CHAPTER 7

BUILDING FOUNDATIONS

Influence Of Geological Conditions On Design

It describes a complex development of folding faulting and jointing that has resulted insignificant
inclination of beds, juxtaposition of strata and affected the weathering characteristics of a wide range
rock type.

It also demonstrates the importance of choice of alignment at design stage, and geologic mapping can
be used to avoid problems during construction and issues with ongoing maintenance.

FOUNDATION DESIGN POSIBILITIES

1. Bedrock may lie ground surface or so close to the surface that the building may be founded directly
upon it.

2. Bedrock may occur at a distance below ground surface which makes possible direct transfer of
building loads by foundation.

3. The nearest rock stratum may be so far below the surface that the rock structure will have to be
founded upon the unconsolidated material overlying the rock.

Geological processes of the past directly influence this broad classification.

The borough of Manhattan, in New York City, typifies the first

classification; some of the buildings are founded directly on Manhattan Schist which appears as
outcrops over part of that famous island.

Montreal is of the second type; Paleozoic Bedrock is overlaid by

unconsolidated materials of the Pleistocene and Recent periods
which vary thickness, but which in some places reach more than
30 m (100 ft).

LONDON is an example of the 3rd type; deposits of London clay, sand, and grovel overlie the chalk
bedrock, which occurs too deeply to serve as a bearing horizon.

FOUNDATION OF BEDROCK
When bedrock is at or near the surface, will be a relative matter.

-Conditions of this type are rare in urban areas, possibly because cities are

Usually located on riverbanks where unconsolidated deposits are the rule rather than the exception;
here geology first serves to estimate the soundness of the rock, along with determination of the
significance of structural features, and possibly with a determination of seismic risk.
Example:

Boston Parcel Post Building

on Cambridge Argillite

St. Vincent Hospital

in Portland, Oregon – 1910

FOUNDATION CARRIED TO BEDROCK

-Where rock does not outcrop at the surface in the vicinity of a building site, underground exploratory
work is doubly essential.

-If bedrock lies within a reasonable depth below the surface, exploratory drilling and, if necessary,
geophysical surveying should be utilized to determine accurate contours of top-of-rock surface, as well
as the groundwater surface.

-The maximum foundation depth so far utilized appears to be 75 m (250 ft) at the Cleveland Union
Terminal Tower, Cleveland, Ohio.

CHOICE OF THE METHOD WILL DEPEND UPON ECONOMICS AND FEASIBILITY OF ALTERNATIVES.

-If the depth is not too great and if the soil is free of boulders, end-bearing piles are frequently used.

-If steel piles are to be used, the possibility of corrosion must be studied; if concrete piles are to be used,
the possibility of high sulfate content in the groundwater must be investigated.

-Wooden piles require consideration of possible variations in groundwater level, since most wood
deteriorate under alternating wet and dry conditions.

-For greater depth of overburden, for grounds that contain boulders, and for carrying very heavy
building loads, the use of some type of caisson or cylinder of concrete, either cased or uncased, will
often provide an appropriate solution.

-It is important to also know the full character of the underlying bedrock. The fissured limestone
bedrock is overlain by clay strata of varying types, with a layer of very hard glacial lodgment till (boulder
clay or hardpan) immediately above the rock.

-Geologically related flaws can led to failure to concrete caissons.

*Blocks if cohesive soil may fall into the caisson boring during placement on concrete, later leading to
failure under load.

*A single deviation from anticipated soil profile, or one lapse in inspection procedures, can create a
defect in the design member of reinforced concrete.
FOUNDATION OF SOIL
-Soil foundations are most common of all load-bearing situations.

Soil structure interaction transmits foundation load to unconsolidated strata in two general ways:

1. By constructing a continuous raft, or spread footing, which rest directly on a near-surface stratum.

2. By driving piles or casting piers into the soil or by constructing piers therein.

-Transfer of stress to geometrically increasing volumes of soil as the distance from the structure
increases.

-Foundation failures will steadily decrease in number and magnitude.

Deep Foundation System

1. Helical Piers- is a foundation pin made of steel that contains helices just like screws. It is driven into
soil, to depths below the frost line by use of hydraulic system.

2. Concrete Piers- act as a table legs. If they are designed correctly, and placed on solid ground or to a
depth that the friction of the sides is greater than the load place on the pier, the piers and the structure
will not move.

[Link]- also known as mini piles, pin piles, and root piles, are deep foundation element
constructed using high strength, small-diameter steel casing and/or threaded bars.

4. Driven Piles- driven into the ground by percussion, pressing or vibrating, using proper machinery.

GROUNDWATER
Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth’s surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of
rock formation.

-Groundwater conditions govern the success of many building sites.

-It is one of the most widespread problem of civil engineering works.

-One method followed in some building regulations, is to make sure that all piles are either cut off or
imbedded in concrete at a level well below the minimum elevation possible for the local groundwater.

