FUNDAMENTALS OF

DESIGNS OF BRIDGES:

PANKAJ GANDHI
EXECUTIVE ENGINEER
DESIGNS (R&B) CIRCLE
GANDHINAGAR
1. INTRODUCTION
 Bridge structures are essential component of any road
network , Preparation of bridge projects involves a
chain of activities such as
1. survey and investigations,
2. selection of site,
3. fixing of waterways,
4. selection of type of structure,
5. design of structural elements,
6. preparation of drawings and cost estimates
7. economic evaluation,
8. preparation of contract documents ,
9. quality assurance scheme, maintenance manual and
schedule

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[Link] Preparation
 Generally there are three stages in
project preparation :
 (i) pre-feasibility report,
 (ii) feasibility report/preliminary
project report,
 (iii) detailed project report

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[Link] Preparation
 (i) pre-feasibility report
1. The possible locations,
2. Nature of crossing,
3. Traffic dispersal system for different
alternatives are identified.
4. The effect of implementation on the traffic
scenario in immediate vicinity is also
broadly considered.
5. The reconnaissance visit to the area of the
intended bridge site is sufficient at this
stage.

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 [Link] Preparation
 (ii) feasibility report/preliminary project report
a) Socio-economic profile of the State :
Population, state income, land use, economic sector
(agriculture, forestry, fishery, industry, etc. as relevant),
prevalent transport services.
b)Socio-economic Profile of the Project Influence Area :
Role of similar other facilities in the vicinity, delineation of
the influence area, demographic characteristics, influence
area economy (district income, per capital income), economic
sector, transport profile.
.

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[Link] Preparation
c) Study Methodology
Reconnaissance survey (A recon- naissance
survey provides data that enables design engineers to
study the advantages and disadvantages of a variety
of routes and then to determine which routes are
feasible.) .
preliminary data collection, alternative
alignments study report, further data
collection, model study, traffic layout plan.
Preliminary design and cost estimate,
environmental impact assessment, economic
viability appraisal and sensitivity analysis

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[Link] Preparation
 d) Traffic Survey and Analysis
Surveys and studies undertaken, classified directional
volume count. Origin-Destination (O-D) survey, speed and
delay surveys, pavement roughness survey, axle load
survey, past traffic data, assignment of project traffic,
diverted traffic, base year traffic, average annual daily
traffic, traffic growth forecast.
 e) Project Description
Project alignment, project elements geometric design, land
acquisition, various components/parts of the project (such
as main bridge, viaduct service road etc.), area drawings
scheme, obligatory improvements, design standards,
preliminary design drawings and cost estimates,
construction programme, equipment and foreign exchange
requirements.

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[Link] Preparation
 f) Preliminary Design
 (i) Project corridor inventory - Existing bridge and culvert
inventory and condition, inventory of existing river bank
protection etc. as applicable,
 (ii) Engineering survey and investigation - Topographic
survey, hydrological survey, soil investigation, etc.
 (iii) Survey for environmental impact assessment study -
Ambient air quality monitoring, water quality monitoring,
noise monitoring, etc.
 (iv) Design standards and specification-Geometric design
standards, standards for design of various components of
project, specifications, etc.
 (v) Bridge and pavement design - Design alternatives and
construction methodology, standards for design of various
components of project such as main bridge, approach
viaduct etc. embankment design, pavement design, etc.

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[Link] Preparation
 (g) Project Cost Estimate
Basis of cost estimate, basic cost of
materials, bill of quantities and cost
estimates, land acquisition cost, abstract of
cost estimate.
 (h) Economic Evaluation
Economic analysis, project cost and
scheduling, project benefits. Vehicle
Operating Cost (VOC), savings, time
savings, economic cost of vehicle holdup,
economic cost and productivity, cost benefit
analysis, sensitivity analysi

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[Link] Preparation
 (iii) Detailed project report (DPR)
1. Detailed surveys and investigations(Sub
soil) are carried out on approved site
alignment.
2. Detailed designs are worked out on the
basis of results of survey and investigation
3. Detailed drawings are prepared
4. An accurate cost estimate is made along
with the Bill of Quantities and the
specifications are finalized

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[Link] Design Process

To determine the bridge

foundation system that will
result in the most cost effective
bridge design, taking into
account all the appropriate
foundation design and
construction considerations.
[Link] Design Process

a. Scoping & Field Reconnaissance

b. Field Explorations
c. Laboratory Testing
d. Foundation Design
e. Foundation Reports
f. Specifications
g. Construction Support
[Link] Design Process
a. Scoping and Field
Reconnaissance

