PAGE

101

Part 4 Foundations

Chapter 4.6
Vibratory ground improvement techniques
 4.6 Vibratory ground improvement techniques

CONTENTS SCOPE

DESIGN Clause Page This Chapter gives guidance on meeting the Technical
Requirements and recommendations for vibratory ground
Design standards D1 1
improvement techniques.
Statutory requirements and other D2-D3 1
standards
Hazardous ground D4 1
Notification D5 1
Desk Study & Site investigation D6 1
Suitability of ground conditions D7 1
Confirmation of suitability of proposed D8 2
treatment
Compatibility of layout and design for the D9 2
treated ground
4.6

MATERIALS
Materials standards M1 4
Stone fill M2 4
Granular material M3 4

SITEWORK
Sitework standards S1 4
Site supervision S2 4
Verification of completed treatment S3-S4 4-5

APPENDIX 4.6-A
Soil classification chart 6
Vibratory techniques 7

APPENDIX 4.6-B
Materials for use as fill 8

INDEX 8

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 Vibratory ground improvement techniques 4.6
specialist contractor responsible for the for comparison with post treatment
DESIGN STANDARDS vibratory ground improvement techniques. properties should be established
4.6 - D1 Design shall meet the Technical • the extent and nature of any areas of
Details of ground hazards to be taken into
Requirements filled ground on the site, including:
consideration are given in Chapters:
- the proportions and distribution of
Design that follows the guidance below will 4.1 ‘Land quality - managing ground
constituent materials
be acceptable for foundations on ground conditions’
- the state of compaction of the fill
improved by vibratory techniques. 4.2 ‘Building near trees’
material throughout its depth
- the grading and particle size
NOTIFICATION
STATUTORY distribution of fill materials
- the potential for gas generation from
REQUIREMENTS AND 4.6 - D5 NHBC shall be notified before
fill materials
work starts on site
OTHER STANDARDS NHBC Rules state: “If a Home is to be
- the potential for spontaneous
combustion of fill and/or natural
4.6 - D2 Design shall comply with constructed on a Hazardous Site you (the
deposits
statutory requirements Builder) must before making Application
• the presence and extent of any existing
for Inspection notify the NHBC in writing
Design should be in accordance with or redundant services and drains, and
of the particular hazards which arise. You
relevant Building Regulations and other what information is available regarding
(the Builder) must do this at least 8 weeks
statutory requirements. the extent and nature of the backfill to
before work begins on the site.” Early

4.6
the excavations
4.6 - D3 Design shall follow relevant involvement of the specialist contractor
• the effect that any sustainable drainage
Standards and Codes of Practice and NHBC is encouraged.
system (SUDS) may have on the
Relevant British Standards, Codes of geotechnical parameters of the site
Practice and authoritative documents DESK STUDY AND SITE • the presence, level and nature of any
include:
INVESTIGATION ground water, and if it is likely to rise and
BS 10175 Investigation cause heave or collapse by saturation
of potentially 4.6 - D6 The Engineer shall ensure that • whether the site has been previously
contaminated sites - a desk study and site investigation are occupied by any structure, and whether
Code of practice commissioned and the interested parties these structures have left any potential
are advised underground obstructions or hardspots,
BS EN 1991 Actions on structures
The site investigation should take account of: eg basement walls, floor slabs etc
BS EN 14731 Execution of special • whether there are any contaminated
BS 10175 Investigation
geotechnical works. substances or gases present or
of potentially
Ground treatment suspected.
contaminated sites -
by deep vibration
Code ofpractice
BS EN 1997-1 General rules The Specialist Contractor should be
BS EN14731 Execution of special
BS EN 1997-2 Ground investigation satisfied that the site investigation
geotechnical works.
and testing provides adequate and representative
Ground treatmentby
information in order to design the
BS EN ISO 14688 Geotechnical deep vibration
ground improvements. The results of the
investigation and BS EN1997-2 Groundinvestigation and investigation should be sent to NHBC prior
testing- Identification testing to the commencement of the work.
and classification of soil
BS ENISO 14688 Geotechnical
BS EN ISO 14689 Geotechnical investigation and SUITABILITY OF GROUND
investigation and testing- Identification
testing- Identification andclassification of soil
CONDITIONS
and classification of 4.6 - D7 The ground shall be suitable for
BS ENISO 14689 Geotechnical
rock vibratory ground improvement
investigationand testing-
BS EN ISO 22476 Geotechnical Identification and
investigation and The Engineer should assess the ground
classificationof rock
testing- Field testing and be satisfied that it is suitable for
BS EN ISO 22476 Geotechnical treatment. Vibratory ground improvement
BR 391 Specifying vibro stone investigationand testing- techniques suitable for various ground
columns Field testing conditions are detailed in Appendix 4.6-A.
ICE Specification for Ground Treatment BR391 Specifying vibro stone
Items to be taken into account include:
columns
(a) ground conditions acceptable for
HAZARDOUS GROUND Chapter 4.1 ‘Land quality - managing treatment
ground conditions’ Conditions acceptable for treatment are
4.6 - D4 The design of foundations shall
only those within zones A and B of the
be undertaken by an Engineer and take The desk study and site investigation chart shown in Appendix 4.6-A.
account of the characteristics of the should at least determine:
site, its ground and any hazards • the depths and properties of the natural (b) ground conditions not generally
The foundation design should be carried materials under the site, including the acceptable fortreatment
out by an Engineer experienced with presence of caves, workings, or natural The following ground conditions are not
ground improvement techniques in phenomena such as rocks or soils which generally acceptable for treatment:
accordance with Technical Requirement R5 dissolve or erode when exposed to the
- see Chapter 1.1. passage of water. The Engineer should
establish the scope of, and supervise,
In this Chapter, the term “Engineer” means the site investigation, taking account
an engineer who is independent of the of the findings of the desk study. Data

