Contents

Introduction
A. Background of Forest Canopy Density Mapping Model
B. Development of the Semi-expert System for the FCD Model
C. Principal Features of the Semi-expert System

1. FCD Mapping Methodology 1- 1

1.1 Space Remote Sensing for Forest Management 1- 1

1.2 Concept of the FCD Mapping Model and Semi-Expert System 1-31

1.3 Algorithms used in FCD Mapping Procedures 1-43

1.3.1 Algorithms used in FCD Mapper Ver.1 1-44
1.3.2 Algorithms used in FCD Mapper Ver.2 1-65

2. How to Use the FCD Mapper Ver.2 2- 1

2.1 Introduction to the FCD Mapper Ver.2 2- 2
2.1.1 The calculation procedure of FCD Mapping 2- 2
A. Pre-process 2- 3
B. Main process 2- 3
C. Utility 2- 10

2.1.2 The menu list of FCD-Mapper Ver.2 2-11

A. The pull down menu of the main window 2-11
B. FCD Menu 2-12
2.1.3 File Specification 2-13
A. Expert Sheet 2-13
B. Project Sheet 2-14
2.1.4 Operating environment 2-15
2.1.5 Installation Guide 2-16

2.2 Preparation Process to use FCD-Mapper 2-21

2.2.1 Start-up and Registration Process 2-21
A. How to Start the FCD-Mapper 2-21
B. Registration of the expert file 2-23
C. Setting up of the Project Name 2-24
2.2.2 How to Import Satellite Image Data 2-28
A. Image Subset 2-30
B. Geometric Correction 2-38
C. Geo-Coordination 2-60

2.3 FCD-Mapper Operation Guide -Pass 1- 2-72

2.3.1 Process to open the Image File 2-72
A. Opening the Image File 2-72
B. Displaying the Image 2-74
2.3.2 Noise Reduction and Normalization Process 2-76
A. Procedures for masking bodies of water 2-78
B. Procedures for masking clouds 2-80
Contents
C. Procedures for removing (masking) the cloud shadow area 2-82
D. Procedures for Reduction of Atmospheric Noise 2-84
E. Procedures for Slope Shadow 2-88
F. Normalization Processing 2-90
2.3.3 Index Process 2-92
A. Designation of the Vegetation Index (VI) 2-92
B. Calculation of the Thermal Index (TI) 2-94
C. Calculation of the Shadow Index (SI) 2-96
2.3.4 Vegetation Density (VD) Process 2-104
A. Designation of the vegetation area 2-104
B. Designation of the Bare Soil 2-106
C. Designation of the range which calculates the VD 2-108
D. Calculation of the VD 2-112
2.3.5 Scaled Shadow Index (SSI) Process 2-114
A. Confirming the conditions for processing SSI from VI-BI-SI false 2-114
color display
B. Designation of the forest area 2-116
C. Calculation of SSI 2-120
2.3.6 Multi VD Model 2-122
A. Multi VD Set 2-122
B. Multi VD Model 2-126
2.3.7 FCD Process and Map Statistics 2-128
A. Producing the FCD Map 2-128
B. Calculating the area in each FCD category and saving the results 2-130
2.3.8 Ground Process 2-134
A. Ground Set 2-134
B. Ground 2-136
2.3.9 FCD Range Process 2-138
A. FCD Range Set 2-138
B. FCD Range 2-140
2.4 FCD-Mapper Operation Guide -Pass 2- 2-142
2.4.1 Noise Reduction and Normalization Process 2-142
A. Procedures for Slope Shadow 2-144
B. Normalization Processing 2-148
2.4.2 Index Process 2-150
A. Designation of the Vegetation Index (VI) 2-150
B. Calculation of the Thermal Index (TI) 2-152
C. Calculation of the Shadow Index (SI) 2-154
2.4.3 Vegetation Density (VD) Process 2-162
A. Designation of the vegetation area 2-162
B. Designation of the Bare Soil 2-164
C. Designation of the range which calculates the VD 2-166
D. Calculation of the VD 2-170
2.4.4 Scaled Shadow Index (SSI) Process 2-172
A. Confirming the conditions for processing SSI from VI-BI-SI false 2-172
color display
B. Designation of the forest area 2-174
C. Calculation of SSI 2-178
Contents
2.4.5 Multi VD Model 2-180
A. Multi VD Set 2-180
B. Multi VD Model 2-184
2.4.6 FCD Process and Map Statistics 2-186
A. Producing the FCD Map 2-186
B. Calculating the area in each FCD category and saving the results 2-188
2.4.7 Ground Process 2-192
A. Ground Set 2-192
B. Ground 2-194
2.4.8 FCD Range Process 2-196
A. FCD Range Set 2-196
B. FCD Range 2-198