Identify Foundation Design Elements of

Project
New Bridge Foundations
Bridge Widening
Retaining Walls
Conduct Office Data Research
Old Foundation Data (Bridge Archives)
Pile Record Books
Maintenance Records
[Link] Design Process
a. Field Reconnaissance

Observe Site Conditions affecting Exploration, Design and/or

Construction
Surface Conditions/ Obstructions (logs, riprap)
Wetland Areas, R/W or other access restrictions
Bridge Condition (settlement, corrosion)
Scour or stream bank erosion
Utilities (buried & overhead)
Slope instabilities (slides, settlement, water problems)
Locate Exploration Holes (test pits)
[Link] Design Process
b. Field Explorations
b. Field Explorations

Exploration
Log
[Link] Design Process
c. Laboratory Testing

Amount depends on the soils and project design

Purpose of obtaining engineering properties of
soils and rock materials for use in design
Typical Lab Tests:
Shear Strength of Soils
Unconfined Compressive Strength (rock)
Consolidation Tests (settlement)
Unit Weight & Index Tests
[Link] Design Process

Construct Subsurface Profile

Stratigraphy & Geologic Model
Groundwater Conditions
Engineering Design Parameters
Foundation Type
Seismic Analysis
 [Link] Design Process

Foundation type depends on combinations of:

Foundation Materials & Conditions
Structure Type & Loads
Performance Criteria
Site Conditions/Construction Constraints
Extreme Event Effects
Seismic Loads (Liquefaction Potential)
Scour Depths
Costs & Construction Time
[Link] Design Process

Types of Foundations

Shallow Foundations
Spread Footings (on engineered fill)
MSE Wall w/ Spread Footing
Deep Foundations
Piles
Well
[Link] Design Process

Spread Footing Design

Settlement
Bearing Capacity
Sliding Resistance
Overturning (eccentricity)
Overall Stability (slope stability)
 [Link] Design Process

Pile Design

Bearing Capacity (compression and tension)

Lateral Capacity
Downdrag Analysis
Corrosion Potential/Protection
Tip Protection
Driveability (construction)
Group Settlement, Group Effects
[Link] Design Process

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Foundation Reports

Structural Defect Produced

by Interruption in Concreting
and Low Slump Concrete
 Foundation Reports

Construction & Specification Recommendations

Other Foundation Issues

Detour Bridge Recommendations
Falsework Support
Falsework foundation type recommendations
Foundation Excavations
Groundwater conditions & possible mitigation
Shoring and Bracing
Cofferdams
Unique Special Provisions
Specific Geotechnical/Geologic information
[Link] Types of Bridges
 Girder/Beam Bridge
 Truss Bridge
 Rigid Frame Bridge
 Arch Bridge
 Cable Stayed Bridge
 Suspension Bridge
 Segmental Bridge

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Typical Beam/Girder Bridge

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Girder/Beam Bridge

• The most common and basic type

• Typical spans : 10m to 200m

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Truss Bridge

• Truss is a simple skeletal structure.

• Typical span lengths are 40m to 500m.
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Forces in a Truss Bridge

In design theory, the individual members of a simple truss are

only subject to tension and compression and not bending
forces. For most part, all the beams in a truss bridge are
straight.
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Arch Bridges
 Arches used a curved
structure which provides a
high resistance to bending
forces.
 Both ends are fixed in the
horizontal direction (no
horizontal movement
allowed in the bearings).
 Arches can only be used
Hinge-less Arch where ground is solid and
stable.
 Hingeless arch is very stiff
and suffers less deflection.
 Two-hinged arch uses
hinged bearings which
allow rotation and most
commonly used for steel
Two hinged Arch arches and very economical
design.
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Forces in an Arch
 Arches are well
suited to the use of
stone because they
are subject to
compression.
 Many ancient and
well-known
examples of stone
arches still stand to
this today.

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Cable Stayed

 A typical cable-stayed bridge is a continuous

deck with one or more towers erected above
piers in the middle of the span.
 Cables stretch down diagonally from the towers
and support the deck. Typical spans 110m to
480m.
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Cable Stay Towers

Cable stayed bridges may be classified by

the number of spans, number and type of
towers, deck type, number and arrangement
of cables.
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Cable Stay Arrangements

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Cable Stayed Bridges

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Suspension Bridge

 A typical suspension bridge is a continuous deck with

one or more towers erected above piers in the middle
of span. The deck maybe of truss or box girder.
 Cables pass over the saddle which allows free sliding.
 At both ends large anchors are placed to hold the ends
of the cables.
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Forces in Suspension Bridge

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Basic Components of a Bridge
The two basic parts are:
 Substructure - includes the piers, the abutments
and the foundations.
 Superstructure - consists of the deck structure
itself, which support the direct loads due to traffic and
all the other permanent and variable leads to which
the structure is subjected.
 The connection between the substructure and the
superstructure is usually made through bearings.
However, rigid connections between the piers (and
sometimes the abutments) may be adopted,
particularly in frame bridges with tall (flexible) piers.

