom of a rigid body in space

Consider figure 1.11.

Figure 1.11: Degree of freedom of a rigid body in space

An unrestrained rigid body in space has six degrees of freedom: three translating motions
along the x, y and z axes and three rotary motions around the x, y and z axes respectively.
Therefore a rigid body in space has six degrees of freedom.

1.2.3 Kinematic Constraints

Two or more rigid bodies in space are collectively called a rigid body system. We
can hinder the motion of these independent rigid bodies with kinematic constraints.
Kinematic constraints are constraints between rigid bodies that result in the decrease of
the degrees of freedom of rigid body system.

Kinematic constraints in planar mechanisms

In planar mechanisms, only the prismatic and revolute joints are used as pairs connecting
the links.
A rigid body in a plane has only three independent motions – two translational and one
rotary – so introducing either a revolute pair or a prismatic pair between two rigid bodies
removes two degrees of freedom, as shown in figures 1.12 and 1.13 below

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 Figure 1.12: Kinematic constraint introduced by R-joint in planar mechanisms

Figure 1.13: Kinematic constraint introduced by P-joint in planar mechanisms

Kinematic constraints in spatial mechanisms

In spatial mechanisms, in addition to the prismatic and revolute joints, cylindrical and
spherical joints are used in connecting the links.
A spherical pair as shown in figure 1.14 keeps two spherical centers together. Two rigid
bodies connected by this constraint will be able to rotate relatively around x, y and
z axes, but there will be no relative translation along any of these axes. Therefore, a
spherical pair removes three degrees of freedom in spatial mechanism.

Figure 1.14: Kinematic constraint introduced by S-joint in spatial mechanisms

A cylindrical pair as shown in figure 1.15 keeps two axes of two rigid bodies aligned.
Two rigid bodies that are part of this kind of system will have an independent transla-
tional motion along the axis and a relative rotary motion around the axis. Therefore, a
cylindrical pair removes four degrees of freedom from spatial mechanism.
A revolute pair keeps the axes of two rigid bodies together. Two rigid bodies constrained
by a revolute pair as shown in figure 1.16 have an independent rotary motion around
their common axis. Therefore, a revolute pair removes five degrees of freedom in spatial
mechanism.

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 Figure 1.15: Kinematic constraint introduced by C-joint in spatial mechanisms

Figure 1.16: Kinematic constraint introduced by R-joint in spatial mechanisms

A prismatic pair as shown in figure 1.17 keeps two axes of two rigid bodies align and
allow no relative rotation. Two rigid bodies constrained by this kind of constraint will be
able to have an independent translational motion along the axis. Therefore, a prismatic
pair removes five degrees of freedom in spatial mechanism.

Figure 1.17: Kinematic constraint introduced by P-joint in spatial mechanisms

NOTE: A joint connecting more than one link is counted more than once.

1.2.4 Mobility Criteria

One of the basic steps in kinematic and dynamic analysis of mechanical system is to
determine the number of degrees of freedom of the system.
Calculating the degrees of freedom of a rigid body system is straight forward. Any
unconstrained rigid body has six degrees of freedom in space and three degrees of freedom
in a plane. Adding kinematic constraints between rigid bodies will correspondingly
decrease the degrees of freedom of the rigid body system.
The number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism is also called the mobility of the
device. The mobility is the number of input parameters (usually pair variables) that
must be independently controlled to bring the device into a particular position.

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Mobility criteria is a simple method developed for determining the number of degrees of
freedom of a mechanical system.

Mobility criteria for planar mechanisms

As previously seen in figure 1.10, any unconstrained rigid body has three degrees of
freedom in a plane.
A planar system that consists of nb unconstrained bodies therefore has 3nb degrees of
freedom. For example, consider two links in plane xy as shown in figure 1.18 below;

D
C
B

x
Figure 1.18: Degree of freedom of a rigid body in plane

Each body has 3 dofs wrt the plane. Therefore the total number of dofs of the system is
3 × 2 = 6.
If these bodies are connected by joints, then the number of the system’s dof decreases.
The reduction in the system’s dof depends on the number of independent constraints
introduced by the joint. Therefore, in planar motion the number of the system’s dof can
be determined according to the mobility criteria given in equation 1.2.

nd = 3nb − nc (1.2)

Where;

nd number of the system’s dof.

nb number of the bodies in the system.

nc total number of linearly independent constraint equations that describe the joints in
the system.

Gruebler represented equation 1.2 in a simpler way as;

nd = 3(nb − 1) − 2nl − nh (1.3)

Where;

13
nd number of the system’s dof.

nb number of the bodies in the system.

nl number of lower pairs

nh number of higher pairs

Equation 1.4 is called Gruebler’s equation, and it cant be applied to a mechanism with
no fixed link, such as manipulators.
Examples 1.1.2
If the links in figure 1.18 are connected using a revolute joint and end A is connected
to a stationary base by a revolute joint, determine the number of dofs of the resulting
planar system.
Solution: The resulting system is as shown in figure 1.19

y
D

B x

y z

A
x
z

Figure 1.19: Example 1

There are two links,therefore nb = 2.

There are two revolute joint each reducing the number of dofs by two, therefore nc =
2 + 2 = 4.
Using equation 1.2 we get;

nd = 3 × 2 − 4
= 2

The system therefore is a two dof system.

Examples 1.1.3
Determine the number of dofs of a slider-crank mechanism shown in figure 1.20 below;
Solution: The mechanism consists of four bodies, that is crank (denoted as OA), con-
necting rod (denoted as AB), slider block (piston) and the ground (fixed link denoted
as OB). Therefore nb = 4

14
 1.3 DEGREES OF FREEDOM 7

Figure 1.5 Slider crank mechanism

Figure 1.20: Example 2: Slider-crank mechanism
of a system are defined to be the independent coordinates that are required to
The systemdescribe the configuration of the system. The number of degrees of freedom
has three revolute joints at O, A and B. Each revolute joint reduces the
depends on the number of bodies and the number and types of joints in the
number of dofs byThe
system. 2, hence thesemechanism
slider crank joints reduce shown thein dofs
Fig. 5by 2 × 3in=several
is used 6. engi-
neering applications, such as automobile engines and pumps. The mechanism
The systemconsists
has one prismatic
of four joint1 between
bodies: body the frame,
is the cylinder sliderbodyblock2 isand the cylinder frame.
the crankshaft,
Prismatic joints
body 3reduce the dofs by
is the connecting rod,2,and
hence
body this joint
4 is the reduces
slider the systems
block, which doftheby 1×2 = 2.
represents
piston. The mechanism has three revolute joints and one prismatic joint. While
The fixed joint constraints
this mechanism hasare 3 since
several bodies inand
planar
severalmotion
joints, two
it hasconditions are required in
only one degree
order to eliminate the that
of freedom; freedom
is, the of the body
motion of all to translate,
bodies and one
in this system cancondition is required to
be controlled
and described using only one
eliminate the freedom of the body to rotate. independent variable. In this case, one needs only
one force input (a motor or an actuator) to control the motion of this mecha-
nism.
Therefore the theFor instance, a specified
constraints reduce the input rotary motion
number to the crankshaft
of system’s dofs by nproduces
c = 6 + 2 + 3 = 11.
a desired rectilinear
Using equation 1.2 we get; motion of the slider block. If the rectilinear motion of the

nd = 3 × 4 − 11
= 1

The system therefore is a single dof system.

Alternatively, we can use Gruebler’s equation 1.4. The number of lower pairs is nl = 4,
and there are no higher pairs, hence nh = 0. Therefore;

nd = 3(4 − 1) − 2 × 4 − 0 = 1

Mobility criteria for spatial mechanisms

In spatial kinematics, the configuration of a rigid body in space is identified using six
coordinates, that is, three angular coordinates θ, φ, and ρ each about the xy, xz and yz
planes respectively, as well as three linear coordinates x, y, z.
If the system consists of nb bodies, the mobility criterion in the spatial analysis can be
represented as shown in equation 1.4.

nd = 6nb − nc (1.4)

Examples 1.1.4
Determine the number of dofs of a RSSR spatial mechanism shown in figure 1.21 below;

Solution: The mechanism consists of four bodies, that is link OA, link AB, link BC and
the fixed link denoted as OC. Therefore nb = 4

15
 C

3
B 4

A D

Figure 1.21: Example 3: RSSR mechanism

The system has two revolute joints at O and C. Each revolute joint reduces the number
of dofs by 5, hence these joints reduce the dofs by 2 × 5 = 10.
The system has two spherical joints at A and B. Spherical joints reduce the dofs by 3,
hence these joints reduce the system’s dof by 2 × 3 = 6.
The fixed joint constraints are 6 since in spatial motion three conditions are required
in order to eliminate the freedom of the body to translate along any axis, and three
conditions are required to eliminate the freedom of the body to rotate about any plane.
Therefore the the constraints reduce the number of system’s dofs by nc = 10+6+6 = 22.
Using equation 1.4 we get;

nd = 6 × 4 − 22
= 2

The system therefore is a two dof system.

1.3 Tutorial 1

Determine the number of degrees of freedom of the mechanisms shown shown below;

(a) Damping truck:

Figure 1.22: Damping truck

16
(b) Six-bar linkage:

Figure 1.23: Six-bar linkage

(c) Door transom:

Figure 1.24: Door transom

(d) Fifteen-bar linkage

Figure 1.25: Fifteen-bar linkage

Figure 1

c UNIVERSITY OF DUBLIN 2005



17
2
Chapter 2

Position/Displacement Analysis

Principal goal of kinematic analysis is to determine the accelerations of all the moving
links in a mechanism. Using the Newton’s second law of motion, the dynamic forces
acting on the links can be determined from the accelerations
In order to calculate accelerations, we must find the positions of all the links in the
mechanism for each increment of input motion, and then differentiate the position equa-
tions wrt time to get velocities, and then differentiate the velocity equations to get the
accelerations.
The position of the links can be obtained using graphical or analytical methods.

2.1 Position

The position of a point in the plane can be defined by the use of a position vector as
shown in figure 2.1.
A 2-D vector has two attributes which can be expressed in either polar or cartesian
coordinates. The polar form provides the magnitude and the angle of the vector which
is measured from the root of the vector, that is, |RA |@6 θ
The cartesian form provides the x and y linear coordinates, that is (Rx , Ry ).

18
 y

Ry
RA

Rx x
Figure 2.1: The position vector of a point

2.2 Displacement

Displacement of a point is the change in its position and can be defined as the straight
line distances between the initial and final positions of a point which has moved in a
reference frame.

y
A RBA
B
RA

RB

x
Figure 2.2: The displacement of a point

The position vector RBA defines the displacement of the point B wrt point A and can
be expressed in position difference equation as;

RBA = RB − RA (2.1)

Which is read as; the position of B wrt point A is equal to the absolute position of B
minus the absolute position of A, where absolute means wrt the origin of the reference
frame.

19
If points A and B represent not the same particle but two independent particles moving
in the same reference frame, the vector equation 2.1 is still valid, but we now refer to
RBA as a relative position, that is, the position of point B relative to point A.

2.3 Graphical Analysis

For any 1-dof mechanism, only one parameter is needed to completely define the position
of all the links.
Consider a four-bar linkage shown in figure 2.3 below; Only the angle of input link θ2 is

C
y
3
B θ3 4
x

2 y
θ4
y
θ2
x 1 x

A D

Figure 2.3: Measurement of angles in a four-bar linkage

needed to completely define the position of all links.

If we draw the linkage carefully to scale in a particular position of θ2 , then its only
necessary to measure the angles of link 3 (θ3 ) and of link 4 (θ4 ) with a protractor.
The graphical analysis of a mechanism is trivial: that is, the obtained solution is only
valid for the particular position of chosen θ2 , and for another additional position analysis
we must completely redraw the linkage.
Examples 2.1
For a four-bar linkage shown in figure 2.3 below, determine graphically θ3 and θ4 if
θ2 = 600 .
Solution:

Step 1 Choose an arbitrary point A.