2.5 FCD-Mapper File Menu 2-200

2.5.1 Close of the project to be processing 2-200
2.5.2 Changing the expert file, the name of the person conducting 2-202
the analysis, and comments on the project
2.5.3 Adding to or deleting from the project file, the expert file, or 2-204
the name of the person conducting the analysis
A. Deleting the name of a person in conducting the analysis 2-204
B. Adding and Deleting of the project file 2-204
C. Adding to and Deleting of the expert file 2-206
2.5.4 Export of the TIFF or GeoTIFF file 2-208
2.5.5 False color display of the processing image 2-210
2.5.6 Pseudo color display of the processing image 2-210
2.5.7 Scatter Diagram 2-212

2.6 Image display window operation 2-214

A. False Setting 2-216
B. Pseudo Setting 2-216
C. Save Bitmap 2-218
D. Print 2-218
E. Zoom 2-218
F. Histogram 2-218
G. Ruler 2-218
H. Scale 2-219

Appendix 2-220
Introduction
Forest Canopy density is one of the most useful parameters to consider in
the planning and implementation of afforestation, reforestation and
rehabilitation of logged over areas. Forest cover is of great interest to a
variety of scientific and land management applications, many of which
require not only information on forest categories, but also tree canopy
density. In the present project, a model is developed for estimating tree
canopy density based on empirical relationships between tree canopy
density and Landsat data. The Semi-expert System, FCD-Mapper, is a
computer software package compatible with window based personal
computer. The FCD-Mapper contains the algorithms and other formulas
utilized to computer values of the several indices contained in the Forest
Canopy Density Mapping Model, or simply the FCD Model, for the analysis
of satellite imagery data.

A. Background of Forest Canopy Density Mapping Model

As generally applied in forestry, conventional RS methodology is based on

statistical analysis of information derived from “training areas” (i.e.,
ground-truthing). This has certain disadvantages in terms of the time and
cost required for training area establishment, and the accuracy of results
obtained. In response to these problems, new methodology was developed
during ITTO Project PD 32/93 Rev. 2 (F), “Rehabilitation of Logged-over
Forests in Asia-Pacific Region, Sub-project III”. In this new methodology,
forest status is assessed on the basis of canopy density. The methodology
is presently identified as the Forest Canopy Density Mapping Model, or for
short the FCD Model. Unlike the conventional statistical method, the
FCD Model indicates the growth phenomena of forests. The degree of
forest density is expressed in percentages: i.e. 10% FCD; 20%; 30%; 40%
and so on. FCD data indicates the intensity of rehabilitation treatment
that may be required. The method also makes it possible to monitor
transformation of forest conditions over time including degradation.
Additionally, it can assess the progress of reforestation activities.

Field tests were conducted in both tropical (evergreen) and monsoon

(deciduous) forests to compare results derived using the FCD Model with
data obtained from conventional forest inventory methods. Correlation of
ground-based assessment data and results of RS-based assessment verified
an accuracy of more or less ninety percent (90%) using the FCD Model.
Among others, the methodology makes it possible to differentiate between
vegetation in the canopy and vegetation on the ground (e.g. grass).
Because the data is in digital format, tables quantifying the number of
hectares in each canopy density category from 10% and up, are prepared
and printed out with ease. In the preparation of national land use and
management plans, current forest status can be determined without
incurring the costs and time required to establish training areas.
Additionally, imagery produced by the FCD Model conveys a clear picture of
forest conditions which is easy for foresters, non-foresters and the general
public to understand.

B. Development of the Semi-expert System for the FCD Model

At present, RS assessment of forest conditions is a task reserved for

personnel who have received special training in remote sensing analysis.
Furthermore, the images derived from conventional RS analysis have rarely
been simple enough to be readily understood by practicing foresters,
planning officers and other concerned individuals.

As a follow-on phase of the previous project, the Japan Overseas Forestry

Consultants Association (JOFCA) has been implementing ITTO Project, PD
13/97 Rev. 1 (F), and developed the Semi-expert System to make the new
methodology more available to persons who are not RS experts. The system
is now available on CD-ROM format.

