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Introduction To Signals and Systems

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56 views38 pages

Introduction To Signals and Systems

Uploaded by

Narasimha Kumar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Sippole 4 Systems Chowgh Notes J Signals ——> Determinithe [Atl Mathemahial fanetions) > Random [ Thema nore, Noateralty real Fime avarlable Signals] tethy se Signals & Septem Sipral cthralytis a mathematically rely fram helps wate extract En fetmestion from and analyse Real time ercunple » ECG | Eleeti> Gaxtitgram ) — tio Necital ee PPT * ablivtind « Rardamnss (4) —> lyfetmation (1 —> probabilhy of frding nfitrabion ay Chosedotsng a Sigal d x= A Sin(wttp) A Amplitucle Los gute fogpuniy Cred) Purphose + YE load [Advau) ex: 0 Sin (Bott 30) =21Y ~f leg p dda . wazo > TF 3e es T> Time pared ($50) of * 2m see > 360° 30 Thee, . + . 4, — 3e 3 27 Ja 2M see oe 30 tor Band wid Range of of frpantes ontawied in a Sigral fe BWef~o ere Bhs So) Kee : Bh = te eae es ° Oo fe sh (kYY Contncus Sralt_« For Continous Signals » she dependent Yoriable Cty is Continous and thu these signals ave defined for @ Continuum vf values » xy at Bis Disoutte time signals ave defined only at distréte time and Con stequerty sfor these gras, trolepenclint Variable Takes only 0 discrée Set of values - ext A Speech signa) as a function of Time 7 Homspherie presse a4 function of alffuble ax corilmous ex: Tempeahie at cliffetent poriti wnt a rem 4h dsoute seprel Goatiiéus Te Diievete Time stqva Digrta| Sra] Tine — cenlinéus Time dlisevelé A dicate Tre with Arplvole > Conlinéus Armplitsote Conliious [disouke divi dowel Arpt F8 Called divttal Se eto ony ? rr 4 n Digital] 2 osloosy ° = ° . — \ Dr Lortiroies Armplituce Bucule Time tanTs M XCD W__, x (nT) ne , 7 aareralicany oefined. @® Unit ste * 4 ol) Sa eae foes for Mathera hess =~ 0 1teo ’ ~ B aon, purpose = undefined at t=0" ? te. ir vw J : i [ ; 1 a stablestae + A 7 Practicalty U(t) Gnnot be qeuated Z : Ze we —» bounded) [ole] <00 Infinite Signal [eareron] — ee © Retonglos/ Gate Fanti Arect(t) =A ree =o ft elsenhere cov a(t) A> Anpiitudle ; nck Ty Time perio 1 os Sgroshical about onto = 7 sy. even signal @ — Continewos Trnpulse [Dirac eta fiuntRon BEY . 7 be mplducle Ces t3 infie Ato > f 77 S(t)= aw ;t=e a = 05 tHo _ [va =4 | Area unde impulse Is Oe oy > Tinpulse ft aboay rep resented pith Aron aa Physi aly Not posible To Quutate In labs x a Macthemod lly deswribed Tonpulte isa bothing fanchion Gie of rectengulas fonchon vith untt area. 4 ie att) * — oh te, ll ~h. now =a Ne t i bt Tran sformakion s of independent Variable § dependind | vortables (Himes a ae x(t) cee eerie coe cers nah Cs dipendent Co” © Time sald @O Time shifting Ame keversal Time sating : te) ——» alah) [Soaled by factor a or CT Appiailior : Expansion andl Compression @ xu) x03 xls a -2stes aia [ = Ataya4 ~143te4 X(Hs)= (oat 7 ]ak 1 — expansion a(oa) lass Compression R (od a ol More exounple , Reversal (Time) Tine ¢5 flpped dh dw 1 pub e gem flue past: Xe) — > z(-) at ts nothing bat Scaled by C4) aw xty awe 1-9 eS ay fs even signe} xu fet! wh 7 T = cb beet =e] * Pe Flipping the Signal about the origin . Trme_shifting . shiping time [ delay at advancement ] x) —» xlt-t) Atloyed by tb anil > time lbebo) — Adteaneed by Te unitl of me vle-*) vol) (EB a ute) 4 ac) @ € a vie 1 $>0 | UGB) 4: 432 vl4-2) = L we | delayed by BH ile oO RF << __,, pat 4 time Scale (dee) Pretent rotitve Hme_ @dvanud by Rte (feo > For Same Signal r pry all the 3 ‘fans formation s x find z(atey 4 xet-4) tt, Be =I 3B & , aC-t-dy) x Method ene » Backward approach Z(atei), XH) then x(at 1) lela — a4 (tev z (ete) — < (Bry ; Timescale (12407) ao paloma e TL ob aT chek: : x(= 4} eter w(atay= 1 -1< ato = Bs oAter By 04 ated Xabi sa. Petes -tetcos =2 Ieee < ay -oscteor Method -t99 » Fornard oppreach a Note: phere In forwarcl appreath the Sealing Potter should be flornmoy for whole time - X(altt)) > x(ay _g t(aleelyy — ¥ Sealed by a advantad by Yo umd s aly) x(an x Cult+) (aw ame “SB 8 Ut i a — Discrete» Find . x[6-n] Cannot be shifted to fh [0-323] Technique foiled Pov divoule always qe pith Backssod opproach 5 fant) x [ent —>» x[ntt] an 4 . Ih, =[Link] 23 Fon 4 fb ene wre cxompe Impulse Function Properties » O Area under impulte function i¢ 5 _f ka dte 4 - © Frapulse is an even function SH) = Ely D Sealy property at) = qh Ay a may be ‘Hef -we fron: sa0 Ib 4 wet(4) f Saat= r Wea reet(S) tt sw é P reek )AF : ~ tov + = mot Lt = Palla, ’ dt ~ — 7 sf “s J ley a4 te 6 $1" a Stet IK, £ vet] . ° 2 _f stata « aan eld] A The Tae _ Mae) 3 4 fe ~ wal 4]> mae a ro @ Product Property XC) (Eto) = xlto) Seto) & (40 e421 FO oy fr: tp 2H) shy) “rz lt Ct Cost x SE—Mfy) = Cosy) BEM = yg SCE) wos hyde He a ‘ ‘ : ' Some Caarepls ty addition 4 Subrackion & Multiplicakion ate) Find Gi) dye rtt=y ayy 2 Y=? ye9v= 7 GW) y= x chy 2 W(R=? ers FON AO EN eyon= } cin) y= x(P— xe) 2 pee a= 7 Oy yas Uw eae S ylor=? GC) gle xipe ale-y O Mnens x18 ne) + 1, glu 0 3 ~20 4b t = aes a o4 © te) twee) - ue Pi ae re fo 3 = = 3 t yo meparalhy) i 4 [a 7 ee 4lay= undefined - We) Yas X(b-29- (bey AxCE-BD Qty y= xly—x(b-4) xt) 2 ylor=o0 Classifcadion Sf SHnale : Pericdic a Aperiodic Signaly. : Peviedic = A Siqnal wuhtch repeati iiself at vequlot interval of time Us Called periodic signal That intewal it Caled “Time penoil '” ¢ “ tebe fin fp, eR OS™ EOD TS last Tine pond of 1D me exception » De signal: . — j or, Hie fe a electrcrhy 1 Nolse, quasi paiodie [ ietialiy opetiodit, aft STP fer that porooic] ies Find Tie pevods fr condi Slat (D xlh= Sin(b04 Simple) w=6e 7 TH 2m te : @ x2 Z Sin(60t) 43 sin(¢ot) Steps Telentify individual Time periods [hyd @ Glatt Bb, Ar Bs ®D Ff ratios in step 2 ave rational Numbers + them overall Signal te _ feriodtc . @ Glutite Len of Atnomivalors of 2M step © TH Lene [ frotedtute valid only fot ad tak Of Spay al y ©) x= ws sont 4+ Sobone why . (Ola 12 b0TT 1 28 208 eee TU] > I QO Wye Mer = Ue = | ® — Raltenal 7 periodic © Lets s: @D Time ported T= $F Yo Yn Caty Method me 02) = S07 | y= 607) tog = 2m Ged ef Cex) ges you son) bon(! sn —penjion(e Tos - sor [Ten hen te] Nofet Ler with retpet fo'T 11 GC wreto “to @ xu = Stn (BH) Gs (#) [observe itt a prooluet Of Signals] x= 4 [ sto ( 24 4E)ts sin [2re-agye] 2 Sin a cose = Séncadsy £ Stn CALI] sin-ora = 4 [sin(are) +50(A-0)) os [30 BOE p - Sin 204) e2 UT pe 2m IE ee Pm aE ONE Ore ae 1 f 2 eee ae Tos 2 = 2 pis [Toate] Fandauunhal Time period @ XO) = Sinnt+ fsiert to 213 e,> sr te agers Te 3 Te? jan? 8 Tj. ate T rrational eS Bie Ty a infinede “decienal omputer propramest = have Cltalated valu of i to more than 22 tillion agit T= 318189 26535 $9793 22846 Baa, 83249 50288 4194) 67397 34510 58209 T4944 SIR 20 FEA OFP86 20999 8628 34925 342 Hose. Croodigit ) We 34s Wa 22 | Seige) Gon never vepart sath iC) = jwe [ elt Gos +] 808] @mplex exponential 1M [et Goswot +) sinvot Ji jlot xWjee -e d[toer thy [? Lin (wt +B) e _— 10 Ta aR He, (poriode) c_, Exta phose andl wel] not effect the Pavedlicty . a @ l= sing Dy ogy — Te - at > Siac mye 22 encnet jose ANOLE! AM periodic Signals ave mene o i y s ‘ : = | fverbtng gna: nes eel Pr canal start from ‘0! They extended from ~eo et © @ntlusions . Te foot of Perot J ‘owe teenedie. (ndclually tinwot uot for all Voluts Df e Halle sqrals —» Geo|per, Concept Mote: Contour Siawoide & comple coponentiale are periodic for any value of ot whereas ditcret Sigralt ove pertodre 'f Be =3 att Is vate of two indegers ro, BL m= N-> Fundameritad ime pared at discrete Sr9ra] ma tafeger x¢n) = x(ntN) ain 9) sin(#t) sin(wory) crac) Tm x a : lee _» iwational CAperiodl c) @ xinJze ale copes a met — S¥2T MES WR ees gre Y xena(iy = (ei) Find feriod j jren = oF ze wort = wer 4 ad wo, B88 man m=} 6 gerrodi c. F w @ Find behether periedic or Not Cn) Zin] = venJ+ul-n) nu Soe utr) a) we z, S[n-an) - Elv-4K] Find nan B Energy fower Samak» cape oF fea Aignal average vile ~sdefined over a period Energy Sgral > osezeo [ finite value] fower= tro Power 3 osrge [ finte) 1 Enegy 2 FG - Eres Content a ee Ex = tt {been de > Bone me [1 balppal for = ! * ex aug CUD = ao af [xayat complex fo Cormplen Signal [z@)"= xa. XH iealts paserdle &y complex conjugate beng of ciserete Sana) 47 r, ‘ / Exes = lb 2 [x¢o) > Nom OE Rertas be Zale , no: tepeclé Sample.» ef: tay = tua eof op ds toe . + ane cng ges) Foyt alt = L Exay = Po [b he rat j Fhe [Ss ] Me cc), Energy folte— ort Zero porer 2 ce [fs | eS he: Bugg a fn Petey = Ut Tat XCD = toe if eatdp Seemed Te 2T 2 he = [ze] ” a aT =o Te a foner = Enemy Tme —_(. Time over which Signal is lomputed J Toulefy, | wettr Pp BA t + fe T ee 1 X= Aut) Note: A Signal whith —marntains a constant fmplitude over infinite time is power Signal Za) = Av Exe = ee f" Jaqo[rab ua 1 7 Tom f Arde 5 = le eT = @ a TH. fee ie eRtT = a [Fate vals ] — Power signa) | * 9 of poser sipral % us infinite ake A Gs(utep) > power Signds. fags Ue ot £ (Aajst ns Aue =H [— E=00 (a> Note: All pesiedic Signals axe power fignale but not