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Substructure : Piers
Piers are of two basic types:

 Column piers - Concrete column piers may have a

solid cross-section, or a box section may be the
shape chosen for the cross-section for structural and
aesthetic reasons.

 Wall piers - generally less economical and less

pleasing from an aesthetic point of view. They are
very often adopted in cases where particular
conditions exist, e.g. piers in rivers with significant
hydrodynamic actions or in bridges with tall piers
where box sections are adopted.

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Basic Types of Bridge Piers

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Substructure : Abutments
 The abutments establish the connection
between the bridge superstructure and the
embankments. They are designed to
support the loads due to the superstructure
which are transmitted through the bearings
and to the pressures of the soil contained
by the abutment.

 The abutments must include expansion

joints, to accommodate the displacements
of the deck, i.e. the longitudinal shortening
and expansion movements of the deck due
to temperature.
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Basic Types of Abutments
Two basic types of abutments may be considered:
 Wall (counterfort) abutments and Open
abutments.
 Counterfort wall abutments are adopted only when
the topographic conditions and the shapes of the
backfill are such that an open abutment cannot be
used. They are generally adopted when the required
height of the front wall is above 5.0 to 8.0m. If the
depth is below this order of magnitude, counterfort
walls may not be necessary and a simple wall
cantilevering from the foundation may be adopted.
 The connection between the abutments and the
backfill may include an approach slab which ensures a
smooth surface of the pavement even after settlement
of the adjacent backfill.
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Basic Types of Bridge Abutments –
Wall & Counterfort

Wall Abutment Counterfort

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Types of Wall Abutments

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Basic Types of Bridge
Abutments – Open Type

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Superstructure – Structural
Systems
 The longitudinal system of a bridge may be
one of the following types: beam, frame,
arch, cable stayed or suspension.
 There are three main types of bridge
transverse systems, slab, beam-slab or box
girder.
 Bridge superstructures may use the beam
and plate girder, truss girder or box girder
structural systems.
 Deck systems use a reinforced concrete
slab, with or without cross-girders, or a
partially prestressed concrete slab, or an
orthotropic steel plate.
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Bridge Longitudinal Structural
Systems

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Bridge Deck
 The principal function of a bridge deck is to
provide support to local vertical loads (from
highway traffic, railway or pedestrians) and
transmit these loads to the primary
superstructure of the bridge.
 As a result of its function, the deck will be
continuous along the bridge span and
(apart from some railway bridges)
continuous across the span. As a result of
this continuity, it will act as a plate
(isotropic or orthotropic depending on
construction) to support local patch loads.

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[Link] DESIGN OF A BRIDGE
1. DEAD LOAD
2. LIVE LOAD
3. LONGITUDINAL FORCES
4. SEISMIC FORCES
5. LATERAL FORCES
6. CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
7. WATER CURRENT FORCES
8. BUOYANCY FORCES
9. EARTH PRESSURE
10. THERMAL STRESSES
11. SECONDARY STRESSES
12. ERECTION STRESSES
13. DEFORMATION STRESSES

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[Link] LOAD
 [Link] DEAD LOAD
 B. SUPERIMPOSED DEAD LOAD

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 [Link] LOAD
 EARLY LOADING STANDARD – 12 T
 IRC- IN 1939 TWO TYPES OF LOADING
[Link] STANDARD LOADING 1.13 & 6 T
[Link] HEAVY LOADING 1.21 & 7 T
 IRC- IN 1958
[Link]- AA
[Link]- A
[Link]-B
 IRC-IN 1966
CLASS 70 R WAS INTRODUCED

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[Link] LOAD (Cont..)

(a) Single Lane of IRC Class A

Longitudinal placement :
Braking force Braking force

6.8t 6.8t 6.8t 6.8t 11.4t 11.4t 2.7t 2.7t

3.0m 3.0m 3.0m 4.3m 1.2m 3.2m 1.1m

A span B C span D

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[Link] LOAD (Cont..)