-An alternative method is use to “composite” piles of protected sections within the range of water level
variation and timber below this level.
PILLED FOUNDATIONS
Pile foundations are deep foundation. They are formed by long, slender, columnar elements typically
made from steel or reinforced concrete, or something timber.

A foundation is described a ‘piled’ when its depth is more than three times its breadth.

Four main methods of transmitting light loads to soil strata:

1. Individual footing under columns

2. Continuous raft, or spread footing under either a complete building or one section of it.

3. End-bearing piles driven depths of safe load transmission.

4. Excavated cylindrical shafts in which concrete piers can be formed to transmit the load from footing
to a safe bearing stratum.

-Bearing piles, when circumstances require their use, can serve as excellent foundation units.

-The use of piles has, however, actually weakened the foundation bed intended for use.

-The fundamentals of pile action in soil must be fully appreciated before piles are even considered as
possible foundation units.

-If the length of piles is great in comparison with the width of the foundation, then the soil will be
stressed to a considerable depth beneath the bottom tips of the piles.

-The rule of thumb for exploration depth (knowing with certainly geological conditions to a depth of at
least twice the width of every structure) should be extended if piles are to be contemplated.

-The best of load tests carried out on single piles will fail to indicate danger of using a fully piled
foundation where there is a weak stratum below.

TYPES OF PILE FOUNDATION

[Link] Bearing Piles- foundation provide support for structures, transferring their load to layers of soil or
rock that have sufficient bearing capacity and suitable settlement characteristics to support them.

2. Friction Piles- this type of pile utilizes the friction resistance force between the pile surface and
adjacent soil to transfer the superstructure load.

“FLOATING” FOUNDATIONS
A floating foundation is a type of foundation constructed soil by excavating the soil in such a way that
the weight of structure built on the soil is nearly equal to the total weight of the soil excavated from the
ground including the weight water in the soil before the construction of structure.

-Structures to be constructed on weak or sensitive soil may also employ what are colloquially called
“floating” foundations.

-A depth of soil can be removed, the weight of which is equal to the weight of the structure to be built
on the site, then the weight of the structure can replace the weight of the soil, and no settlement of the
resulting sunken structure should result.

-There is little need to emphasize that “floating” foundations can only be designed on the basis of the
most accurate possible knowledge of the subsurface geology.

CAISSON FOUNDATIONS
Caisson foundation also called as pier foundation is a watertight retaining structure used as a bridge
pier, in the construction of a concrete dam, or of the repair of ships.

-Under suitable subsurface conditions, a cutting edge is built on a surface of the ground and upon this
the basement of the building is constructed as a “superstructure” above ground.

-When the resulting structure has the requisite weight, sinking is started by excavation beneath it;
control is exercised by the progress of excavation under the cutting edge, and sinking is induced by the
weight of the structure.

-Japanese engineers have developed a pressure balanced raft foundation that depends to an unusual
degree upon complete and accurate knowledge of subsurface conditions.

PRELOADING OF FOUNDATION BEDS

Preloading or pre-compression is the process of placing additional vertical stress on a compressible soil
to remove pore water over time.

-Increase in the undrained shear strength of the soil.

-An adequate knowledge of site geological history, along with laboratory tests on good soil samples can
be used to calculate induced consolidation of the soil by in-place preloading.

-The permanent structure can then be built without excessive settlements; actual settlement will be
controllable to a reasonable degree.

-This method is traditional practice for approach fills to bridges and similar earthworks.

-The concept of preloading was used in 1819 by Thomas Telford during the building of the Caledonian
Canal in Scotland, and by Sanford Fleming in Canada in 1870.
BUILDING ON FILL
-The increasing demand for land for development and political and commercial impetus to building on
brown field land mean that a high proportion of new commercial, industrial and housing developments
are now built on ‘fills’.

-It is sometimes necessary to make additions to existing buildings, some preparation of the adjacent
areas being first necessary for this purpose.

-Soil studies, and especially the understanding soil compaction at optimum moisture content, can now
result in the placement of accurately compacted soil as fill in any are and to any normal depth, with the
certainty of minimum settlement.

SETTLEMENT OF BUILDINGS
Settlement is the downward movement of the ground caused by a load consolidating the soil below it or
causing displacement of the soil.

-All buildings settle, as does every other structure erected upon the surface of the ground.

-Every civil engineer and geologist knows well that foundation beds, whether rock or soil are just as
susceptible to the imposition of loads as are all other solid materials.

-Settlement ultimately is depending upon some inadequacy of the foundation beds.

PREVENTION OF EXCESSIVE SETTLEMENT

-Today, the fundamentals of good design have produced innumerable buildings all over the world which
are performing quite satisfactorily with no excessive or differential settlement.
Examples:
Torre Latino Americana
-1951
-Mexico
Empress Hotel
-1908
-British Columbia