vite verra ao) ue AE teo —_* | tet = aectitso = ose i ; . Ena § a fovey + tougy signal Power signal + pl sounded Signals ave Onegy signolt [ Far power i Pag = alt, a A LD pa vet a el af ftrae +f "re *lae] 7 a =| T Hef et 7 ah c le wo er, | ae a+ -£[é -H J abe ab (ial ] at oe Feu =a (ower signa : ; itr clutabion 2 C4) @ weet L / Note Eagy Nor t | t Tee 1 —e 2 | e tf tat =i, fab = roe Fle a = 2 woot | yoo 3 =o Be e eo! PE gs | Ea (a eae A iether Engg Ktot power oy nye” 1p ort? 2 J unbounded XB ©: $7-? * Tpdnrte Esa fea | : ; ne GI Ey = £ [nPat= 5 Tous a gt: = oN Tcofde eee ", =k i 30 f wnat SS = s 4 ¥* AN inst ile, Siz forte duviter, Signals af finite ampliudes ove Brogy Signals yeu —CP Th Ys ray Held by fy Yew) > y(-Eery) ; = Eye B= Br bey Fate 5 Ey Discrele Sigral eT 4 E (Exim 01 ~ poe pow N er ale alee eck fers ae Nsw 2H Foly 4 *[nJ= a” bf] Guedy: tales ee aly x(nj=(Is) or) a n> @, x{n\ =o finite 13 a) " 2 7 a wy eae Gung), leh ae 20 ee a8. a / O Airoc Dalla fundioh 4 su) = ses L. 8003 >’ Rronedker ole fain For Gontnous Gite a Sth = Sur 5 & Shdeu(m-vhg Vi iffince operator. [ferdiserete] (faa rer | = Tunj ee — differantal FF yr é . = xu 20d [x60--2)] 2a) +% of [zthe ete = if - Fetn=0\ Sk ¢ TL Sle ong kanye hp 4 oo. C4 VY = © Signa} —rlt-<) @ | fu qe Ultt) -uly + S(t) — 28[t-2) ‘ <-> AH= Ufterl4olta ~30() 210 (t-9 fault D+ -30(FA) Gru = sets +sltey —2uey 4260) $2FlEY Alay x4) ~38(Fa) XI = Rvltey + 20U4y + ey 40) + Avie = polt-y — Bue D ska? (a) for @ Signal 204), Find the iting “portion of even part XeC+) aw AK @ : © ®. a f few Even part “of any ‘Sigral ts | the exact teplita on the other Side. a on both Sides. [2¢ one porkion ti qiven the offer would be Symmbii ] | Odd post will be Anti spmalic . No need “ts find wring methumafical oleate Xl) System System an operator shih maps the relation between input 4 outpet - a) ye = TCS olp ep Ko Papen fret | itinous Time Stee ca Finding the ofp behaviour ef a Syctem is eld Analysis ‘lp 7 Cxctalien Pesigning hey, System alesign + Representetion Mathematical Exepaision (Represcntalion ) O yew 2 ye XY /D_ Differential / Dijferone equi — AY Pa xcy= 2X) : : Yas 4 yoo) = xln) Transfer Funchion > 4(3| Ble) Tmpulte response — hey Theny (UT System) ton fgstems . © — Lineay 4 Non Knear System : 7 © Additiity — x09 5 uy A) +, yw G+ LY —a gery sty @ Homogeinrty . ety —s eyty OU +b ay —>o AYylb+ bly @48 au obeyed 1 Septem 4s Unwr etelse Non Une . BFE. yl = xt xt-9) Wh = Mlb whey G ip wy. mt 3 PW= x uale4) UCV+U ——»> fut alta} (OH WEY x HO = Etch = [x alt-ah + Laity alt-nj 2O Subs tude AHH > rH) yor= futpenmyy [ meopert-a} 7 © © FO 3 Non limar hysten [Aadativity is not Satisfied ] Fgh = x00) C6d_, Anpltuaforh WiC = U8 Smee ed = Uy Sine S arty, = 7 SinbE EAL Sine . = frba) mee — ye) = Lucty-pech] Stabe Ayr! inca &s YH = Sin {xen 9 Gy Alon Unter que tin [2094 4G perssincaey exes) qetw= 9 Lu tin (aly [Mon linea) GWe= Sin { Ape} = S10 5 Ty Coty SIN 1 CH= 3x a (OTe adition of Gnaliak makes System non lt — tmecementally lineot [Amogenity