(d) IRC Class 70R( wheeled )

Braking force Braking force

Longitudinal placement :
17t 17t 17t 17t 12t 12t 8t

1.37m 3.05m 1.37m 2.13m 1.52m 3.96m

A span B C span D

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[Link] LOAD(Cont..)
 Reduction in LIVE LOAD
 One or Two lanes - 0.00 %
 Three lanes - 10.00 %
 Four or more lanes - 25.00%

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[Link] LOAD (Cont..)
 Impact Factor
for class A or class B Loading
= 4.5 / (6+L)

for class AA & Class 70R Loading

1. for span less than 9 mt: 25 % for span
up to 5 mt and reducing up to 10 % for
span up to 9 mt
2. for span 9 mt or more : 10 % for span
up to 40 mt

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[Link] forces
 Tractive efforts caused through acceleration of the
driving wheels
 Braking effect resulting from the application of the
brakes to braked wheels.
 Frictional resistances offered to the movement of free
bearings due to change in temperature or any other
cause.
 Single or Two lane : 20% percent of the first train
load + 10% of the load of the succeeding trains or
part thereof, the train loads in one lane only being
considered for the purposes of the sub clause.
 more than two lanes : As in above, the first two lanes
plus 5% of the loads on the lanes in excess of two.

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[Link] forces(cont..)
 Braking effects is taken to be acting
along a line parallel to the carriageway
and 1.20 metre above it . Due to this
reason, while the force is being
transferred to the bearing for design
analysis, the change in the vertical
reaction at the bearings is to be taken
into account

PANKAJ GANDHI 58
[Link] forces(cont..)
 The coefficient of friction at the
bearing should be assumed to have
the following value
1. For roller bearings 0.03
[Link] sliding bearings of hard copper
aloy 0.15
[Link] sliding bearing of steel on cast
iron on steel 0.25

PANKAJ GANDHI 59
[Link] FORCES
 seismic failures of several bridges in recent years have
shown that the failure was not caused by the collapse of
any element of the superstructure but rather as a
consequence of :
1. the superstructure shaking off the bearings and falling to
the ground
[Link] structural failure due to the loss of strength of the soil
under the substructure as a result of the vibrations induced in
the ground.
3. influence of seismic forces on a structure depends on the
bridge's elastic characteristics and the distribution of
weight. A rigorous analysis is complex and involves the
application of structural dynamics
4. As per IS 1893- 2002 seismic force to be used in the design of
a structure is dependent on many variable factors and
therefore, it is extremely difficult to determine its correct value.

PANKAJ GANDHI 60
[Link] FORCES(cont..)
5. seismic coefficients for horizontal forces are given in the code as
per the zone and also depending upon the foundations soil
which has been assumed to be hard, medium and soft type. The
vertical seismic coefficient where applicable be taken as half
of the horizontal seismic coefficient for design purposes
[Link] seismic force is to be computed for 50% of the design live
load for railway bridges and 25% of the design live load for road
bridges as specified in the relevant standards.
7. In the design of substructure the reduction in weight due to
buoyancy is not taken into account while calculating the
seismic force. Also the bridge structure is with the assumption
that the seismic and wind forces are not acting simultaneously
and similarly the maximum seismic force and highest flood case
are considered to be occurring simultaneously

PANKAJ GANDHI 61
[Link] loads
 The railings and parapets are to be
designed to resist a lateral horizontal force
and vertical force each of magnitude equal
to 150 kg/m applied simultaneously at the
top of the railing or parapet.
 Kerbs should be designed for lateral loading
of 750 kg per metre run of the kerb applied
horizontally at the top of the kerb

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[Link] forces
 When a highway bridge is located on a curve i.e. in
case of horizontally curved decks, the effects of
centrifugal forces to the movement of vehicular traffic
over the bridge should be accounted for in the design
 This centrifugal force is determined by using the
following relation :
C = WV^2/127R
Here, C = Centrifugal force in tonnes acting normally
to traffic
The centrifugal force should be considered to act at a
height of 1.2 m above the formation level of bridge

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[Link] current force
 Any part of a bridge which may be submerged in running
water should be designed to sustain safely the horizontal
pressure due to the force of the current
 P = 52 KV^2
Here, P = Intensity of pressure in kg/m^2 due to the water
current.
K = a coefficient whose value depends upon the different
shapes of the piers
Shape of Piers , K value
1 Square ended piers, 1.50
2 Circular piers or piers with semi circular ends, 0.66
3 Piers with triangular cut and case waters, the angle
included between the faces being 30degrees or less, 0.50
V = the velocity of the current in metres/sec. at the point
where the pressure intensity is to be computed