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 4.6 Vibratory ground improvement techniques

• soft clays with an undrained shear should be satisfied as to the anticipated adjacent
new
building
strength less than 30kN/m2 (Note; performance of both the treated building

for clay strengths less than 30kN/ and untreated zones. The Specialist
m2 additional consideration has to be Contractor should take responsibility
given to group effects, ground heave for the treated zone and the decision as raised water level
stone column
and settlement due to installation and to the depth of treatment
the proposal will be subject to NHBC • the minimum depth of soil treated
original water level
agreement) should allow for the interaction of
• ground with peat layers close to adjacent foundations wet process
foundation level or the base of the
house A house B
stone column, or where intermediate • surface water sewers should be used for
layers of peat are thicker than 200mm rainwater disposal where possible,
either as a single layer or the sum of but where soakaways are necessary,
the thicknesses of individual layers these should be positioned so that
throughout the length of the stone their construction and operation is not
column detrimental to the treated ground
• voided filled ground, eg old water tanks, • the effect of any new or existing
pottery, glass bottles, concrete rubble or sustainable drainage systems (SUDS)
brick fill of unsuitable grading should be taken into account when
4.6

• any loose or non-engineered fill not interaction of vibro improvement techniques are
adjacent foundations
previously subject to: proposed
- rising or fluctuating water levels • stone columns may form vertical drains • soils with a modified Plasticity Index of
- saturation allowing the passage of water to a 10% or greater should have foundations
• filled ground still settling or expected to moisture susceptible strata, or provide designed to accommodate volume
settle: seepage paths for gases changes, and the depth of concrete
- under its own weight or due to the foundation should be in accordance with
effects of surcharging/upfilling Chapter 4.2 ‘Building near trees’.
- where there is a high organic content
- where decay is continuing
settlement
of fill

layers with
high organic
content

• fill, containing degradable material

where organic material forms more than
15% of fill by volume
• highly contaminated ground, eg toxic stone column acting
as soakaway depth in accordance
waste, or where inflammable, explosive with Chapter 4.2