Step 2 Locate point D by drawing a line of length d.

Step 3 Locate point B by drawing a line of length a at an angle of θ2 from AD.

20
 C
b
B θ3 a = 50mm
c
a b = 100 mm
θ4 c = 150 mm
θ2
d = 200 mm
d
A D

Step 4 Locate point C which is the point of intersection of arcs of radius equal to b and
c drawn from points B and D respectively.

Step 5 Measure angles θ3 and θ4 .

These solutions are shown in figure 2.3 below.

A
D

2.4 Analytical method: Loop-closure equation

Consider a four-bar linkage whose links are drawn as position vectors which form a vector
loop as shown in figure 2.4
The loop closes on itself, and hence the sum of the vectors in the loop must be equal to
zero. The length of the vectors are the link lengths and therefore are known.
The particular linkage position shown is defined by one input angle θ2 , and we want to
solve analytical for the unknown angles θ3 and θ4 .

21
 C
R3
b R4
B
θ3
R2
c
a θ4
θ2

d R1
A D

Figure 2.4: Position vector loop for a four-bar linkage

Note that the directions of the position vectors are chosen so as to define their angles
where we want them to be measured. By definition, the angle of a vector ia always
measured at its root not its head.
Therefore;
R2 + R3 − R4 − R1 = 0 (2.2)
Substituting the complex number notation for each position vector in equation 2.2, we
get;
aeiθ2 + beiθ3 − ceiθ2 − deiθ1 = 0 (2.3)
The link lengths a, b, c and d are known and constant. The value of the angle of link 1 is
fixed to zero,i.e, θ1 = 0, and θ2 is the independent variable which is the input. Therefore
we are left with θ3 and θ4 to be found.
Substituting the Euler-identity for the eiθ term, i.e., e±θ = cos θ ± i sin θ in the vector
equation 2.3 and noting that θ1 = 0, we get;

0 = a(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) + b(cos θ3 + i sin θ3 ) − c(cos θ4 + i sin θ4 )

−d(cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) (2.4)
= a(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) + b(cos θ3 + i sin θ3 ) − c(cos θ4 + i sin θ4 ) − d (2.5)

Equation 2.5 can be split into its imaginary and real parts, and each equated to zero.
Real part;
0 = a cos θ2 + b cos θ3 − c cos θ4 − d (2.6)
Imaginary part;

0 = i(a sin θ2 + b sin θ3 − c sin θ4 )

= a sin θ2 + b sin θ3 − c sin θ4 (2.7)

The scalar equations 2.6 and 2.7 can be solved simultaneously for θ3 and θ4 . Lets first
eliminate θ3 to solve for θ4 by rewriting equations 2.6 and 2.7 as follows;

b cos θ3 = −a cos θ2 + c cos θ4 + d (2.8)

b sin θ3 = −a sin θ2 + c sin θ4 (2.9)

22
Square equations 2.8 and 2.9 and add them.

b2 (cos2 θ3 + sin2 θ3 ) = (−a cos θ2 + c cos θ4 + d)2 + (−a sin θ2 + c sin θ4 )2 (2.10)

Expand the right hand side of equation 2.10.

b2 = a2 sin2 θ2 + c2 sin2 θ4 − 2ac sin θ2 sin θ4 + a2 cos2 θ2 + c2 cos2 θ4 + d2 − 2ac cos θ2 cos θ4
−2ad cos θ2 + 2cd cos θ4
= a2 + c2 + d2 − 2ac(sinθ2 sin θ4 + cos θ2 cos θ4 ) − 2ad cos θ2 + 2cd cos θ4 (2.11)

Equation 2.11 can be rearranged as;

a2 − b 2 + c 2 + d 2 d d
− cos θ2 + cos θ4 = sinθ2 sin θ4 + cos θ2 cos θ4 (2.12)
2ac c a
To further simplify the equation let;

d
K1 = a
d
K2 = c

a2 −b2 +c2 +d2

K2 = 2ac

Which when substituted in 2.12 we get;

K1 cos θ4 − K2 cos θ2 + K3 = sinθ2 sin θ4 + cos θ2 cos θ4 (2.13)

To reduce equation 2.13 to a more tractable form for solution, it is necessary to substitute
the half angle identities, which will convert the sin θ4 and cos θ4 to tan θ4 .
θ4
1 − tan2 2
cos θ4 = θ4
1 + tan2 2
2 tan θ24
sin θ4 =
1 + tan2 θ24

Substituting the identities in equation 2.13 and simplifying, we get an equation of

quadratic form.
θ4 θ4
A tan2 + B tan + C = 0 (2.14)
2 2
Where;

A = (1 − K2 )cosθ2 − K1 + K3

B = −2sinθ2

C = K1 − (1 + K2 )cosθ2 + K3

23
Solving equation 2.14 we get;
√
−B ± B 2 − 4AC
θ41,2 = 2 tan−1 (2.15)
2A
Equation 2.14 has two solutions of which as with any quadratic equation may be of three
types: real and equal, real and unequal or complex conjugate.
If the solution is complex conjugate then this implies that the link lengths chosen are
not capable of connection for the value of the input angle θ2 .
For real and unequal solutions then it means that there are two values of θ4 corresponding
to any one value of θ2 . These are referred to as the crossed and open configuration of
the linkage. For a four-bar linkage, the −θ4 solution gives open configuration while the
+θ4 gives the crossed configuration.

Assignment 2

Starting from a vector-loop closure equation of a four bar linkage shown in figure 2.4,
show that;
K1 cos θ3 + K4 cos θ2 + K5 = cos θ2 cos θ3 + sin θ2 sin θ3 (2.16)
Where;

d
K1 = a
d
K4 = b

c2 −d2 −a2 −b2

K5 = 2ab

Also show that equation 2.16 above reduces to a quadratic equation of form;
θ3 θ3
D tan2 + E tan + F = 0 (2.17)
2 2
Where;

D = (1 + K4 ) cos θ2 − K1 + K5

E = −2 sin θ2

F = K1 + (K4 − 1) cos θ2 + K5

2.4.1 Loop-closure equation of an offset four bar slider crank

linkage

Consider an offset four bar slider-crank linkage shown in figure 2.7 below;
The term offset means that the slider axis extended does not pass through the crank
pivot.

24
 y θ3
B

x
3
A R3 R4
c
R2
2 y

y
θ2 θ4
d
x R1 x

Figure 2.5: Offset slider-crank equation

For a non offset slider crank mechanism, the linkage is represented by only three position
vectors: R2 , R3 and R1 = Rs . R1 only varies in magnitude only.
For an offset slider-crank mechanism it is easier to use four position vectors R1 , R2 , R3
and R4 . R1 which is a variable length, constant direction vector represents the slider
position with magnitude d, and R4 which is perpendicular to R1 defines the constant
magnitude offset of the slider.
The position vector arrangement gives a loop equation as;

R2 − R3 − R4 − R1 = 0 (2.18)

Substitute the complex number equivalence for the position vectors to equation 2.18;

aeiθ2 − beiθ3 − ceiθ4 − deiθ1 = 0 (2.19)

Substitute the Euler equivalents to equation 2.19;

a(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) − b(cos θ3 + i sin θ3 ) − c(cos θ4 + i sin θ4 ) − d(cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) = 0 (2.20)

Noting that θ1 = 00 and θ4 = 900 , equation 2.20 becomes;

a(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) − b(cos θ3 + i sin θ3 ) − ci − d = 0 (2.21)

25
Separating real and imaginary components of equation 2.21;

0 = a cos θ2 − b cos θ3 − d (2.22)

0 = a sin θ2 − b sin θ3 − c (2.23)

From equation 2.23,

h a sin θ
2 − ci
θ3 = sin−1 (2.24)
b

Once θ3 is calculated, we use equation 2.22 to determine d.

d = a cos θ2 − b cos θ3 (2.25)

NOTE: There are also two valid solutions corresponding to the two branches of the
linkage.

2.5 Tutorial 2
Q1 The link lengths and the value of input crank angle θ2 for some four bar linkages are
given in table 2.1. The linkage configuration and terminology are shown in figure
2.6. For the rows given, draw the linkage to scale and graphically find all possible
solutions (both open and crossed) for angles θ3 and θ4 . Verify your answers using
vector-loop method.

Table 2.1: Data for four bar analysis problems.

Row Link 1 Link 2 Link 3 Link 4 Value of θ 2 (degrees)
length (d) length (a) length (b) length (c)
1 6 2 7 9 30
2 3 10 6 8 45
3 8 5 8 6 75
4 6 8 8 9 25
5 4 5 2 5 80
6 4 6 10 7 88
7 9 7 11 8 120

Q2 The link lengths and the value of input crank angle θ2 and offset for some slider-
crank linkages are given in table 2.2. The linkage configuration and terminology are
shown in figure 2.7. For the rows given, draw the linkage to scale and graphically
find all possible solutions (both open and crossed) for angles θ3 and the slider
position d. Verify your answers using vector-loop method.

26
 C
y
3
B θ3 1
4
x

2 y
θ3 2 y
θ2 θ4
θ4 2
1

x 1 x
3
A D
4

Figure 2.6: General configuration and terminology for a four bar linkage.

Table 2.2: Data for four bar offset slider-crank analysis problems.
Row Link 2 Link 3 Offset (c) Value of θ 2 (degrees)
length (a) length (b)
1 1.4 4 1 45
2 3 8 2 -30
3 5 20 -5 225
4 7 25 10 330

y θ3
B

x
3
A R3 R4
c
R2
2 y

y
θ2 θ4
d
x R1 x

Figure 2.7: General configuration and terminology for a four bar offset slider-crank
linkage.

Q3 (a) For an inverted slider-crank mechanism shown in figure 2.8, show that the
vector loop closure equation reduces to;

P sin θ4 + Q cos θ4 + R = 0 (2.26)

27
 Where;
P = a sin θ2 sin γ + (a cos θ2 − d) cos γ
Q = −a sin θ2 cos γ + (a cos θ2 − d) sin γ
R = −c sin γ
Also show that equation 2.26 can be rewritten in quadratic form as;
θ  θ 
4 4
S tan2 + T tan +U =0 (2.27)
2 2
Where;
S =R−Q
T = 2P
U =Q+R

θ3 y θ4

B x
3
A
b
c
2 a
y
y
θ2 θ4
d
x x

Figure 2.8: Inverted slider-crank mechanism.

(b) The link lengths and the value of input crank angle θ2 and γ for some inverted
slider-crank linkages are given in table 2.3. The linkage configuration and
terminology are shown in figure 2.8. For the rows given, draw the linkage to
scale and graphically find all possible solutions (both open and crossed) for
angles θ3 and θ4 and the slider position vector RB . Verify your answers using
vector-loop method.

Table 2.3: Data for four bar inverted slider-crank analysis problems.
Row Link 1 Link 2 Link 4 γ (degrees) Value of θ 2 (degrees)
length (d) length (a) length (c)
1 6 2 4 90 30
2 3 10 6 75 85
3 8 4 2 30 75

28
Chapter 3

Velocity Analysis

Once a position analysis is done, the next step is to determine the velocities of all links
and points in a mechanism, which can be found using graphical or analytical methods.

3.1 Definition of velocity

Velocity is defined as the rate of change of position wrt time. Velocity can be angular
(ω) or linear (V ), which are defined as;

dθ
ω= (3.1)
dt
and
dR
V = (3.2)
dt

Consider link P A pivoted at point A and in pure rotation in the xy plane.

y
VPA ω

P
RPA

x
A

Figure 3.1: A link in pure rotation

29
We are interested with the velocity of point P when the link if subjected to an angular
velocity ω. RP A can be represented as a complex number in polar form as;
RP A = peiθ (3.3)
which when differentiated wrt to time we get;
dRP A dθ
ṘP A = = pieiθ = iωpeiθ = iωRP A (3.4)
dt dt
Equation 3.4 shows that the velocity vector is rotated at 900 from the angle θ of the
position vector. This is just a mathematical verification of what is already known,
namely: velocity is always in a direction perpendicular to the radius of rotation and is
tangential to the path of rotation.
Velocity VP A in figure 3.1 above can be referred to as an absolute velocity denoted
simply as Vp , since it is referenced to point A which is stationary and is the origin of the
coordinate system.