fails] qo = (aul Alon kintar, cxty — Cy 3 3uy > | -sxmles zay [temogerily foi] B: _ . Xfm] 7 Glade Relations (Asef & a Alon tineaw | Fi yim xm : A ray ASIN felt Aton lineae 7 Sarat divisron makes Syslero Non Wi'neay Ey: Pye dy . Ge + SW ae xe Addition of Constant males Slim non Unset. oe fea ef feo non linear Systems mag be fon Wear Ac oe Infe*®] ay depends on block. Yy = 6x eo) @ qua ce WD atzrs4 buneot [scarey 2D Time ~Invaviaht | shigt invariant 4 Time Variant: /shipt dependent: $ Td 4... r tA sf Hy —> YH xCtto) —» ylt~to) Time vexing — Human body Checking Time Vavainée ye] a xlt-to) cloby ip by to 1 batty cleloy olp by to ey &: ey: (P= ty Beloy dp yy = t x(4-tey 9 CO FO Time Variont- Delog olp Yli-to) = tte *Ci-t) 7D TY ip or olp ig externally fo of time, then itr time Varying yey = > Time invatlant- ~2¢t-to) ax le-ty 4Wee 2 ylt-to =e yone CD y= xc fst > X Time vantant ‘g yW= xy : you= zy [abo x04 YO) = Xow (t-te) > [2] — (dt to) (Lo) = x(2[t-40)) * y(t te)= x(a(t-toy = xPt bh) 4 = (+l ey ‘lp 4a = x(ab—ty Yoe= Lely Yylete) = x(-Leto) yee x[-t-to] = x [ttt] Z(xt) Time Variant [except d=2) yy Time Vatu bnd 4 olp ts fn of time for tons yoys wy | fe2, qWweo Yons f XY 5 tro 0: tep xy * [ne eg: in Ee) Time voviante Fr of Hime e ai 7 ay +9 t= v0) [nen linear ‘Time variant ] Neon lingae TM x dywy = 1 at Se pay = sey 7 ETF ater ysis Tacode 7 Lenwater 2 Time invariant — Tintar | Fine Valk (@ For “T1 Syste with ilp aly & elp yl) are thown below. Find elp due te following ‘p's ay Ic fo alae ETL a > © aoe Xa xe WlN- 4 Lt-y Yate = yey yylb) te 5 Nob: If a Ses S$ Lineal , whatever happens ‘to input ;Same thing ill h to output, tees Even We we clont know tem funchor : , cHoneli obama Calaate oulpat a ‘¢ 7 (een ‘oaty ; @: ®) if ip is XC) - ° 12 t sf by Hel) agin = A aly = daty = A nly 4 dt © Causal & Non Gutal System : Cowal > Present oulput should not depend on feture olp Gusa) Systems present Culput depends on Present and past inpug but net on futece values - Causal Systeme are eq: merely ative. YH = Gti) xy Gus] TH about relation by ilp bre 4 olp bine ,not external time fackors yy = [xc] Causal glb= dinguny Gunso Tretent oly spre tp yore elors yeoman tt —3CeH) 7 CG y= 2 tty — Caaf Non Gassal 3t yas | xtodr ' fe a8 ae ip y(ve Sf alydr ~o ees Non Guaaf —® alo - [> Gondltimaly Causal Sin - n ey [1 E, 0] smote finite Gud: if sr 9 thon Gua$ Gaalty diperdi on to; 18 ai Ya) = xpsat7xd GHW: Hf Men fae 4m) > Ceased Sten 4 &: gir) = & x[h] ! ytd > abn 2 x freojd--- xL4L) [Accra ] Acumen pty — Mu Buorol 6) a el fo pet pt a“ eq: firi= 24ln} + 3 ulnest Graal selin — ® Non Gusol Settee are Physitadig Gurot be designed hun independest Vosiable Vine Ge (49 4 Oat = Xtey [usaf a patolp a 2 ayy “ie ne Wed > ylos = x(39 ; D4 te-9 lp op gly + 2yt-a=al29 Pe i mee 82 Static (Memay oe] irstdnenci] A Aypamic [Homey J Sychonss present State K4yste Output clepends only cena! end « ee pen pet chpends ent) en Pretend wp bee Synamte Syke: these ofp ckpends on present, past a fubere values —— e eg: yt) = (ben wer — Sale gy = ott xy state | i yay = 2ey namic gen = Axty = Agama [diff Form > Two Initant 7 y(ra = gine xtny slate Note*: All Staite Systems are Gusal tut not we versa uy . 