or toxic gas generation will take place • obstructions and variations in the
(stone columns may act as vertical vents). density of fill and natural ground (hard
Note: Consideration will be given to spots)
proprietary systems which do not permit • alterations to the oversite level before or
CONFIRMATION OF
vertical venting (e.g. vibro concrete plug after treatment or disturbance of SUITABILITY OF
technology) ground by excavations after treatment PROPOSED TREATMENT
• the location of changes in the profile of
the natural underlying ground eg edges 4.6 - D8 The builder shall obtain written
of pits or quarries, slopes, or manmade confirmation from the Engineer and
obstructions such as soakaways or Specialist Contractor that the site
drainage runs is suitable for the proposed ground
• long term lowering of water table improvement system
stone column acting as vent causing settlement of existing adjacent Confirmation that the site is suitable for
for dangerous gases
buildings the proposed system should be made
available to NHBC prior to commencement
adjacent new of the work.
building building
The Engineer and Specialist Contractor
should agree the following in writing
before work commences on site:
stone column
• design objectives
• clays with a plasticity index greater than original water level • a detailed schedule of work
40% • a programme of work
• highly sensitive soils liable to collapse or • what tests are to be carried out on
remoulding depressed water level completion of the work
dry process
• responsibility for procedures and tests.
(c) detrimental factors • short term rise in local water table due
For details of tests see Sitework clause S3.
Factors to be considered include the to large volumes of water used in wet
following: process during construction causing The following should also be taken into
• where partial depth treatment of filled settlement or heave of existing adjacent account:
ground is proposed, the Engineer buildings

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 Vibratory ground improvement techniques 4.6
• the layout and depth of the stone (d) suitable foundation types
columns and the accuracy to be The following criteria should be
achieved (see Sitework clause S2) incorporated in the foundation design to
• what factors of safety have been ensure the compatibility and overall
incorporated into the design to allow for stability of the foundations and
unforeseen contingencies superstructure:
• the criteria for non acceptance of the • only two types of foundations are
vibrating poker work suitable, both of which should comply
• what calculations and case histories are with the minimum criteria for areas of
required to justify the ground reinforcement as defined in BS EN 1992-
improvement proposals together 1-1. They are:
with the layout of the stone columns and - reinforced concrete strip foundation
details of the equipment and process to
be used on site.
• advise and discuss design criteria with
These written agreements should be made NHBC at the design stage.
available to NHBC before work commences
on site. (b) limitations of ground support
reinforced concrete
The Engineer should: strip foundation

4.6
COMPATIBILITY OF • establish the likely limits of ground
- reinforced concrete raft or semi-raft
movement
LAYOUT AND DESIGN FOR • allow for ground movement in the foundation positioned on a uniformly
compacted bed of hardcore
THE TREATED GROUND design, including where appropriate:
- position and spacing of movement
4.6 - D9 Design shall ensure that joints raft or
site layout and dwelling design are - flexibility of masonry mortars
semi-raft
foundation
compatible with the treated ground - masonry reinforcement.
Items to be taken into account include:
(a) limitations of the treated ground • for both types of foundation, top
brick reinforcement
The Engineer should: and movement and bottom reinforcement should be
joints in walls
• undertake discussion with the Specialist if required provided
Contractor to confirm the feasibility of • the depth of foundations to be a
proposals minimum of 600mm below the surface
• determine the loads to be imposed by of the treated ground, and founded
the buildings and assess against the on firm material of adequate bearing
results of the site investigation capacity
• confirm the required load/settlement (c) drainage and service trenches • where the treated ground is of a
performance of the treated ground The Engineer should consider the influence granular nature, a reinforced concrete
of drainage and other service trenches on strip foundation will normally be
structural load
the stability of the complete design (see acceptable provided that the full depth
from design Sitework clause S4). of all fill material is treated
• if the treated ground is of a cohesive
nature, a suitably designed raft,
semi-raft or reinforced concrete strip
foundation will normally be acceptable
• the reinforced concrete foundation
should be designed to span between
the centres of adjacent stone columns
ground bearing capacity unless a more rigorous structural
and settlement potential
analysis is carried out to show that an
• consider limitations of the configuration 45º alternative detail is acceptable
of the dwellings: • if partial depth treatment of filled
- T-block and L-block vulnerable at ground is proposed then a suitably
junctions designed reinforced concrete raft
- vulnerability of long blocks or semi-raft foundation should be used
excavation and
• avoid siting buildings in locations where drain/service • if during excavations for foundations in
major changes in ground conditions can trenches should
be above 45º line treated ground it is found that excessive
be expected depths of concrete are required, then
precautions should be taken to ensure
overall stability of the foundations, and
the Engineer should be satisfied that
construction of the foundation will not
be detrimental to the treated ground.