3.1.1 Relative velocity

Consider a figure 3.2 in which link AP is in pure rotation and is joined to a block which
is in pure translation.

y VPA ω
VP

P
RPA

θ
VA

A x
Figure 3.2: Velocity difference

VA is the linear velocity of the slider block and is known. VP A is the velocity of point P
relative to point A, and since A is moving, then VP A cannot be considered as an absolute
velocity.
VP A is represented using a velocity difference equation as;
VP A = VP − VA (3.5)

30
where VP is the absolute velocity of point P given from equation above as;

VP = VA + VP = VA + AP ω (3.6)

3.2 Graphical methods in velocity analysis of link-

ages

To solve a velocity problem graphically, we need to know the lengths of all the links, the
angular positions of all the links and the instantaneous input velocity of any one driving
link or point.
We must first do a complete position analysis on the linkage using any method discussed
in section 2, but in the preceding analysis we assume that position analysis has been
done and that the input angular velocity of the driving link is known.
The graphical methods include;

1. Use of velocity diagrams.

2. Use of instant centers

3. Use of angular velocity ratio

3.2.1 Velocity diagrams

To illustrate how to use velocity diagram method in velocity analysis problems of linkages,
lets consider a four bar linkage shown in figure below.
Steps;

1. Start at the end of the linkage where there is most velocity information. For this
example at point B since the magnitude and direction of VB are known, that is
VA = ABω2 at a direction perpendicular to link AB.

2. Draw the velocity vector of magnitude equal to VB at a convenient point, say point
a as shown in figure 3.3, and its direction perpendicular to link AB.

3. Move next to a point about which we have some velocity information. For our
example, point C since the direction of velocity of point C (VC ) is predictable,
because link DC is in pure rotation about point D.

4. Draw a vector VC which is perpendicular to link DC and rooted at point d which

is chosen at a point coincident to point a since point D is fixed. Point a, d is a
point of no velocity.

5. Use equation 3.5 to write the velocity difference equation for point C relative to
point B in link BC, that is, VCB = VC − VB , which gives a closed vector equation
of form, VC = VB + VCB .

31
 C
y
3
B θ3 4
x
ω2 y
2
θ4
y
θ2
x 1 x

A D

b
VB

VCB
a, d
VC
c

Figure 3.3: Drawing a velocity diagram of a four bar linkage

6. Assuming that link BC is rigid, then there can be no component of VCB directed
along link CB since point C cant move towards or away from point B without
stretching or shrinking the link. Therefore the direction of VCB must be perpen-
dicular to link BC and rooted at point b as shown in figure 3.3.

7. Where the lines representing vectors VC and VCB intersect is the point c.

8. From the velocity diagram obtained determine the velocities of the points and links
desired,

For link BC

VBC = bc
VBC
ω3 =
BC

For link DC

VC = dc
VC
ω4 =
DC

Examples 3.1
For a four bar linkage shown in figure 3.4 find using the velocity diagram method the
angular velocity of link CB and the absolute velocity of point D in link AB, given that:

32
AD = DB = 0.45m, OA = 0.5m, P B = 0.65m, OC = 1.4m and crank OA rotates
clockwise with angular velocity of 2.6rad/s
Solution: Absolute velocity of point A;

VA = ωOA OA = 2.6 × 0.5 = 1.3m/s (3.7)

VA is drawn perpendicular to link OA, rooted at a convenient point, say 0 o0 and at a

direction dictated to the direction of ωOA . Only the direction of absolute velocity of
point B is predictable, that is, draw vector VB from point, say 0 c0 coincident to point 0 o0
and in a direction perpendicular to link CB. Vector VBA is drawn perpendicular to link
AB and rooted at point 0 a0 . ADB will produce a geometrically similar velocity image
0
adb0 . From the velocity diagram shown in figure 3.4;
Angular velocity of link BC is given by
VBC bc 1.02
ωBC = = = = 1.57rad/s clockwise
BC BC 0.65

Absolute velocity of point D is given by;

VD = od = 1.04m/s
(3.8)

33
 Figure 3.4: Solution to example 1

Examples 3.2
A slider crank mechanism has a crank radius of 160mm and a connecting link 500mm
ling. The crank rotates at a steady speed of 4500RP M . Using the velocity diagram
method find the velocity of a point on the connecting link 360mm from the slider, when
the crank has turned through an angle of 400 as shown in figure 3.5
Solution:

2π
(a) VB = 0.16 × 4500 × 60
= 75.4m/s perpendicular to OB. Draw ob

(b) Because of the constraints VA , that is VAO must be horizontal.

34
 Figure 3.5: Example 2 problem

(c) Draw VAB perpendicular to AB rooted at b and VA parallel to OA rooted at o so

as to locate point a at the point of intersection in the velocity diagram.

(d) AP B is geometrically similar to apb hence point p can be located in the velocity
diagram.

B
P

b
p 40 0 A
O

a o
ab ap ab
= ⇒ ap = AP
AB AP AB

Figure 3.6: Example 2 solution

From the completed velocity diagram in figure 3.6,

The angular velocity of connecting link AB is given as;

VAB ab 59
ωAB = = = = 118rad/sclockwise
AB AB 0.5
(3.9)

The absolute velocity of point P is given as;

VP = op = 66.48m/s
(3.10)

Examples 3.3

35
In the mechanism shown in figure 3.7, D is the slider at the end of the link rotating about
center P and C is a fixed point on AB coincident with D at the instant shown. OA =
0.6m, AB = 1.9m, BQ = 1.0m and P D = 1.4. If the crank OA rotates anticlockwise
at 120RP M , determine the angular velocity of member P D, and the speed of sliding at
D.

Figure 3.7: Example 3 problem

Solution:

2π
(a) VA = 0.6 × 120 × 60
= 7.54m/s perpendicular to OA. Draw oa

(b) Since O, P and Q are fixed points, then o, p and q will be coincident on the velocity
diagram.

(c) Draw VBQ perpendicular to BQ rooted at q and VBA perpendicular to BA rooted

at a so as to locate point b at the point of intersection in the velocity diagram.

(d) ACB is geometrically similar to acb hence point c can be located in the velocity
diagram.

(e) Draw VDP perpendicular to DP and VDC parallel to AB to locate point d in the
velocity diagram.

36
 VBA a A

c
b VA
Q
O
VB
D
C
o, q , p
VDC
P B

VDP
d

Figure 3.8: Example 3 solution

From the completed velocity diagram,

The angular velocity of link P D is given as;

VDP pd 2.2
ωP D = = = = 1.57rad/sclockwise
PD PD 1.4
(3.11)

The sliding velocity at D is given as;

VDC = cd = 9.37m/s
(3.12)

37
3.2.2 Use of Instant centers of velocity method

An instant center is defined as, A point common to two bodies and which has the same
linear velocity in both magnitude and direction.
Any two links in a mechanism have motion relative to one another and thus have a
common instant center. Therefore the number of instant centers for a mechanism is
equal to all the possible combinations of two links from the total number of links. Let n
be the number of links in a mechanism, then the number of instant centers is given by;

n(n − 1)
NIC = (3.13)
2

All instant centers which can be found merely by inspection are called primary instant
centers. The remaining instant centers in the mechanism are found by applying Arnold-
Kennedy’s theorem which states that, Any three bodies whether connected or not, in
plane motion relative to one another, have exactly three instant centers which lie in the
same straight line.
Primary instant centers can be summarized as,

• Instant center for a revolute joint - two links connected by a revolute joint have an
instant center at the joint.

• Instant center for a prismatic joint - Two links connected with a prismatic joint
have an instant center at an infinite distance along a line perpendicular to the point
of contact.

• Instant center for a rolling body - If two bodies have a rolling contact, then their
instant center lies at the point of contact.

Examples 3.4
Locate all the instant centers for the four bar linkage shown in figure 3.9.
Solution:

1. By inspection, determine all the primary centers, which are I12 , I14 , I23 and I34 .
According to equation 3.13 there are NIC = 4(4−1)
2
= 6 instant centers in a four bar
linkage. Therefore the other two instant centers are found using Arnold-Kennedy’s
theorem

2. Draw a circle of an arbitrary radius and place circles to represent all the links
approximately equally spaced around the perimeter of the circle as shown in figure
3.10. Since I12 , I14 , I23 and I34 are known draw on the circle straight lines con-
necting the corresponding numbers of links in the circle. For example for I12 draw
a line connecting link symbols 1 and 2.

3. On the circle draw a dotted line corresponding to a link combination not considered,
first say links 1 and 3. This forms two triangles.

38
 I13

I 34
3
I 23

4
2
I 24

1
I 23 I 14

Figure 3.9: Locating instant centers in a four bar linkage

4 2

3
Figure 3.10:

• One triangle with edges 12, 23 and 13. Therefore according to Arnold-
Kennedy’s theorem, instant centers I12 , I23 and I13 must lie on the same
straight line. Extend the line joining instant centers I12 and I23 , therefore
instant center I13 must lie somewhere along the line.
• The other triangle has edges 14, 34 and 13. Therefore according to Arnold-
Kennedy’s theorem, instant centers I14 , I34 and I13 must lie on the same
straight line. Extend the line joining instant centers I14 and I34 , therefore
instant center I13 must lie somewhere along the line.

Instant center I13 is at the point of intersection of the two lines.

39
 4. On the circle draw a dotted line corresponding to the other link combination not
considered, that is 2 and 4. This forms two triangles.

• One triangle with edges 12, 14 and 24. Therefore according to Arnold-
Kennedy’s theorem, instant centers I12 , I14 and I24 must lie on the same
straight line. Extend the line joining instant centers I12 and I14 , therefore
instant center I24 must lie somewhere along the line.
• The other triangle has edges 23, 34 and 24. Therefore according to Arnold-
Kennedy’s theorem, instant centers I23 , I34 and I24 must lie in the same
straight line. Extend the line joining instant centers I23 and I34 , therefore
instant center I13 must lie somewhere along the line.

Instant center I24 is at the point of intersection of the two lines.

Therefore, all the six instant centers of the four bar linkage have been located.
Once the instant centers have been found, they can therefore be used to do a very rapid
graphical velocity analysis of the linkage. Depending on the particular position of the
linkage being analyzed, some of the instant centers may be far away from the link. For
example if links 2 and 4 are nearly parallel, their extended lines will intersect at a point
far away, and therefore instant center I13 will not available for velocity analysis.
Consider figure 3.11 when the crank link 2 is rotating anticlockwise.

I13

VB '
VD ' I 34
VA B
VD
3 VB
D ω4
A I 23
4
2 ω2
I 24

1
I 23 I 14

Figure 3.11: Locating instant centers in a four bar linkage

40
We need to determine the angular velocities of links 3 and 4, and the absolute velocity
of point D in the coupler. From the definition of an instant center, both link sharing the
instant center will have an identical velocity at that point.
Instant center I13 involves link 3 and 1, but link 1 is stationary meaning that all points
in this link have a zero velocity. Therefore point I13 has zero velocity at this instant, and
hence it is considered to be a fixed pivot about which link 3 is in pure rotation about
point I13 .
The magnitude and direction of VA is known, therefore,
¯ = ω3 AI¯13
VA = ω2 OA
VA ¯
ω2 OA
ω3 = ¯ = ¯
AI13 AI13

Once ω3 is known then we can determine ω4 and VD

¯ = ω3 BI¯13
VB = ω4 BC
VB ω3 BI¯13
ω4 = ¯ = ¯
BC BC

Velocity of point D in the coupler is,

¯13
VD = ω3 DI

Alternatively, the absolute velocities VB and VD can be obtained as follows,

(i) First join the tip of VA to center I13

(ii) Draw arcs centered at I13 from points B and C.

(iii) At the points where the arcs intersect line AI13 , draw perpendicular lines to intersect
the line from I13 to the tip of VA . Then VB = VB0 and VD = VD0 .