PANKAJ GANDHI 64
[Link] FORCES
 In case of high level bridges to allow for full buoyancy a reduction
should be made in the gross weight of the member affected in the
following manner for the purpose of design
1 When the member under consideration displaces water only e.g. a
shallow pier or abutment founded at or near the bed level, the
reduction in weight should be equal to that of the volume of
the displaced water
2 When the member under consideration displaces water and also silt
or sand e.g. a deep pier or abutment passing through strata of
sand and silt and founded on similar material
- Full hydrostatic pressure due to a depth of water equal to
difference in levels between the free surface of water and the
foundation of member under consideration
-Upward pressure due to the submerged height weight of the silt or
sand calculated in accordance with Rankine's theory
3 In case of submersible bridges, the full buoyancy effect of the
superstructure, piers and abutments should be taken into
consideration

PANKAJ GANDHI 65
[Link] Pressure
 IRC 6 recommends Coulomb's theory of earth pressure as
the rational theory but with the modifcations that the height
of the center of pressure above bottom as 0.42 of the
height of water above the base instead of 0.33 of that
height, for computing earth pressures
 It is essential to provide weep holes, gravel drains, pipe
drains etc. in the backfilling material to ensure complete
drainage
 In the design of return walls, the live load surface should be
considered for loads placed beyond the length of the
approach slab
 For earthfill retaining walls with no facility of proper
drainage, the pressure due to submerged soil is computed
by considering pressure due to dry earth as well as
hydrostatic pressure due to water present.

PANKAJ GANDHI 66
[Link] STRESSES
 All structures tend to change in length with variations in
temperatures. Temperatures stresses are likely to develop if this
change in length is fully or partly retained by fixing the ends.
 The anticipated rise and fall in temperature should be fixed from
the meteorological records for the locality in which the structure is
to be constructed
 Following are the thermal effects :
(i) the effect of non-linear distribution of temperature through the
deck depth , thereby leading to eigen stress resulting from the
difference between final linear thermal strain gradient and the
unrestrained non-linear thermal strain gradient.
(ii) the indeterminacy effect comprising of

(a) effect of restraint to change in body mean temperature and

(b) effect of restraint to angular movements at the supports.

PANKAJ GANDHI 67
[Link] STRESSES
 IRC has recommended the following range of temperature in
the design of bridge structure.
1. Steel structures : Moderate Climate : from minus 18
degrees C to 50 degrees C.
2. Concrete structures : Temperature rise / Temperature
fall
 Moderate climate
17degrees C / 17 degrees C
 Extreme climate
25 degrees C / 25 degrees C
 The coefficient of expansion per degree centigrade should
be taken as 0.0000177 for steel and reinforced concrete
structure and 0.0000108 for plain concrete structures.

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11. SECONDARY STRESSES

 Secondary stresses are the additional stresses brought into play

due to the eccentricity of connections, floor beam loads applied at
intermediate points in a panel cross girders being connected away
from panel points, lateral wind loads on the end posts of through
girders, movements of the supports, the time yield in concrete i.e
creep and shrinkage of deck concrete etc.
 Secondary stresses due to differential settlement of supports : As
far as stresses developed due to differential settlement is
concerned, its magnitude is generally estimated from the
considerations reported in the soil investigation report for the
project site and then the effect of settlement of each individual
support is computed
 Shrinkage of unreinforced concrete varies according to age,
moisture conditions, temperature, water cement ratio of mix, size
and quality of aggregate and chemical composition of cement. .
Because a major portion of the shrinkage occurs soon after the
concrete sets, shrinkage stresses of restrained concrete structures
may be reduced by scheduling the placement of concrete

PANKAJ GANDHI 69
12. ERECTION STRESSES

 Erection stresses are the stresses set up in any member during

erection, temporary erection conditions and partial span-
dislodgment conditions.
 While designing consideration should be given to the effect of
temporary loads imposed by sequence of construction stages,
forming falsework and construction equipment and the stresses
created by lifting of placing precast members
 Generally before execution, a construction scheme is considered
for the feasibility of the project and the contractor is usually left to
his own ingenuity for developing the construction procedure
 The engineer has to decide what combinations of loads and
magnitudes will most likely be applied at one time. For some
combinations the normal allowable stress can be increased, which
is an indirect way of saying that only a percentage of the sum of
the maximum effects is considered because the possibility that the
peak value of all these events occurring simultaneously is remote

PANKAJ GANDHI 70
13. DEFORMATION STRESSES
 These stresses are considered only in the
case of designing steel bridges. A
deformation stress is actually a bending
stress in any member of an open web
girder or a truss, caused by the vertical
deflection of the girder combined with the
rigidity of the joints
 All steel bridges are designed and erected
in such a manner that these stresses are
reduced to a minimum.

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REFERENCES
 IRC-6 -2000
 IRC 78-2000
 IRC SP 54-2000

PANKAJ GANDHI 72
Thank You!