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 4.6 Vibratory ground improvement techniques

(e) use of suspended ground floors GRANULAR MATERIAL • the minimum required depth of the
Suspended ground floors should be stone columns is achieved, and they are
provided for all dwellings where vibratory 4.6 - M3 Granular material for raising correctly located. The Builder should
ground improvement has been carried site levels before treatment or adding provide sufficient profiles to enable
out unless the Engineer can substantiate during deep compaction shall: locations to be checked
an alternative solution that is acceptable (a) be free from hazardous materials • the stone columns are located either
to NHBC. unless appropriate precautions are centrally under the foundations they
taken, and are to support or in the predetermined
(f) notice to NHBC (b) be suitable for compaction staggered arrangement, at a maximum
Notice of the proposed development of 2 metres centre to centre and at
The appropriate precautions to be taken
should be forwarded to NHBC. the intersection of adjacent reinforced
where hazardous materials are present in
fill are detailed in Appendix 4.6-B. concrete strips
Inform NHBC of the appointment of
the Specialist Contractor and of the 2m 2m 2m
The test requirements for fill given in maximum
anticipated commencement date for centres
Appendix 4.6-B should be followed where
treatment.
appropriate.
Well graded, inert fill which passes a
MATERIALS STANDARDS 100mm x 100mm screen in all directions 2m max
centres
and contains less than 10% fine material of
4.6

4.6 - M1 All materials shall:

silt or clay size will normally be acceptable
(a) meet the Technical Requirements
for raising site levels.
(b) take account of the design
The grading of material for adding during • missing stone columns are replaced
Materials that comply with the design and
deep compaction should be within Zone A • stone columns which are misaligned by
the guidance below will be acceptable for
of the chart shown in Design clause D7 and more than 150mm in any direction are
use in conjunction with vibratory ground
Appendix 4.6-A. replaced
improvement techniques.
stone column mis-aligned
Materials for use in conjunction with by 150mm or less -
no action needed
vibratory ground improvement techniques
shall comply with all relevant standards, SITEWORK STANDARDS
including those listed below. Where no
4.6 - S1 All sitework shall:
standard exists, Technical Requirement R3 stone column
mis-aligned by
applies (see Chapter 1.1 ‘Introduction to the (a) meet the Technical Requirements more than
missing stone 150mm - new
Standards and Technical Requirements’). (b) take account of the design column - new column required
column required in correct position
(c) follow established good practice and
References to British Standards and Codes workmanship
of Practice include those made under the
Construction Products Directive (89/106/ Sitework that complies with the design and
EEC) and, in particular, appropriate the guidance below will be acceptable for
EuropeanTechnical Specifications vibratory ground improvement. • a check on the location of all stone
approved by a European Committee for columns is made by the Engineer’s
Standardisation (CEN).
SITE SUPERVISION representative prior to the specialist
plant leaving the site.
STONE FILL 4.6 - S2 The Builder shall ensure that (b) unforeseen circumstances
the Engineer visits the site and provides Allowance should be made for:
4.6 - M2 Stone fill for forming columns competent supervision throughout the
shall be compatible with the ground • unforeseen changes in the site
ground treatment process conditions, or trends which may affect
conditions, and be suitable for the
The Engineer should provide competent site conditions. Changes should be
vibratory ground improvement process
site supervision at critical stages (e.g: recorded and reported to the Engineer
Column fill should be clean, hard, inert immediately they become apparent
material complying with the guidance • inspection of setting out and materials
• changes in the anticipated depth of the
given in Appendix 4.6-B. • column installations during early stage
compaction point in excess of 25%
of the work
In acidic ground conditions, limestone fill should be recorded and reported to the
• where installation data differ from
may not be acceptable. Engineer and Specialist Contractor as
design assumptions
soon as possible but no later than the
The use of recycled aggregates should • if changes in treatment layout are
end of the day on which they occur
comply with the guidance in Appendix required)
• variations of over 50% in the quantity
4.6-B. throughout the period of the ground of backfill used in compaction points of
treatment process. the same length. Variations should be
recorded and reported to the Engineer
Some aspects of sitework may be the and Specialist Contractor at the end of
responsibility of the Engineer or his the day on which they occur
representative, or of the Specialist • unforeseen obstructions requiring either
Contractor, rather than of the Builder. local removal and backfilling prior
Items to be taken into account include: to treatment, or realignment of, and
additional columns, coupled with local
(a) location, depth and alignment of
amendment of foundation design
columns
• the effects of any of the above on
Supervision should be provided to ensure
the final efficiency of the treatment.
that:
These are to be fully considered by the