Note: The instant center method is a quick graphical method used to analyze velocities
in a mechanism, but it will only work if the instant centers are in a reachable positions.
Examples 3.4

Repeat Examples 3.1 using the instantaneous center method. i.e. AD = DB = 0.45m,
OA = 0.5m, P B = 0.65m, OC = 1.4m and crank OA rotates clockwise with angular
velocity of 2.6rad/s, find the angular velocity of link CB and the absolute velocity of
point D in link AB.
Solution: Draw the linkage to scale and locate all the instant centers.
Linear velocity of point A is,
¯ = 2.6 × 0.5 = 1.3m/s
VA = ωOA OA

41
 I13

VB B, I 34
D
A, I 23 VD
3

4
2
I 24
O, I12 1 C , I14

Figure 3.12:

Also from figure above VA can also be obtained as,

VA = ωAB AI¯13
VA 1.3
ωAB = ¯ = = 1.203rad/s
AI13 1.0806
The linear velocity of point D is,
¯13 = 1.203 × 0.861 = 1.04m/s
VD = ωAB DI

Angular velocity of link CB is obtained as,

VB = ωAB BI¯13 = ωCB CB

¯
ωAB BI¯13
ωCB = ¯
CB
1.203 × 0.8485
= = 1.57rad/s
0.65

Assignment 2

1. Locate all the instant centers of a slider-crank mechanism, and hence solve the
Example 3.2 using the instantaneous center method.

2. In the mechanism shown in figure 3.20, the crank OA is rotating anticlockwise at

100rev/min. If OA = 20mm, all other links 80mm, DC is vertical, O is 100mm
to the left and 80mm below D, use the instant center method to determine the
absolute velocity of the slider C, and the angular velocities of all the links in the
mechanism.

42
 (ii )
D

45 0 B
O B
A

Figure 3.13:

3. Figure 3.22 shows a mechanism (Stephenson type1) with the following dimensions:
Ao Bo = Bo B = AB = DE = 205mm, CD = 100mm, AC = CB = 110mm
and Ao A = 50mm. It produces an oscillatory output with a dwell when the input
rotates at a constant speed. Calculate the absolute velocities of B, C, D and the
angular velocity of the output link ED when the crank Ao A makes an angle of
2250 with Ao Bo using the instantaneous center method. Point E is 50mm to the
right of point Bo and 150mm above Ao Bo .

E
C B

ω 2 = 100 rad / s 225 0

Ao Bo

Figure 3.14:

Angular velocity ratio

This is the ratio of the angular velocity of the output link to the angular velocity of the
input link. Consider figure 3.15.

43
 I13

α2
VA VB
B , I 34
M
3
α1 D ω4
N A , I 23
4
α1 ω2 α2
I 24 2

1
O , I 12 C , I 14

Figure 3.15:

The components of VA and VB along AB are,

VA0 = ω2 OA cos α1 = ω2 ON (3.14)

VB0 = ω4 CB cos α2 = ω4 CM (3.15)

Since link AB is rigid, then VA0 = VB0 , hence

ω2 ON = ω4 CM (3.16)
ω4 ON
= CM (3.17)
ω2
ON CM
Since triangles I24 ON and I24 CM are similar, we have I24 O
= I24 C
hence the required
velocity ratio is,
ω4 I24 O
= I24 C
(3.18)
ω2

Mechanical Advantage

The power in a translational mechanical system is defined as the product of the force
and the velocity. And for a rotational mechanical system, the power is the product of
torque and the angular velocity.
Generally, power in=power out+power losses.

44
Mechanical advantage can be defined as the ratio of the output power (Pout ) to the input
power (Pin ), that is,
Pout
η =
Pin
Mechanical systems can be very efficient if they are well made with low friction joints.
For a linkage, mechanical advantage (M A) can be defined as the ratio of the output
torque (Tout ) to the input torque (Tin ), and which for a four-bar linkage is,
T4
MA =
T2
Consider figure 3.16,

C
C'
µ
B TCD

B'
β ωCD
TAB

ω AB

P
D

Figure 3.16:

Input power to link AB,

P2 = T2 ω2
Output power to link CD,
P4 = T4 ω4
Assuming no friction at joints, then the input power is equal to output power,

P2 = P4
T2 ω2 = T4 ω4
T4 ω2 1
= MA = = (3.19)
T2 ω4 VR

Relationship between the MA and the transmission angle

The transmission angle for a four bar linkage as shown in figure 3.17 can be obtained as
follows,

ABo2 = a2 + d2 − 2ad cos θ2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos µ

b2 + c2 − a2 − d2 + 2ad cos θ2
cos µ = (3.20)
2bc

45
 B

b
A μ

c
a
θ2

d
Ao Bo
Figure 3.17:

For smooth operation of any mechanism without jerky movements, it is important to

ensure that the transmission angle µ lies between 400 and 1400 . The ideal value is 900
but this cant remain constant during a cycle.
To show how the mechanical advantage and the transmission angle for a four-bar linkage
are related consider figure 3.16. The mechanical advantage is given by,
T4 ω2
MA = =
T2 ω4
But it has been shown that from the angular velocity ratio,

ω2 DC 0
= (3.21)
ω4 AB 0
But from triangles ABB 0 and DCC 0 , we have;

AB 0 = AB sin β
DC 0 = DC sin µ

which when substituted in equation 3.21, we have,

ω2 DC sin µ
=
ω4 AB sin β
Hence the mechanical advantage in equation equation 3.19 becomes,

ω2 DC sin µ
MA = =
ω4 AB sin β

The equation above shows that the mechanical advantage for any four-bar linkage depend
on the transmission angle µ and angle β.

46
If µ tends to zero, (which during kinematic synthesis, this is avoided), then the output
torque goes to zero regardless of the amount of input torque applied.
But when angle β goes to zero, which it can and occurs twice per cycle in a Grashof
linkage, the mechanical advantage tends to infinite. Example of a mechanism which em-
ploys this aspect is a rock-crasher mechanism, (draw an illustration). A quite moderate
torque applied to input link generates a huge torque on the out put link to crash the
rock when β → 0.

3.3 Analytical methods for velocity analysis

Once an expression for position of a point or a link is obtained, it can be differentiated

with respect to time to get the velocity of the point or link.
For instance we earlier obtained an equation relating θ2 and θ4 for a four-bar linkage
using vector loop closure equation as,
K1 cos θ4 − K2 cos θ2 + K3 = cos(θ2 − θ4 )
K1 cos θ4 − K2 cos θ2 + K3 = cos θ2 cos θ4 + sin θ2 sin θ4
Where,
d
K1 = a
d
K2 = c

a2 −b2 +c2 +d2

K3 = 2ac

To obtain the velocity of the output link ω4 , we differentiate this equation with respect
to time.
dθ4 dθ2 dθ2 dθ4
(− sin θ4 )K1 − (− sin θ2 )K2 = − sin θ2 cos θ4 − sin θ4 cos θ2
dt dt dt dt
dθ2 dθ4
+ sin θ4 cos θ2 + sin θ2 cos θ4
dt dt
dθ2 dθ4
But dt
= ω2 and dt
= ω4 , then
−ω4 K1 sin θ4 + ω2 K2 sin θ2 = −ω2 sin θ2 cos θ4 − ω4 sin θ4 cos θ2 + ω2 sin θ4 cos θ2
+ωh4 sin θ2 cos θ4 i h i
−ω4 K1 sin θ4 + ω2 K2 sin θ2 = ω2 sin θ4 cos θ2 − sin θ2 cos θ4 + ω4 sin θ2 cos θ4 − sin θ4 cos θ2
−ω4 K1 sin θ4 + ω2 K2 sin θ2 = ω4 sin(θ2 − θ4 ) − ω2 sin(θ2 − θ4 )
h i h i
ω4 sin(θ2 − θ4 ) + K1 sin θ4 = ω2 sin(θ2 − θ4 ) + K2 sin θ2
h sin(θ
2 − θ4 ) + K2 sin θ2 i
ω4 = ω2 (3.22)
sin(θ2 − θ4 ) + K1 sin θ4
Similarly, the angular velocity of the coupler can be determined by differentiating equa-
tion,
K1 cos θ3 + K4 cos θ2 + K5 = cos θ2 cos θ3 + sin θ2 sin θ3 (3.23)
where;

47
 d
K1 = a
d
K4 = b

c2 −d2 −a2 −b2

K5 = 2ab

dθ3
with respect to time and making dt
= ω3 the subject of formula.

3.4 Tutorial 3
Q1 In the quick return mechanism shown in figure 3.18, the distance between the
fixed centers CB = 90mm, crank BA = 180mm, CD = 180mm and the rod
DE = 360mm with its center of gravity G, 90mm from D. If AB rotates at
120rev/min clockwise, find graphically using the velocity diagram method for the
given position the absolute linear velocity of G and the angular velocity of DE.
If the rod DE has a mass of 7kg and the radius of gyration about G is 120mm,
find the kinetic energy. Verify your answers using the instant center method.
(Ans : VG = 1.56m/s, ωDE = 3.16rad/s and Kinetic energy= 9J).
D

90 mm
E

B
A
60 0

Figure 3.18:

Q2 In the mechanism shown in figure 4.15, the crank DC is rotating clockwise at

100rev/min. If OA = 20mm, BC = 180mm and CD = 30mm, draw a velocity
diagram for the given position of the mechanism and hence determine the vertical
velocity of EF . (Ans : VEF = 0.122m/s)
F

E 45 0
D
A
50 mm
90 mm
180 mm

Figure 3.19:

48
Q3 In the mechanism shown in figure 3.20, the crank OA is rotating anticlockwise at
50rev/min. If AB = 60mm, all other links 80mm, DC is vertical, O is 100mm
to the left and 80mm below D, draw a velocity diagram for the given position of
the mechanism, and hence determine the absolute velocity of the slider C, and the
angular velocities of all the links in the mechanism. Verify your answers using the
instant center method.(Ans : VC = 0.032m/s, ωAB = 1.69rad/s, ωDB = 2.18rad/s,
ωBC = 2.18rad/s).
(ii )
D

45 0 B
O B
A

Figure 3.20:

Q4 In the mechanism in figure 3.21, the crank AB drives the bent link CDE by
means of a sliding block at B. AB = 120mm, CD = 90mm, DE = 450mm
and EF = 450mm. When the crank is horizontal as shown, and is rotating at
60rev/min anticlockwise, find the velocity of slider F and the angular velocity of
link CDE. (Ans : VF = 0.75m/s, ωCDE = 1.78rad/s).

180 mm
E A

270 mm
D
0
90

Figure 3.21:

49
Q5 Figure 3.22 shows a mechanism (Stephenson type1) with the following dimensions:
Ao Bo = Bo B = AB = DE = 205mm, CD = 100mm, AC = CB = 110mm
and Ao A = 50mm. It produces an oscillatory output with a dwell when the input
rotates at a constant speed. Calculate the absolute velocities of B, C, D and the
angular velocity of the output link ED when the crank Ao A makes an angle of
2250 with Ao Bo using the instantaneous center method. Point E is 50mm to the
right of point Bo and 150mm above Ao Bo .

