Chapter 4 Thermal Radiation

4.1 Introduction
1. Radiation can be viewed either in terms of electromagnetic waves
or transport of photons.
2.
(1) nonparticipating medium: outer space and atmospheric air over
short distances.
(2) participating medium: combustion gases containing H2O and
CO2 gases containing aerosols such as dust shoot and small liquid
droplets. In the case of a participating gas species, the emissivity and
absorptivity depend strongly on temperature.

4.2 The Physics of Radiation

4.2.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
All matter continuously emits electromagnetic radiation, which

travels through a vacuum at the speed of light, 3.0 × 108 m/s.

c =ν f λ (4-1)

where λ is the wave length, usually in microns (µm), and νf is the

frequency. A photon’s energy is equal to
E = hν f

where h = 6.626 × 10 − 34 J is called the Planck’s constant. Figure 4.1

shows the electromagnetic spectrum. It is noted that thermal radiation is
only a part of it.

Fig. 4.1 The electromagnetic spectrum. (From Mills)

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Surface and Volumetric Phenomena
Surface phenomena: For most solids and liquids, radiation emission
and absorption can be regarded as surface phenomena.
Volumetric phenomena: For gas mixtures and semi-transparent
liquids or solids, the absorption is weak and emission can originate from
anywhere inside the body.

6.2.2 The Black Surface

Appear ‘black’ or ‘not black’: There are many surfaces that absorb
nearly all incident thermal radiation (hence close to a black surface) but
do not appear black, because these surfaces reflect sufficient radiation in
the visible range. Examples are ceramics such as aluminum or
magnesium oxides. On the other hand, some surfaces that appear black to
the eye may reflect radiation outside the visible range.

Fig. 4.2 Monochromatic emissive power of a black surface at various

temperatures. (From Mills.)

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Ebλ Monochromatic Emissive Power for a Black Surface

c1λ− 5
Ebλ = c 2 / λT
(4.2)
e −1

where c1 = 3.742 × 108 W-µm4/m2, and c2 = 1.4389 × 10 4 µm-K. The

above equation is the Planck’s law. Based on Planck’s law, the Wien’s
displacement law can be derived, which is

λmaxT = 2898 µm-K (4.3)

where λmax is the peak wavelength. Wien’s law explains the change in
color of a surface from red to white as it is heated, as shown in Fig. 4.2.

Total Emissive Power for a Black Surface

The Stefan-Boltzmann law says that the total emissive power for a black
surface Eb is
Eb = σT 4 (4.4)

where σ = 5.67 × 10 − 8 W/m2-k4, the Stefan-Boltzmann constant. This

result was first proposed by Stefan based on experimental data. It can also
be derived by integrating Planck’law with respect to λ from 0 to ∞ .

4.2.3 Real Surface

As shown in Fig. 4.3, the incident radiation energy, q, is equal to

q = ρq + αq + τq
or
ρ + α +τ =1 (4.5)

For an opaque (not transparent) surface, τ=0, we have

ρ + α =1

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In the above equations, ρ, α, and τ denote, reflectance (reflectivity),
absorptance (absorptivity), and transmittance (transmissivity),
respectively.

Fig. 4.3 Incident radiation energy on a real surface.

Let ε be total emittance (emissivity) of a real surface as the ratio of

its emissive power to that of a black surface at the same T. Then, the
following relationship holds:
E
ε= or E = εEb (4-6)
Eb

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 Fig. 4.4 A convex body placed in an enclosure and allowed to reach
equilibrium.

If an object of surface area A and absoptance α is placed in an enclosure

and allowed to come to equilibrium at same temperature T, as illustrated
in Fig. 4.4, then we have

[absorbed power]=[emissive power]

That is

αAσT 4 = εAσT 4
or
α=ε (4−7)

This equation is valid when the surface is at the same temperature as the
enclosure. In general, α and ε vary weakly with temperature. So, it is
convenient to define a gray surface for which α=ε. Most real surfaces can
be modeled as gray surfaces, except for the problem involving solar
radiation (as in P. 572, table 6.3).

4.3 Radiation Exchange between Surfaces (Shape Factor or View Factor)

The following analysis is based on the diffuse gray surface model.
4.3.1 Radiation Exchange between Black Surfaces

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Fig. 4.5 A convex black body of surface area A1 at temperature T1 placed
in a black enclosure at temperature T2.