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 Vibratory ground improvement techniques 4.6
Engineer and the Specialist Contractor. DUMMY FOOTING TEST/MINI ZONE (b) written confirmation of completed
The Builder and NHBC are to be advised TEST treatment
immediately about proposed remedial A mini zone test can be used as a limited On completion of the treatment the
measures. substitute for zone tests. The test should Engineer should:
be applied to at least two stone columns • from the results of the tests carried out
anticipated depth

and the area of foundation which they satisfy himself that the treated ground
support. The load may be applied through has achieved the anticipated condition
a rigid beam or stiffened plate using skips assumed in his design
or other known loads arranged to give a • once satisfied with the effectiveness of
50% more uniform distribution of the load. the treatment in relation to the design,
backfill than
anticipated advise the Builder and NHBC accordingly
To be useful, mini zone tests should be
depth 25% in writing
greater than continued for sufficient time for creep
anticipated • advise the Builder of any special
behaviour to be quantified and allowances
precautions which should be taken for
VERIFICATION OF for this time should be made in the overall
the positioning of services both beneath
project programme.
the dwelling and adjacent to it.
COMPLETED TREATMENT
(c) record of the work
4.6 - S3 The Engineer shall require the A comprehensive record of all works
Specialist Contractor to verify that the including information concerning the

4.6
ground treatment is satisfactory treatment, depth of fill, volume of stone
mini zone
Items to be taken into account include: test using skips used, on-site changes and all other
relevant information, should be made
(a) suitable testing available to NHBC.
Tests should be carried out to establish the
degree of ground improvement, its load- 4.6 - S4 The Builder shall ensure that
bearing characteristics and settlement treated ground is not disturbed by
potential. subsequent excavations
ZONE TEST
The types of test that can be used are An isolated pad or strip footing is Ensure that the minimum clearance
described in the following clauses. The used, and up to 8 stone columns and between excavations and foundations
Specialist Contractor should predict the the intervening ground can be tested. is not less than the depth of excavation
results from his experience of work on the Loadings, which should simulate the minus the depth of the structural
type of ground, prior to the test taking dwelling loads, are held for 24 hours at foundation.
place. Prediction of the results and the pre-determined stages to examine creep
behaviour. Particular attention is needed for
degree of tolerance within those results
excavation below the water table.
is to be agreed with the Engineer prior to
testing, and compared with the test results.
If for example a threefold improvement
were predicted and only a twofold
improvement achieved, this could mean zone test
that the ground was different to that
indicated by the investigation, or that the
treatment carried out differed from the
specified treatment. In such a case, further
investigation would be necessary. 45º

Tests on ground containing clay soils may

need to be delayed for a few days after the
completion of treatment to allow excess IN-SITU TEST
pore pressures to dissipate. Where vibration will improve the ground excavation and
drain/service
trenches should
itself, eg granular materials, then in-situ be above 45º line
The Engineer may choose any appropriate
testing is [Link] improvement
combination of the following tests with the
can be assessed when the test results
agreement of NHBC:
are compared with the in-situ test results
• 600mm diameter plate tests
recorded during the pre-treatment
• dummy footing/mini zone test
investigation.
• zone test
• in situ test
TRIAL PITS
• trial pits Trial pits can be excavated around trial
stone columns to prove that they are fully
600MM DIAMETER PLATE TESTS
formed and to the required depth and
This test will not determine the design but
diameter. This is a destructive test and
will allow for an assessment to be made of
allowance should be made accordingly.
the workmanship on the stone columns.
Plate tests should be carried out on stone
columns or treated ground at a frequency
of at least one test per day per rig.

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 4.6 Vibratory ground improvement techniques

Appendix 4.6-A

SOIL CLASSIFICATION CHART

Conditions acceptable for treatment are only those within zones A and B of the chart.

Micron

1.18

37.5
3.35
mm
150

212

300
425

600

6.3

50
63
63

10

14

20
28

75
2

5
100

90

80

70 Zone B
PERCENTAGE PASSING

60

50 Zone A
4.6

40

30

20

10

0
0.002 0.006 0.02 0.06 0.2 0.6 2 6 20 60 200 mm
Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse
CLAY COBBLES
SILT SAND GRAVEL

Zone A Range of materials suitable for deep

compaction (vibro-compaction) techniques
Zone B Range of materials suitable for stone column
(vibro-replacement) techniques

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 Vibratory ground improvement techniques 4.6
Vibratory techniques
The vibratory process is applied usually to weak natural soils and filled ground. The purpose
is to improve the load bearing capacity, reduce settlement and provide an adequate bearing
stratum for the foundation supporting the dwelling.
A decision to buy a hazardous site is an acceptance by the builder/developer of the risks
involved. It is important that the ground hazards are assessed before buying the site, and
that allowance is made in foundation design for any consequences of this assessment.
Hazardous sites are defined in NHBC Rules.