E
C B

ω 2 = 100 rad / s 225 0

Ao Bo

Figure 3.22:

50
Chapter 4

Acceleration analysis

Once a velocity analysis is done, the next step is to determine the accelerations of all links
and points of interest in the mechanism or machine. The accelerations in mechanisms
can be found using different methods, such as,

(i) Graphical methods

(ii) Analytical methods

4.1 Definition of acceleration

Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity wrt time. Acceleration can be
angular (α) or linear (A), defined as,

dω
α= (4.1)
dt
and
dV
A= (4.2)
dt

Consider link P A in pure rotation in the xy plane. We need to determine the acceleration
of point P when the link is subjected to an angular velocity ω and an angular acceleration
α.
RP A can be represented as a complex number in polar form as;

RP A = peiθ (4.3)

which when differentiated wrt to time we get;

dRP A dθ
ṘP A = = pieiθ = iωpeiθ = iωRP A (4.4)
dt dt

51
 y
t
α
ω
APA

APA
P

RPA n
APA

θ
A
x
Figure 4.1: Acceleration of a link in pure rotation

Equation 4.4 can be differentiated wrt time to obtain an expression for acceleration of
point P .
d(pωieiθ )
AAP =
dt
dω dθ
= ieiθ p + pωi2 eiθ
dt dt
iθ 2 iθ 2
= ipe α + i pe ω
= iRP A α + i2 RP A ω 2 (4.5)
As seen in equation 4.5, there are two terms in the expression for acceleration,

• The first term which is multiplied by the constant complex operator i. Therefore
this component is at 900 to the original position vector, and is called the tangential
component of acceleration (AtAP ). The tangential component will be perpendicular
to the radius of rotation in a direction dictated by the angular acceleration (α) of
the link, and is thus tangential to the path of motion as shown in figure 4.1.
AtP A = RP A α (4.6)

• The second term which is multiplied by i2 or −1. This term is called the normal
or centripetal component of acceleration (AnP A ) and is directed towards the center
of rotation as shown in figure 4.1.
AnP A = RP A ω 2 (4.7)

Therefore the total acceleration AP A of point P is the sum of the tangential and cen-
tripetal components as shown in figure 4.1. AP A for this case can also be referred to as
the absolute acceleration AP of point P since it is referenced to point A which is the
origin of the coordinate system.

52
4.1.1 Relative acceleration

Consider a figure 4.2 in which link AP is in pure rotation and is joined to a block which
is in pure translation.

y α
t
A
ω
PA

APA
AP
P
RPA n t
APA
APA
n
APA

A θ AP APA

AA
AA

x
Figure 4.2: Acceleration difference

The absolute acceleration AP of point P if found using the acceleration difference equa-
tion as,

AP = AA + AP A (4.8)
(AtP + AnP ) = (AtA + AnA ) + (AtP A + AnP A ) (4.9)

4.2 Graphical acceleration analysis - Acceleration di-

agrams

To draw an acceleration diagram, we need three equations,

AP = AA + AP A
|At | = rα
|An | = rω 2

53
4.2.1 Four-bar linkage as a typical case

The linkage is shown in a particular position θ of the input in figure 4.3. Let ω2 and α2
be the angular velocity and acceleration of link 2, ω3 and ω4 the angular velocities of the
coupler link 3 and output link 4 respectively.
ω3 and ω4 can be obtained from a velocity diagram, or from instant center method.
The point A has two known components of acceleration:

• Tangential component AtA = α2 a perpendicular to link O1 A and in the direction

dictated by α2

• Normal component AnA = ω22 a in the radial direction towards O1

Similarly the point B considered as point on the link AB has two components of accel-
eration:

• Tangential component AtBA = α3 b perpendicular to link AB.

• Normal component AnBA = ω32 b in the direction towards A.

Similarly the point B considered as point on the link O2 B has two components of accel-
eration:

• Tangential component AtB = α4 c perpendicular to link O2 B.

• Normal component AnB = ω42 c in the radial direction towards O2 .

The vector equation (acceleration difference) for point B becomes,

AB = AA + ABA (4.10)
(AtB + AnB ) = (AtA + AnA ) + (AtBA + AnBA ) (4.11)

Equation 4.11 can be solved graphically by drawing an acceleration diagram using the
following procedure.

1. Starting from an arbitrary point o called a pole, draw the vector oa’ equal to
AnA = ω22 a in a direction parallel to link O2 A to correspond to the fact that the
radial direction is from A towards O1 .

2. From point a’ draw a vector a’a equal to AtA = α2 a perpendicular to vector oa’
to correspond to the fact that the tangential acceleration is perpendicular to link
O1 A. This locates point a, and then oa is the total acceleration of point A in the
linkage.

3. From a draw vector ab’ equal to AnBA = ω32 b in a direction parallel to link AB
towards A. This locates the point b’

54
 4. From point b’ draw a line perpendicular to ab’. The point b lies somewhere on
this line.

5. From the pole o draw the vector ob” equal to AnB = ω42 c in a direction parallel to
link BO2 and towards O2 to locate the point b”.

6. From point b” draw a line perpendicular to ob”, then also b lies somewhere on
this line.

7. Finally where the lines b’b and b”b intersect is the position for point b

B
b
A
ω3 c
α2
a
ω2 ω4

O2
O1
d

o
ω 32b a ω a
2
2
ω42c
b' α 2a a'
b"
α 3b
α 4c

Figure 4.3: Acceleration diagram of a four-bar linkage

Examples 3.5
Figure below shows one of the four-bar linkages used in shoe-stitching machine. For the
position shown calculate the angular acceleration of the output link BBo when the input
link AAo rotates at a constant speed of 500rev/min. Ao A = 40mm, AB = 100mm,
Ao Bo = 100mm, Bo B = 50mm and θ2 = −250 .
Solution: Before we draw the acceleration diagram we need the angular velocity ω3 of
the coupler link AB, and the angular velocity ω4 of the output link BBo . To obtain
these values lets use the velocity diagram method. Therefore we need to draw a velocity
diagram for the linkage at the given position.
Absolute velocity of point A is,
2π × 500
VA = ω2 Ao A = × 0.04 = 2.09m/s
60

55
From the velocity diagram drawn, angular acceleration of the coupler is,

VBA ab 3.54
ω3 = = = = 35.4rad/s
AB AB 0.1

Angular velocity of the output link is

VB ob 3.29
ω4 = = = = 65.8rad/s
Bo B Bo B 0.05

a
AAn
n
ABA
o
b'

ABn
t B
ABA

VA
VBA b' ' b
VB
ABt
o
Bo
Ao b

Figure 4.4:

56
The known acceleration components are,

(i) AnA = ω22 Ao A = 52.362 × 0.04 = 109.7m/s2 directed towards Ao . From a pole point
draw oa’

(ii) AtA = α2 Ao A = 0 since the crank is rotating at a constant velocity. Hence point a
coincide with a’.

(ii) AnBA = ω32 AB = 35.42 × 0.1 = 125.3m/s2 parallel to AB and directed towards A.
From point a draw ab’.

(iv) AnB = ω42 Bo B = 65.82 × 0.05 = 216.5m/s2 parallel to Bo B and directed towards
Bo . From the pole point draw ob’

The acceleration diagram is completed by locating point b. This is the point of inter-
sections of the lines drawn perpendicular from points b’ and b”. From the acceleration
diagram, the angular acceleration of the output link is,

AtB bb00 12.8

α4 = = = = 256rad/s2
Bo B Bo B 0.05

Also the angular acceleration of the coupler is,

AtBA bb0 234.6

α3 = = = = 2346rad/s2
AB AB 0.1

Examples 3.6
An engine mechanism shown in figure below has a crank CB = 100mm long, and the
connecting rod BA = 300mm long. The center of gravity G of the connecting rod is
100mm from B. In the position shown (< BCA = 1200 ), the crank has a speed of
25πrad/s and an angular acceleration of 400πrad/s2 both in the clockwise direction.
Find the velocity and acceleration of point G and angular velocity and acceleration of
AB.
Solution:Absolute velocity of point B is,

VB = ωCB BC = 25π × 0.1 = 7.85m/s

From the velocity diagram the velocity of point G is,

VG = cg = 6.92m/s

and the angular velocity of link AB is,

VAB ab 4.1
ωAB = = = = 13.67rad/s
AB AB 0.3

The known acceleration components are,

57
 2
(i) AnB = ωBC BC = (25π)2 × 0.1 = 616.9m/s2 directed towards C. From a pole point
draw cb’.

(ii) AtB = αBC BC = 400π × 0.1 = 125.7m/s2 perpendicular to BC. From point b0 , draw
vector b0 b perpendicular to cb0 .

(ii) AnAB = ωAB

2
AB = 13.672 × 0.3 = 46.1m/s2 parallel to AB and directed towards B.
From point b draw ba’.

The acceleration diagram is completed by locating point a. This is the point of intersec-
tion of the line drawn perpendicular from point a’ and a line parallel to line AC, which
represent the AtAB and the acceleration of the slider respectively.

B
G

A C
AC
a c

bg ab
t
AAB =
BG AB
ABn c VA a ab
g VAB ⇒ bg = .BG
AB
g
VB
b
b'
a'
A Bt n
b AAB

Figure 4.5:

58
From the acceleration diagram the acceleration of point G is,

AG = cg = 466.7m/s2

and the angular acceleration of link AB is,

AtAB ab 610
αAB = = = = 2033.3rad/s2
AB AB 0.3

Examples 3.7
In the mechanism shown below, D is constrained to move on a horizontal path. Find,
for the given configuration, the velocity and acceleration of point D and the angular
velocity and acceleration of BD when OC is rotating in a counter-clockwise direction at
a speed of 180rev/min, increasing at the rate of 50rad/s2 .

105mm OC = 180mm
BC = 360mm
O 45 0
AB = 240mm
BD = 540mm
B
360mm

A
D

Figure 4.6:

Solution:Absolute velocity of point C is,

2π × 180
VC = ωOC OC = × 018 = 3.39m/s
60

From the velocity diagram the velocity of block D is,

VD = ad = 2.05m/s

The angular velocity of link BD is,

VDB bd 2.4
ωBD = = = = 4.45rad/s
BD BD 0.54

The angular velocity of link AB is,

VB ab 2.75
ωAB = = = = 11.5rad/s
AB AB 0.24

59
The angular velocity of link BC is,

VBC bc 0.9
ωBC = = = = 2.5rad/s
BC BC 0.36

The known acceleration components are,

(i) AnC = ωOC

2
OC = (6π)2 × 0.18 = 63.96m/s2 directed towards O. From a pole point
draw oc’

(ii) AtC = αOC OC = 50 × 0.18 = 9m/s2 perpendicular to link OC. From point c’ draw
vector c0 c.

(ii) AnBC = ωBC

2
BC = 2.52 × 0.36 = 2.25m/s2 parallel to BC and directed towards C.
From point c draw cb’.

(iv) AnB = ωAB

2
AB = 11.52 × 0.24 = 31.7m/s2 parallel to AB and directed towards
A. From the pole point draw ob” NB. Point b is the intersection of lines drawn
perpendicular to vectors ob” and cb’ rooted at points b” and b’ respectively.

(v) AnDB = ωBD2

BD = 4.452 × 0.54 = 10.7m/s2 parallel to BD and directed towards
B. From point b draw vector bd’ NB. Point d is the intersection of line drawn
perpendicular to vectors bd’ rooted at d0 and the line drawn parallel to AD rooted
at pole point a.

60
 VBC
c b
VC VB

d o, a
VD o, a
d
C
b' '

b'
O c b
d'
c'

A D

Figure 4.7:

From the acceleration diagram the acceleration of the bloc D is,

AD = ad = 3.3m/s2

and the angular acceleration of link BD is,

AtDB d0 d 50.4
αBD = = = = 93.3rad/s2
BD BD 0.54

4.2.2 Acceleration of a block sliding on a rotating link: Coriolis

component of acceleration

Figure 4.8 shows block P sliding relative to the link AB which is in pure rotation. The
instantaneous location of the block is defined by a position vector RP which is both
rotating and changing length as the system moves.

61
 B

P
p ω,α
∗
p

RP

θ
A

Figure 4.8:

We want to determine the total acceleration at the center of the block P under this
combined motion of rotation and sliding. First we represent the the position vector RP
in complex polar form,
RP = peiθ
There are two functions of time in equation above, that is p and θ. Differentiating
equation above we get,
VP = pωieiθ + ṗeiθ (4.12)
First term (pω) is the transmission component and is perpendicular to the radius of
rotation, while the second term is the slip component and is directed along the axis of
slip.
Differentiating equation 4.12 with respect to time we get the total acceleration of point
P as,

AP = ipαeiθ + i2 pω 2 eiθ + iṗωeiθ + iṗωeiθ + p̈eiθ

= ipαeiθ + i2 pω 2 eiθ + 2iṗωeiθ + p̈eiθ (4.13)

These terms represent the following components of acceleration,

AP = Atangential
P + Anormal
P + Acoriolis
P + Aslip
P (4.14)

Therefore the coriolis component of acceleration is 2ṗω and is perpendicular to the radius
of rotation, and will always be present when there is a velocity of slip associated with any
member which has an angular velocity. When doing graphical acceleration analysis one
must be alert to recognize the presence of coriolis component, calculate it, and include
it in the acceleration diagram.