As shown in Fig. 4.5, we have

Q&12 = A1σT14 − A1σT24 = A1σ (T14 − T24 ) (4-8)

where Q&12 is the net rate of heat transfer from 1 (the object) to 2 (the

enclosure). Q&12 is also called the net radiant energy change. When both
surfaces 1 and 2 are large, such as two parallel walls facing each other,
A2=A1=A, we have

Q&12 / A = σT14 − σT24 = σ (T14 − T24 ) (4-9)

Radiation Exchange between Two Finite Black Surfaces

When we consider energy exchange between two finite black

surfaces, only part of the radiation leaving surface 1 is intercepted by
surface 2 and vice versa, as shown in Fig. 4.6. Let F12 be the shape factor
(or view factor) as the fraction of energy leaving A1 that is intercepted by
A2. Similarly, F21 denotes the shape factor (or view factor) as the fraction
of energy leaving A2 that is intercepted by A1. It should be noted that the
view factor depends only on the size, shape, and orientation of the
surfaces. Then the net rate of heat transfer from 1 to 2 is the portion of the
radiation leaving surface 1 and being intercepted by surface 2 minus the
portion of the radiation leaving surface 2 and being intercepted by surface
1. Therefore, we have

Q&12 = F12 Eb1 A1 − F21Eb 2 A2 (4-10)

If both surfaces are at the same temperature, it requires that

Eb1 = σT14 = Eb 2 = σT24 and Q&12 = 0

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Hence we get

Q&12 = F12 A1 − F21 A2 = 0

or
F12 A1 = F21 A2 (4.11)

The above equation is called the reciprocal rule for shape factors. Since
the shape factor depends only on geometry, the above relationship is valid
even when T1 is unequal to T2. Therefore, Eq. (4.10) reduces to

Q&12 = A1F12 ( Eb1 − Eb 2 ) = A1F12 (σT14 − σT24 )

Example 4.1 (Example 6.1 in Mills): To be mentioned in class.

Fig. 4.6 Radiation Exchange between Two Finite Black Surfaces.

4.3.2 Shape factors and Shape Factor Algebra

The evaluation of shape factors and shape usually need to use surface

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double integrals. It is rather complicated. Therefore the shape factors for a
number of typical cases were constructed, as shown in Table 4.1.

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91
Consider the case shown in Fig. 4.7. The following equation holds.

n
∑ Fij = 1
j =1

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 Fig. 4.7

Also for the case in Fig. 4.8, it is straightforward to see that

F1( 2 + 3) = F12 + F13

or
F13 = F1( 2 + 3) − F12

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 Fig. 4.8

Example 4.2: To be mentioned in class.

4.3.3 Electrical network analogy for Black surfaces

For two black surfaces at different temperatures, T1 and T2, we have

Q&12 = A1F12 ( Eb1 − Eb 2 ) = A1F12 (σT14 − σT24 )

Alternatively,
E − Eb 2
Q&12 = b1
1 / A1F12
In general, we have

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 Ebi − Ebj
Q& ij =
1 / Ai Fij

where Eb, Q& , and Rij denote the potential, thermal current, and the space
radiation resistance, respectively. For the case at steady state in Fig. 4.9 as
an example, we have the following equation

E − Eb 3 & E − Eb 2 Eb1 − Eb 2
Q&13 = b1 = Q32 = b3 =
1 / A1F13 1 / A3 F32 1 / A1F13 + 1 / A3 F32

Since A1=A2=A3=A, and F13=F32=1, so we have

A( Eb1 − Eb 2 )
Q&13 = Q& 32 = Q&1 =
2

The plate 3 is called radiation shield for reducing the radiant energy
loss.

Fig. 4.9

In general for m black shields, we have

& Eb1 − Eb 2 σT14 − σT24

Q1 / A = =
m +1 m +1

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 Next, consider an enclosure of n black surfaces. We have the
following result.

n
Q& i = ∑ Ai Fij ( Ebi − Ebj )
j =1

where Q&i is the net radiant energy leaving surface i or radiation heat
transfer from surface i. For example, as shown in Fig. 4.10, we have

E − Eb 2 Eb1 − Eb3
Q&1 = Q&12 + Q&13 = b1 +
1 / A1F12 1 / A1F13

Fig. 4.10

Example 4.3: To be mentioned in class.

4.3.4 Radiation Exchange between Two Diffuse Gray Surfaces

The derivation in this section is quite length. Here we just present the
results.

~
Q&12 = A1F12 (σT14 − σT24 )

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 ~ ~
where F12 is termed the transfer factor. The expressions for F12 are
summarized in Table 4.2.

Example 4.4: to be mentioned in class.

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