ACCEPTABLE METHODS
There are two vibratory techniques commonly used in the UK. These are known as the ‘dry
bottom feed’ and ‘dry top feed’ methods, and are illustrated. A third technique, infrequently
used in the UK, and known as the ‘wet bottom feed’ method is also acceptable to NHBC. This
method is not illustrated.

Dry bottom feed method

In weaker soils or situations where there is a high water table and the bore hole is liable to

4.6
collapse between vibrator insertions, the dry bottom feed method is adopted. The vibrator
penetrates by its mass, air flush and vibration, but at design depth the stone is introduced
via a hopper into a pipe fixed to the side of a vibrator. The stone, usually of 40mm size, exits
the pipe at the tip of the vibrator and in to the bottom of the bore hole. The stone is then
compacted into the surrounding soil by repeated withdrawal and insertion of the vibrator.

Dry top feed method

In the dry top feed method the vibrator penetrates the weak soil or fill by its mass, air flush
and vibration to form a bore hole. Once refusal or design depth is reached the vibrator is
removed and stone fill introduced into the bore, the ‘charge’ is typically 500-800mm deep.
The vibrator is re-inserted and ‘packs’ the stone into the surrounding strata. Successive
charges of stone are added and compacted bringing the column up to working level. Typically
the stone grading is 40-75mm.

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 4.6 Vibratory ground improvement techniques

Sulfate content should be expressed as a • furnace ashes and other products of

Appendix 4.6-B percentage SO4 by weight on the basis of combustion
acid soluble testing, taking full account • material obtained from demolition
MATERIALS FOR USE AS of the recommendations of BRE Special • on wet sites, or sites with a high water
Digest 1 Part 1. table, crushed or broken bricks which
FILL have no limit on their soluble salt
Hazardous materials Sources of fill material content (as defined in BS EN 771).
The following materials require testing to Where the material is of a stable and
Expansive materials
ensure their suitability for use as fill to uniform type from one source, it may
Fill containing expansive materials is not
support structural foundations and slabs only be necessary to check its suitability
acceptable for use as support to structural
or as backfill to associated trenches: once. If material is variable, or from a
foundations and slabs or as backfill to
• acid wastes number of sources, it should all be suitable.
associated trenches.
• reactive materials Regular inspections and/or testing may be
• materials that include sulfates (eg required.
gypsum) Where material is obtained from stockpiles,
• organic materials check the material is uniform. Different
• toxic materials forms of stockpiling can affect particle
• materials that cause noxious fumes, size/grading. The outside of a stockpile
rot,undue settlement or damage to may be weathered and may not be the
4.6

surrounding materials. same as unweathered material.

Test requirements
Tests should be carried out by a suitably The use of recycled aggregate as fill should
qualified person with a detailed knowledge comply with BRE Digest 433 or other
of: suitable guidance as agreed with NHBC.
• the material to be tested, and
Fill requiring NHBC approval
• the proposed conditions of use.
The following types of fill should not be
The samples tested must be representative used unless written permission has been
of the true nature of the material. It may obtained from NHBC:
be necessary to take a number of samples • colliery shale and any other residue
to find out the material characteristics of from mineral extraction
the fill. • slags

INDEX

A L V
Approval 8 Layout 3 Verification 5
C M Vibratory techniques 7
Compatibility 3 Materials standards 4 W
D N Written confirmation 2
Deep compaction 6, 8 Notifications 1
Design 2 S
Design standards 1 Service trenches 3
Drainage 3 Site investigations 1
E Sitework standards 4
Expansive materials 8 Soil classifications 6
F Statutory requirements 1
Fill materials 8 Stone columns 6, 7
Foundation types 3 Stone fill 4
G Supervision 4
Granular material 4 Suspended ground floors 4
Ground conditions 1 T
H Testing 4, 5, 8
Hazardous materials 8

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