62
Examples 3.8
In the figure below, rod P R is constrained to move horizontally, and is driven by a
crank OA and a sliding block at P . For the given configuration determine graphically
the acceleration of rod P R when OA has an angular velocity of 5rad/s in a counter-
clockwise direction an angular acceleration of −35rad/s2 .

A
P R

3m

30 o

Figure 4.9:

Solution: Let P 0 be a point on the link OA which is coincident with the block P . First
draw the velocity diagram to determine, the sliding velocity of the block relative to link
OA.
Velocity of P 0 relative to O is
3
VP 0 = ωOA × OP 0 = × 5 = 17.32m/s
cos 300
Draw op’ = 17.32m/s and perpendicular to link OA.
The sliding velocity of point P relative to P 0 is parallel to link OA. From point p0 draw
a line parallel to OA. The velocity diagram is completed by drawing vector VP parallel
to link P R to locate point p at the point of intersection of the two last lines.
From the velocity diagram, the velocity of P relative to P 0 (the sliding velocity) is,

VP P 0 = p0 p = 10m/s

AnP 0 = OP 0 × ωOA
2
= 52 × cos3300 = 86.6m/s2 . From pole point o draw op00 = 86.6m/s2
parallel to OA and towards pivot O.
AtP 0 = αOA × OP 0 = 35 × 3
cos 300
= 121.2m/s2 . From point p00 draw p00 p0 = 121.2m/s2 to
locate point p0 .

63
There is a coriolis acceleration which is the acceleration of P relative to P 0 given by,

AcP P 0 = 2VP P 0 ωOP 0 = 2 × 10 × 5 = 100m/s2

From point p0 draw p0 p1 = 100m/s2 perpendicular to link OA.

Sliding acceleration of point P relative to P 0 (AP P 0 ) is parallel to link OA. From point
p1 draw a line parallel to link OA to intersect a line drawn from o parallel to link P R to
represent AP O . This locates point p.

A
P R
P'

p
o
p'

p VP o

p' ' p1
VPP '
VP '
p'

O
Figure 4.10:

From the acceleration diagram, acceleration of link P R is,

AP = op = 24.5m/s2

Examples 3.9
The end A of a bar AB is constrained to move along the vertical path AD and the bar
passes through a swivel bearing pivoted at C. Draw velocity and acceleration diagrams
for the given configuration when A has a velocity of 3m/s towards D and an acceleration
of 25m/s2 in the opposite direction, and hence determine,

(i) the acceleration and velocity of sliding of the bar through the swivel.

64
(ii) angular velocity and acceleration of link AB.

Solution: Let point C 0 be a point on the link AB which is coincident with swivel C.
Draw da = VAD = 3m/s parallel to AD and towards D. VC 0 A is perpendicular to link
AB and rooted at a. Sliding velocity VC 0 C is parallel to AB and rooted at C.
From the velocity diagram, the sliding velocity of the bar through the swivel is,

VC 0 C = cc0 = 1.5m/s

Angular velocity of the link AB is,

VC 0 A ac0 2.6
ωAB = = = = 5.63rad/s
AC AC 0.461

d,c A

c'

a
C
D
C'
B
Figure 4.11:

4.3 Tutorial 4
Q1 The end A of a bar AB is constrained to move along the vertical path AD and the
bar passes through a swivel bearing pivoted at C as shown in figure 4.12. Draw
velocity and acceleration diagrams for the given configuration when A has a velocity
of 3m/s towards D and an acceleration of 25m/s2 in the opposite direction, and
hence determine,

(i) the acceleration and velocity of sliding of the bar through the swivel. (Ans :
1.5m/s and 27.1m/s2 )
(ii) angular velocity and acceleration of link AB. (Ans : 5.63rad/s and 10.4rad/s2 )

65
 A

D 300 C

0.4m
B

Figure 4.12:

Q2 As shown in figure 4.13, a four-bar chain ABCD drives an arm EF through a slide
carried on a swivel at the mid-point of BC. The dimensions are AB = 30mm,
BC = 90mm, CD = 60mm and AD = 90mm. E lies on the perpendicular bisector
of AD at a distance 75mm from AD. If AB rotates clockwise at a constant speed
of 10rad/s, determine the angular acceleration of EF when B, A and D lie on a
straight line in the order given. (Ans : αEF = 19.3rad/s2 )

A D

Figure 4.13:

Q3 In the mechanism shown in figure 4.14 the link AB rotates clockwise with a uniform
angular velocity of 30rad/s. Determine the velocity and acceleration of point
G in link DE for the given configuration. The length of the various links are,
AB = 100mm, BC = 300mm, BD = 150mm, DE = 250mm, EF = 200mm,
DG = 167mm and angle CAB = 300 . (Ans : 0.6m/s and 66m/s2 )

66
 B
D
C

150mm
G

F
E

250mm

Figure 4.14:

Q4 In the mechanism shown in figure 4.15, the crank DC = 70mm is rotating clockwise
at a constant speed of 110rev/min. OA = 140mm long. Link AC = 260mm and
slides through a swiveling pin E at the lower end of rod EF which slides in vertical
guides as shown. At the position shown, find

(i) The angular velocity and acceleration of link AC. (Ans : 1.4rad/s and 31.4rad/s2 )
(ii) The linear velocity and acceleration of rod EF . (Ans : 0.45m/s and 2.36m/s2 )

E 45 0
D
A
50 mm
90 mm
180 mm

Figure 4.15:

67
Chapter 5

Power transmission systems in

machines

5.1 Introduction

Power transmission is defined as the transfer of energy from a source to an output device
that performs work.
In a power transmission system, the device that introduces energy into the system and
converts the energy into the appropriate form is called the prime mover.
Mechanical power in machines is commonly transmitted from the prime mover through
shafts which together with, belt-pulleys, chain-sprockets, clutches, and gears form the
power-drive systems in machines.
Power transmission components in machines can be categorized as those utilizing;

(a) Friction: Example, friction clutches, pulley and belts etc

(b) Positive mechanical engagement: Example, Gears, Chains and Sprockets, etc.

5.2 Friction

Some power transmission components in machines employ entirely the friction in their
operations.
Friction or force of friction can be defined as the force which opposes motion and always
acts in a direction opposite to the motion.
Types of friction include;

1) Static friction: Friction experienced by a body when at rest.

68
 2) Dynamic friction: Friction experienced by a body when in motion. Its also called
kinetic friction, and can be further classified into; sliding, rolling and pivot friction.

Friction may further be classified as;

1) Friction between unlubricated surfaces: Friction experienced between two dry or

unlubricated surfaces in contact. Its also called dry friction, and is the one respon-
sible in power transmissions.

2) Friction between lubricated surfaces.

5.2.1 Coefficient of Friction

According to Coulomb, the limiting friction (F) between two bodies is directly propor-
tional to the normal reaction (N) between the two bodies. Limiting friction is defined as
the maximum value of frictional force experienced by a body which just begins to slide
over the surface of another body.

F ∝ N
F = µN
F
µ =
N
Hence, coefficient of friction is defined as the ratio of the limiting friction to the normal
reaction between two bodies.

5.2.2 Angle of Friction

When motion is just about to begin on a body resting horizontally on another and under
action of a pulling force, the body will be in equilibrium under the action of three forces,
which are, the weight of the body, the applied force and the reaction between the bodies

Figure 5.1:

The resultant of friction force and normal force is represented as R and the angle between
N and R is termed as the angle of friction.

69
5.2.3 Motion on an inclined plane

Consider figure 5.2

Figure 5.2:

If a body of weight W rests on an incline plane, then;

• Component of W parallel to the plane is W sin α

• Component of W perpendicular to the plane is W cos α, which is the normal force
between the body and the plane.

Therefore for motion up the plane, we have;

P = W sin α + µW cos α

and for motion down the plane, we have;

P = W sin α − µW cos α

If the motion is produced by horizontal force P , then;

1. For motion up the plane;

Figure 5.3:

P = W tan(α + ψ)

2. For motion down the plane;

P = W tan(α − ψ)

70
 Figure 5.4:

5.3 Power Screw or Screw jack

Figure 5.5:

A screw jack is device used to lift heavy loads by applying a comparatively smaller effort
at its handle. The principle on which a screw jack operates is similar to that of moving
a load up or down an inclined plane by applying a horizontal force
Consider Figure 5.6;

Figure 5.6:

71
Raising the load using a screw jack

Consider figure below for the case of raising the load,

α
φ
R

P
p α +φ
R W
W
α

πd

Figure 5.7:

Therefore,
P = W tan(α + φ)

But from trigonometric identities,

tan α + tan φ
tan(α + φ) =
1 − tan α tan φ
Then,
h tan α + tan φ i
P =W
1 − tan α tan φ
Since tan φ = µ, then equation above becomes,
h tan α + µ i
P =W
1 − µ tan α

Lowering the load using a screw jack

Consider figure below for the case of lowering the load,

R

φ
α
P

P R
p α −φ
W
W
α

πd

Figure 5.8:

Therefore,
P = W tan(α − φ)

72
But from trigonometric identities,
tan α − tan φ
tan(α − φ) =
1 + tan α tan φ
Then,
tan α − tan φ i
h
P =W
1 + tan α tan φ
Since tan φ = µ, then equation above becomes,
h tan α − µ i
P =W
1 + µ tan α

Efficiency of a power screw

When raising the load, the efficiency of the screw is,

W ×p
η=
P × πd
But,
P = W tan(α + φ)
therefore,
W 1
=
P tan(α + φ)

Also,
p
= tan α
πd
Then the efficiency of the screw becomes,
tan α
η=
tan(α + φ)

Overhauling of a power screw

Overhauling of a power screw is the situation in which the screw reverses its motion
automatically when the effort is withdrawn.
Consider a power screw whose load W is lifted a distance x by an effort P which moves
a distance y in the same time.
Then work done against friction is,

U = Py − Wx

If the screw overhauls, then work done by the load in descending a distance x is W x,
and since there is no no effort applied, the work done against friction now is,

U = Wx

73
Therefore,

Wx = Py − Wx
P y = 2W x

Efficiency is,
Wx Wx 1
η = = = = 50%
Py 2W x 2
Thus a power screw overhauls if the forward efficiency is greater than 50%.
Example 5.7
The cutter of a broaching machine is pulled by a square threaded screw of 50mm mean
diameter and 10mm pitch. The operating nut takes the axial load of 400N on a flat
surface of 60mm and 90mm internal and external diameters respectively. If the coefficient
of friction is 0.15 for all the contact surfaces on the nut, determine the power required
to rotate the operating nut when the cutting speed is 6m/min.
Solution: When the tool is cutting, the screw is moving against the cutting force, Hence
the tangential force on the nut is;
h tan α + µ i
P =W
1 − µ tan α
where;

W = 400N
p 10
tan φ = πd
= 50π
= 0.0637

Torque required to overcome the thread load and friction;

Pd h tan α + µ i d
Tt = =W
2 1 − µ tan α 2
400 × 0.05 h 0.0637 + 0.15 i
= = 2.16N m
2 1 − 0.15 × 0.0637

Torque due to collar friction is;

Tc = µW R

Assuming the frictional force on the collar acts on the mean radius, then;
hr
o + ri i 0.15 × 400 × (0.045 + 0.03))
Tc = µW = = 2.25N m
2 2

Total torque required on the driving nut is;

T = Tt + Tc = 2.16 + 2.25 = 4.41N m

74
Speed of the nut;
6 6
N = rev/min = = 600rev/min
p 0.01

Therefore power to drive the nut is;

T 2πN 2π × 4.41 × 600
P = Tω = = = 277.1W
60 60

Example 5.8
A single start thread has a mean diameter of 60mm and a pitch of 12mm. The section
of the thread is ACME form having a total angle of 290 between the faces. If µ is 0.05,
calculate,

(a) The torque necessary to overcome an axial load of 30kN

(b) The efficiency of the thread.