4 yt 7 ms eo Goutal 4 til past ibs z tity depends on (x02 ~ 2C2)] «Hy Hers 4b) Cxlo~ x04) rm — Presenra post oa gai=axt) —> Causal 4 Stele Qual Systeme Before application of ip. olp doesnt stab RD 4G ak aia =f 5 = \ yy > xy yle) > x41 Lagoon systems ; Bloroge clunent / Numay elem right provide Some oubput to? out any tnput ~ [2a Inped Response] [ck ~ Savage Hlewneets J ! S- Stable a Unstable Systems * A Srail input a put doesnt use a lenge Change In elp for Stable systems "A b ounded ‘put Should vesulp tna bounded output Boundednees « xe) v4) t Br 62 a ee) q uBt 1 ce }__ +, if [x] my caw, then lyon] s myee for a sable system eH = ay 8 IP ee svey 2 yt = Ue = uty [sree stable] a 8B [yey = ) xe] if t= 0b alec} =a | = [ete] =a 3 [gel = [diner] = fotte bio Stabe - t go= f x(t) de. ies ae - => yw fowde = v6 rE wH=vy 2 YC foe t= ly wn yey 0 Z + Tf. —+— % ee 4) Hat) * Compraning 4 expantion ournt offect- awn yen ste at o 3 . ° Yp L &q: Y= tlt-s) Time shifting 4 Sealing operations ave Stable fF xase0ly gly Jw] = x Bounded ood 2) f= lyca| = 4 = dey 3 i eB) jwative ordey] y gyn unstable fe if é order of Ip > lp dexi "if e200) 2 Ye sc) + unstable ve By = Aoe= é ay Fue & qi “dys = oH) yrs ry be | unshelle x(n) el LHe tiyrte 8260 Mable yint =e 14 oa] = qinl= 2 xte No = finite Let ng =4 n Y t= 2x00 xem aon gina = x04 *[2] +--. 4+2ln) yd = Yl4)4oPs4--- 4 ulm) [onstable YI= 2 vy os KEI -If=en if Mu 5 TET unabable system 7 . Co Anvertabte © Inverse System | Non Invertable 1 A Saste i a ECO Sovertatie if lpeent input leads different outyts iQ 4 df lp 1 © two diff IP's for a 79 Spm should not produe the Same ; Output ' Teeny ; \ xy 7 — [FE] 2 TT {xes5] = xy Eqs. “ tf xeys00 =f (d= eH ~ tye Uy uy = xv Y= vas o i” aus AG) = -vG) yore vty xy J ¢ yt tx) — Non-dnvertable Not Same. ee ae eee 4 any, yee xy A[2}— In Oo ww Tnvertabl + & V= fxr dr a .. of 7f ty. ty ° yee f Sede = oly XW — $y) 5 Yey2— ve) A= vy 5 yee vey J Favertable ae qo= 4 XG) 5 Non invertable fy xG)=4 ype? j A(ky=b 2y(b=o Fis Ary Gmbint Y(t = 0 4 We Hay delay by 4 viol St) —» 804-4) ~ Sty > — SU fx) duty Sat aw Ls A> stoves opovalien exist i Tywestalle | severtoble eq. —t Ylrde 9 x(n S[n) > ylrl= 9 Sn) * Sin ylnl= 9,6") Tavictalle ¢ “+ (nlz xfn) x {n-s) : ; > Non Anvertable y x fn) = ulny | ybry = vr) vin-s) = ‘ —_ $ einye—vin) | ylrys —oln) -ules) = vln] vl) 4 Soe 0 = 4trde = afk] Anvertable [Simla Conran nberel) Gls th} -xLo4] Ylnj = &(n) - sina] ef x(n) = vin) ‘i “83 + thd yfoa= v[n) -u[na] = Slr} Y X [nj = -ufnd HLA qlol -uln} seulna] = - §[h) i @ 2 yor Xn) 9) Lest Assume [Link] yo A(n)= s(n) So) YO) = Xena yl) _j|— Yos y(ny = x(n-1) ne = °F Gly ty(nexty "=! visylo = 80) ylo) +0 = 0] yloso ylto= 4 ye) MY eye 8(Y st) 941 =? Yyloent ie 4 (34 yas 0 4(3) =) Neg (44 ylsy= 0 4M = ~1

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