Solution: Modification for ACME or V-threads

If the semi-angle of the thread is β, then the normal force acting on the thread as shown
in figure 5.9 is;
W
WN = = W sec β
cos β
where W is the load being overcome.

Figure 5.9:

Therefore the friction force is increased by a factor of sec β, so that the V-thread is
equivalent to a square thread which has an effective coefficient of friction of;

µ0 = µ sec β = 0.05 sec 14.50 = 0.05165

When raising the load;

h tan α + µ i
P =W
1 − µ tan α
where;

75
 W = 30000N N
p 12
tan φ = πd
= 600π
= 0.0637

Hence;
htan α + µ0 i
P = W
1 − µ0 tan α
30000(0.0637 + 0.05165)
= = 3471.9N
1 − 0.05165 × 0.0637

Torque required is;

Pd 3471.9 × 0.06
T = = = 104.2N m
2 2
Efficiency of the thread (for the case of lifting a load) is;
tan α
η= = 55%
tan(α + φ)

5.4 Belt and pulley drives

Belts are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys which
rotate at the same speed or at different speeds. The amount of power transmitted
depends on;

(a) Velocity of the belt

(b) The tension under which the belt is placed on the pulleys
(c) The angle of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley

Figure 5.10:

Generally, the power transmitted for a flat belt can be shown to be;
P = (T1 − T2 )v
T2
= T1 (1 − )v
T1
1
= T1 (1 − µθ )v (5.1)
e
76
Where T1 and T2 are the belt tensions at the tight and slack sides in N, v is speed of
the belt in m/s, θ is the angle of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley in rads
and µ is the coefficient of friction between the belt and the pulley.
T1
T1

T2
T2

Figure 5.11:

For effective power transmission, it should be noted that;

(a) The shafts should be properly in line to ensure uniform tension across the belt

(b) The pulleys should not be too close together in order to ensure that the angle of
contact on the smaller pulley is as large as possible

(c) The pulleys should not be too far from one another to cause the belt to weigh
heavily on the shafts.

(c) The tight side of the belt should be at the bottom so that the available sag at the
loose side will increase the angle of contact

Belt drives are usually classified into the following three groups;

(a) Light drives: These are used to transmit small power at belt speeds not exceeding
10m/s, such as in small machine tools, eg. hand drills.

(b) Medium drives: These are used to transmit medium power at belt speeds above
10m/s but not exceeding 22m/s, such as in machine tools, e.g. lathes, milling
machines, shapers, power saws etc

(c) Heavy drives: These are used to transmit large power at belt speeds above 22m/s,
such as in compressors, generators, production machines.

5.4.1 Initial tension in belts

Practically the belt-pulley drive is assembled with an initial tension, say Ti . When power
is being transmitted, the tension in the tight side increases from Ti to T1 , and on the
slack side decreases from Ti to T2 .

77
Assuming the belt material to obey Hooke’s law and its length to remain constant during
power transmission, then the increase in length of the tight side (δ1 ) is equal to the
decrease in length of the slack side (δ2 ), ie.

δ1= −δ2
(T1 − Ti )L (Ti − T2 )L
=
AE AE
T1 − Ti = Ti − T2
2Ti = T1 + T2
1
Ti = (T1 + T2 ) (5.2)
2

5.4.2 Materials of the belts

The material used for belts should be strong, flexible and durable, and must have a high
coefficient of friction. According to the material used, belts are classified as;

(a) Leather belts: They should be periodically cleaned and treated with a compound
containing oils to make the belt to always remain soft and flexible.

(b) Cotton or fabric belts: These are made by folding canvass or cotton duck to three
or more layers and then stitching them together. They are cheaper and suitable in
warm climates

(c) Rubber belts: Are made of layers of fabric impregnated with rubber layers at the
faces. They are very flexible but are destroyed by heat, oil or grease

(d) Balata belts: Similar to rubber belts, but balata gum is used instead of rubber.
They are acid and water proof, but they should never be used at temperatures
above 400 C since at these temperatures the balata will start to soften and become
sticky.

5.4.3 Types of belt drives

Power from one pulley to another can be transmitted through any of the following types
of belt drives;

(a) Open belt drive: Shafts are arranged parallel and rotating in the same direction as
shown in Figure 5.12.

(b) Crossed or twist belt drive: Shafts are arranged parallel and rotating in different
directions as shown in Figure 5.13. At a point where the belt crosses, it rubs
against each other and there will be excessive wear and tear. To avoid this, the
shafts should be placed at a maximum distance of 20b where b is the width of the
belt, and the speed of the belt should not exceed 15m/s.

78
 Figure 5.12:

Figure 5.13:

(c) Quarter turn belt drive: Also called right angle belt drive, and is used to drive
shafts which are inclined at right angles and rotating in the same direction shown
in Figure 5.14. Mostly a guide pulley is used to maintain the pulleys at right angle.

Figure 5.14:

(d) Belt drive with idler pulleys: A belt drive with idler pulley as shown in Figure 5.15
is used with shafts arranged in parallel and when an open belt drive cannot be
used due to small angle of contact on the smaller pulley. Its normally employed to
increase the velocity ratio and when the required belt tension cannot be obtained
by any other means. It can also be employed when motion is required to be
transmitted from one shaft to several shafts all arranged in parallel.

79
 Figure 5.15:

(d) Compound belt drive: Its used when power is required to be transmitted from one
shaft to another through several pulleys as shown in Figure 5.16.

Figure 5.16:

5.4.4 Velocity ratio in belt drives

Velocity ratio is defined as the ratio of velocity of the driven component to the velocity
of the driving component. In belt drives, its the ratio of velocity of driven pulley to the
velocity of driving pulley.
To derive the equation of velocity ratio in a belt drive with no belt slip, let d1 , d2 , N1 and
N2 be the diameter of the driving pulley, the diameter of the driven pulley, the speed of
the driving pulley in rev/min, and the speed of the driven pulley in rev/min respectively.
Therefore, the peripheral velocity of the belt on the driving pulley is;
πd1 N1
v1 =
60
and the peripheral velocity of the belt on the driven pulley is;
πd2 N2
v2 =
60

Since there is no belt slip, then;

v1 = v2

80
 πd1 N1 πd2 N2
=
60 60
N2 d1
=
N1 d2
Sometimes, power can be transmitted from one shaft to another through several pulleys
as shown in Figure below. Velocity ratio of pulley 1 and 2 is given as;
N2 d1
=
N1 d2
Velocity ratio of pulley 3 and 4 is given as;
N4 d3
=
N3 d4
which when multiplied we get;
N2 N4 d1 d3
× = ×
N1 N3 d2 d4
But since pulley 2 and 3 are keyed to the same shaft, then N3 = N2 and equation above
becomes;
N4 d1 d3
= ×
N1 d2 d4
Therefore it can be concluded that;
Nb Pa
=
Na Pb

where Nb is the speed of the last driven pulley, Na is the speed of the first driving pulley,
Pb is the product of diameters of the driving pulleys and Pa is the product of diameters
of the driven pulleys.

5.4.5 Slip of the belt

We have already determined the velocity ratio in the belt drive by assuming a firm
frictional grip between the belt and the pulley. But sometimes the frictional grip is
insufficient hence causing a forward motion of the driving pulley without carrying the
belt with it, and subsequently a forward motion of the belt without carrying the driven
pulley with it. This is called slip of the belt and is normally expressed in percentage.
The result of the belt slip is to reduce the velocity ratio of the drive system, and hence
since belt slippage is a common phenomenon in belt drives, then the a belt drive should
never be used where constant and definite velocity ratio is required.
Let s1 % be slip between pulley 1 and the belt and s2 % be slip between pulley 2 and the
belt.

81
Then velocity of the belt passing over pulley 1 per second is,
πd1 N1 πd1 N1 s1 πd1 N1 h s1 i
v = − × = 1−
60 60 100 60 100
Velocity of the belt passing over pulley 2 per second is,
πd2 N2 s2
= v−v×
60 100
πd1 N1 h s1 ih s2 i
= 1− 1−
60 100 100
πd1 N1 h s1 s2 s1 s2 i
= 1− − −
60 100 100 100 × 100
πd1 N1 h s1 + s2 i πd1 N1 h s12 i
= 1− = 1−
60 100 60 100
where s12 = s1 + s2 is the total percentage of belt slip on the drive. Therefore, the
velocity ratio when belt slip is considered is,
N2 d1 h s12 i
= 1−
N1 d2 100

For a compound belt drive, the velocity ratio when belt slip is considered can be shown
to be;
N4 d1 d3 h s12 ih s34 i
= 1− 1−
N1 d2 d4 100 100

Example

An engine running at 100rev/min drives a line shaft by means of a belt. The engine
pulley is 750mm diameter and the pulley on the line shaft is 450mm diameter. A 900mm
diameter pulley on the line shaft drives a 150mm diameter pulley keyed to a dynamo
shaft. Find the speed of he dynamo shaft when:

(a) There is no slip.

(b) There is a total slip of 2% at each drive.

82
Solution

Consider Figure 5.17

Figure 5.17:

(a) When no belt slip

The velocity of the output shaft (dynamo shaft) is

N4 d1 d3 700 × 900
= × = = 10
N1 d2 d4 450 × 150
N4 = 10N1 = 10 × 10 = 1000

Therefore, when there is no belt slip, the dynamo shaft rotates at 1500rev/min.
(a) When there is a total 2% belt slip on each drive
The velocity of the output shaft (dynamo shaft) is

N4 d1 d3 h s12 ih s34 i
= 1− 1−
N1 d2 d4 100 100
750 × 900 h 2 ih 2 i
= 1− 1− = 9.6
450 × 150 100 100
N4 = 9.6N1 = 9.6 × 100 = 960

Therefore, when there is a total 2% belt slip one each drive, the dynamo shaft rotates
at 960rev/min.

5.4.6 Length of the belt and the center distance of the pulleys

For an open belt drive, the length of the belt (L) can be related to the center distance
between the pulleys and the radii of the pulleys as;

(r1 − r2 )2
L = π(r1 + r2 ) + 2x +
x
where x is the distance between the centers of the pulleys, r1 is the radius of the larger
pulley and r2 is the radius of the smaller pulley.

83
 Figure 5.18:

For a crossed belt drive, the length of the belt (L) can be related to the center distance
between the pulleys and the radii of the pulleys as;

Figure 5.19:

(r1 + r2 )2
L = π(r1 + r2 ) + 2x +
x
where x is the distance between the centers of the pulleys, r1 is the radius of the larger
pulley and r2 is the radius of the smaller pulley. This expression is a function of (r1 + r2 ),
and hence its obvious that if the sum of the radii of the two pulleys is constant, then
the length of the belt required also remains constant provided that the center distance
remain unchanged.

Example

A shaft which rotates at a constant speed of 160rev/min is connected by belting to a

parallel shaft 720mm apart, which has to run at 60, 80 and 100rev/min. The smallest
pulley on the driving shaft is 40mm. By neglecting the belt thickness and slip, determine
the remaining radii of the two stepped pulleys for,

(a) a crossed belt drive.

(b) an open belt drive.

84
 Figure 5.20:

Solution

Its seen that N1 = N3 = N5 = 160rev/min; x = 720mm; N2 = 60rev/min; N4 =

80rev/min; N6 = 100rev/min and r1 = 40mm. Let r2 , r3 , r4 , r5 and r6 be the radii of
pulleys 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 respectively.

(a) For crossed belt

We know for pulley 1 and 2;
N2 r1
=
N1 r2
N1 160
r2 = × r1 = × 40 = 106.7mm
N2 60

For pulley 3 and 4;

N4 r3
=
N3 r4
N3 160
r4 = × r3 = × r3 = 2r3
N4 80

But for a crossed belt, if the center distance remains constant, then;

r1 + r2 = r3 + r4 = 40 + 106.7 = 146.7
r4 = 146.7 − r3

Therefore r3 = 48.9mm and r4 = 97.8mm

Similarly considering pulley 5 and 6, we get r5 = 56.4mm and r6 = 90.2mm

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 (b) For open belt
We know for pulley 1 and 2;
N2 r1
=
N1 r2
N1 160
r2 = × r1 = × 40 = 106.7mm
N2 60

For pulley 3 and 4;

N4 r3
=
N3 r4
N3 160
r4 = × r3 = × r3 = 2r3
N4 80
But for an open belt, if the center distance remains constant, then the length of
the belt also remains constant, that is;

(r2 − r1 )2 (r4 − r3 )2
L = π(r2 + r1 ) + 2x + = π(r4 + r3 ) + 2x +
x x
2
(106.7 − 40) (2r3 − r3 )2
= π(106.7 + 40) + 2(720) + = π(2r3 + r3 ) + 2(720) +
720 720
r3 = 49.3mm
r2 = 2 × 49.3mm = 98.6mm

Similarly considering pulley 5 and 6, we get r5 = 60mm and r6 = 96mm

5.5 Gear train systems

Belt slip is a common phenomenon and its effect is to reduce the velocity ratio of the
system. In precision machines where definite velocity ratio is of importance, the only
effective positive drive is by use of gears or toothed wheels.
A gear drive is also necessary when the distance between the the driver and follower is
very small.

Figure 5.21:

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The motion and power transmitted by gears is kinematically equivalent to that trans-
mitted by friction wheels or discs. Consider two plain circular wheels A and B mounted
on two shafts, having sufficient rough surfaces and pressing against each other as shown
in Figure 5.21(a). Let wheel A be keyed on the rotating shaft, and b be keyed on the
shaft to be rotated. Its seen that wheel A will rotate wheel B in the opposite direction.
Wheel B will be rotated by A if the tangential force exerted by A does not exceed the
maximum frictional force between the wheels, otherwise slipping will occur. Hence such
a drive is not a positive one. To avoid slippage, a number of projections called teeth as
shown in Figure 5.21(b) are provided on the periphery of wheel A to fit in the recesses
of wheel B.
Advantages of gear drives over belt and chain drives;

• Gear drive transmits exact velocity ratio since no slippage

• Gear drive can be used to transmit large power

• Gear drive has high efficiency

• Gear drive has reliable service

• Gear drive has compact layout, hence it consumes less space

Disadvantages of gear drives over belt and chain drives;

• The manufacture of gears requires special tools and equipment

• Any error in the cutting of gear teeth can cause vibrations and noise during oper-
ation

5.5.1 Classification of Gears

Gears can be classified according to the following;

(a) According to the position of axes of the shafts: The axes of the two shafts between
which the motion is to be transmitted by gears can be; parallel, intersecting or non-
intersection and non-parallel. For parallel shafts, two types of gears are employed;

(i) Spur gears: These gears have teeth which are parallel to the axis of the wheel
as shown in Figure 5.27.

Figure 5.22:

87
 Figure 5.23:

Figure 5.24:

(ii) Helical gears: These gears have teeth which are inclined at ana angle to the
axis of the wheel. These are further categorized as single helical gears or
double helical gears as shown in Figure 5.23.

For non-parallel shafts, two types of gears are employed;

(i) Spiral gears: Are used to transmit power in two non-parallel and non-intersecting
shafts, and are as shown in Figure 5.25.

Figure 5.25:

(ii) Bevel gears: Are types of spiral gears but are used to transmit power in two
shafts which are inclined at right angle as shown in Figure 5.26.

Figure 5.26:

(b) According to the peripheral velocity of the gears: Gears having velocity less than
3m/s are termed as low velocity gears, and gears having velocity between 3m/s

88
 and 15m/s are called medium velocity gears. If the velocity of the gears is more
than 15m/s then these gears are called high speed gears.

(c) According to the type of gearing: Gears can be external gears, internal gears,
rack-and-pinion gears or worm-and-wheel gears.

(i) External gears mesh externally with each other as shown in Figure 5.27. The
large of the gears is called the spur wheel while the smaller one is called the
pinion. Such gears rotate in opposite directions.

Figure 5.27:

(ii) Internal gears mesh internally with each other as shown in Figure 5.28. The
large of the gears is called the annular wheel while the smaller one is called
the pinion. Such gears rotate in the same direction.

Figure 5.28:

(iii) Rack and pinion: The gear on the shaft meshes external or internally with
the gears in a straight line as shown in Figure 5.29. The straight line gear is
called the rack while the circular gear is called the pinion.

Figure 5.29:

(iii) Worm and wheel: Worm gears are usually used when there is a need to transfer
motion between perpendicular shafts and a large transmission ratio is required
as shown in Figure 5.30. The screwlike thread is the worm while the circular
gear is the wheel.

89
 Figure 5.30:

5.5.2 Terms used in Gears

These terms ar illustrated in Figure 5.31

Figure 5.31:

(a) Pitch circle: This is an imaginary disc circle which by pure rolling action, would
transmit the same motion and torque as the actual gear.

(b) Pitch circle diameter: This is the diameter of the pitch circle. The size of a gear is
usually specified by the pitch diameter.

(c) Pitch point: Its a common point of contact between pitch circles of two meshing
gears

(d) Addendum: Its the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the top of
the tooth.

(e) Dedendum: Its the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the bottom
of the tooth.

(f) Addendum circle: Its the circle drawn through the top of the teeth and concentric
with the pitch circle.

(f) Dedendum circle: Its the circle drawn through the bottom of the teeth and con-
centric with the pitch circle. Also is called root circle.

90
(g) Circular pitch: Its the distance measured on the circumference of the pitch circle
from a point of one tooth to the corresponding point on the next tooth. Its usually
denoted as pc and is mathematically represented as;
πD
pc =
T
where D is the pitch circle diameter and T is the number of teeth on the gear. Two
gears will mesh together correctly if they have the same circular pitch, therefore;
πD1 πD2
pc = =
T1 T2
D1 T1
=⇒ =
D2 T2
(h) Diametral pitch: Its the ratio of number of teeth to the to the pitch circle diameter
in millimeters. Its usually denoted as pd and is mathematically represented as;
T
pd =
D
(i) Diametral pitch: Its the ratio of pitch circle diameter in millimeters to the to the
number of teeth. Its usually denoted as m and is mathematically represented as;
D
m =
N
(j) Clearance: Its the radial distance from the top of the tooth of one gear to the
bottom of the tooth of the other gear in a meshing gear. A circle passing through
the top of the meshing gear is called clearance circle.
(k) Total depth: Its the radial distance between the addendum and dedendum circles
of a gear. Its equal to the sum of addendum and dedendum.
(l) Working depth: Its the radial distance between the addendum circle and the the
clearance circle.
(m) Total thickness: Its the width of a tooth measured along the pitch circle.
(n) Total space: its the width of space between the two adjacent teeth measured along
the pitch circle.
(o) Backlash: Its the difference between the tooth space and the tooth thickness. The-
oretically, the backlash should be zero, but in actual sense some backlash must be
allowed to prevent jamming of the teeth due to tooth errors or thermal expansion.
(p) Face of the tooth: Its the surface of the gear tooth above the pitch circle.
(q) Flank of the tooth: Its the surface of the gear tooth below the pitch circle
(r) Tooth profile: Its the curve formed by the face and flank of the tooth. Normal
involute or cycloidal profiles are employed.
(s) Pressure angle: its the angle between the common normal to two gear teeth at the
point of contact and the common tangent at the pitch point. Its usually denoted
as φ and the standard pressure angles are 14.50 and 200 .

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5.5.3 Gear Materials

The gears may be obtained may be manufactured from metallic or non-metallic materials
The metallic gears are usually made of;

• Cast iron: is widely used due to its good wearing properties, excellent machinability
and ease of producing complicate shapes through casting method

• Steel: Is used for high strength gears. Steel gears are normally heat treated in
order to combine properly the toughness and tooth hardness

• Bronze: Is widely used for worm gears in order to reduce wear of the worm which
will be excess be excess with cast iron or steel.

Non-metallic materials such as wood, nylon among others are used to make gears in
order to reduce noise.

5.5.4 Gear Trains

Two or more gears are sometimes made to mesh with each other. Such a combination is
called the gear train. The nature of gear train used depends upon the velocity ratio and
the relative position of the axes of shafts.
Depending on the arrangement of the gears, there are four types of gear trains: Simple
gear trains, Compound gear trains, Reverted gear trains and Epicyclic gear trains.

Simple Gear Trains

When there is only one gear on each shaft as shown in Figure 5.32, the arrangement is
called simple gear train.

Figure 5.32:

Let D1 , T1 and N1 be the pitch diameter, number of teeth and the speed of the driving
gear respectively, and D2 , T2 and N2 be the pitch diameter, number of teeth and the

92
speed of the driven gear respectively. The peripheral speed at the point of contact in
meshed gears is the same hence;
πD1 N1 πD2 N2
v = =
60 60
Therefore the velocity ratio which is the ratio of speed of driven gear to the speed of
driving gear is;
N2 D1
=
N1 D2
but it has been shown that for gears to mesh the properly;
D1 T1
=
D2 T2
Sometimes the distance between the shafts can be large. In this case power can be
transmitted by providing for large sized gears or by providing one or several intermediate
gears, but the latter is the economical and convenient solution. No matter how many
intermediate gears are used, it can be shown that the velocity ratio remains as the ratio
of the number of teeth on the driver to the number of teeth on the driven gear.
The intermediate gears are also called idler gears and are used for the following purposes;

(a) To connect gears where there is a large center distance between the driving and
driven shafts

(b) To obtain a desired direction of the driven shaft.

Compound Gear Trains

When there is more than one gear in a shaft as shown in Figure 5.33, the arrangement
is called compound gear train.

Figure 5.33:

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In the compound gear train shown in Figure 5.33, gear 1 is the driving gear mounted on
shaft A, gears 2 and 3 are compound gears mounted on shaft B, gears 4 and 5 are also
compound gears mounted on shaft C and gear 6 is the driven gear mounted on shaft D.
Since gear 1 and 2 are in mesh, therefore the velocity ratio is;
N2 T1
=
N1 T2

Similarly since gear 3 and 4 are in mesh, therefore the velocity ratio is;
N4 T3
=
N3 T4

Similarly since gear 5 and 6 are in mesh, therefore the velocity ratio is;
N6 T5
=
N5 T6

Therefore;
N6 N4 N2 T5 T3 T1
× × = × ×
N5 N3 N1 T6 T4 T2
But N4 = N5 and N2 = N3 , hence the overall velocity ratio of the train is;
N6 T5 T3 T1
= × ×
N1 T6 T4 T2

Example

The gearing of a machine tool is shown in Figure 5.34. The motor shaft is connected
to gear A and rotates at 975rev/min. Gears B, C, D and E are fixed to parallel shafts
rotating together, while the final gear F is fixed on the output shaft. Calculate the speed
of the output shaft if the number of teeth on the gears are: TA = 20, TB = 50, TC = 25,
TD = 75,TE = 26 and TF = 65.

Figure 5.34:

94
Solution

For the compound gear train, the velocity ratio is;

NF TA TC TE
= × ×
NA TB TD TF
20 25 26
= × ×
50 75 65
NF = 52rev/min

The advantage of compound gear train compared over a simple gear train is that a much
larger speed reduction from the first shaft to the last shaft can be achieved with small
gears.

Reverted Gear Trains

When the axis of the first gear (first driver) and the last gear (last driven) are coaxial
as shown in Figure 5.35, then such a compound gear train is termed as a reverted gear
train.

Figure 5.35:

These gear trains are widely employed in automotive transmission, lathe gears, industrial
speed reducers and in clocks (where the minute and hour hand shafts are coaxial)

95