C. Principal Features of the Semi-expert System

The Semi-expert System, or simply the FCD Mapper, is a computer

software package compatible with Windows-type personal computers. The
FCD Mapper contains the algorithms and other formulas utilized to
compute values of the several indices contained in the FCD Model for the
analysis of satellite imagery data.

The system will upgrade the planning capacity of decision-makers in forest

management and increase the information collecting capability of foresters,
while reducing costs and saving time.

Use of the Semi-expert system will facilitate production of “user-friendly”

satellite imagery that accurately portrays forest conditions. Access to such
imagery will increase the capability of foresters to provide accurate,
unbiased data on the status of forests in a format that is easy to
understand.
1. FCD Mapping Methodology

1.1 Space Remote Sensing for Forest Management

1-1
 Space Remote Sensing for Forest Management

P. S. Roy
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing
(National Remote Sensing Agency)
Dehradun
e-mail: dean@[Link] & psr@[Link]

1. Introduction
Adopting sustainable development strategies is no more an option, but an
imperative necessity for achieving economic and food security for humanity. This has
been central theme of agreement of earth Summit in Rio-de-Janeiro in1992 popularly
called as Agenda 21. The scientific and technological knowledge should contribute to
achieve it. While the spectacular developments in space technology during the last
four decades have very forcefully revealed the concept and nature of the single fragile
global village. The survival of our planet as a whole is dependent on promoting a
reasonable quality of life on a sustainable basis in harmony with nature and its
environment. The repetitive coverage of satellite remote sensing with various spatial
and temporal scales offers the cost effective means of assessing the environmental
parameters and impact of the developmental processes. The repetitive nature of spatial
data provides excellent capability to monitor ecosystem composition, impact of
management and degradation processes. The integrated information derived from the
satellite data set assists in evolution of appropriate action plans for initiating
sustainable development (Rao, 1996).

The anthropogenic interventions in the natural forest reduces the number of

trees per unit area and canopy closure, which in turn affect the regeneration of the
plant species and leading to uneven age class distribution and invasion of weeds.
Judicious management through appropriate prescription for improving the forest stock
of any area requires the identification of various vegetation types and status at real
time. Therefore knowledge of forest types along with the density classes is necessary
for scientific forest management. Satellite remote sensing provides a mean to obtain a
synoptic view of forest and their condition on real time basis (Lillesend and Kiefer
1987). Satellite remote sensing has played a pivotal role in generating information
about forest cover, vegetation type and landuse changes (Hougton and Woodwell
1981; Botkin et al. 1984; Malingreau 1991; Roy 1993). The standardization of ground
sampling methods, understanding of spectral and temporal responses of vegetation,
coupled with the recent advancements in the digital image processing techniques have
brought about a profound acceptance of the application of satellite remote sensing
data in forest inventory and mapping. Conservation of forest ecosystem requires
understanding of the biospherical processes, understanding of their spatial
interlinkages and continuous monitoring of the human interventions. In natural
resource management all the issues are interrelated in any environmental setting.
Hence, to achieve sustainable forest management and environmental protection an
integrated approach is required. The spatial information linked with non-spatial data
makes a proper assessment & monitoring of forest environment. The paper presents

1-2
the scope of applications of remote sensing in the field of forest and environment
management and attempts to identify future prospects.

2. Forest Management
Forests are known to be one of the most important renewable natural resource.
However due socio-economic and socio-political reasons developing world of South-
East Asia has faced one of most serious degradation of forests in the tropical world.
Present world average of forest per person is 7000-sq m as against Indian average of
700 [Link].

The forest resources and forestlands need to be managed in such a way that
they meet the socio-economic and forest produce needs of not only of this generation
but for future too. In this context, forest management strategy in India should be based
on very reliable database on forest area, their productive potential and amelioration
sites. The detailed forest cover type maps are often required for laying of individual
felling coupes, planning of roads, fire lines, wildlife habitat management etc. Hence a
quick repetitive and accurate information about forest cover is required at the local,
regional state and national levels for various purposes. Satellite remote sensing and
Geographic Information System (GIS) have demonstrated that together they have
potential to provide comprehensive information on various facets of forest
management in India (Fig 1.1.1). The experiences and methodologies to address the
user needs are described. It is also attempted to summarise future applications and
technological trends.

Fig. 1.1.1 Facets of remote sensing for multiple level of information needed in
forestry activities

2.1 Forest density depletion process

Conventional forest management with the objective of maximising

commercial returns is no longer adequate to cope with the challenges of forestry in the
developing world particularly Asia Pacific region. The social interface and forest
resource utilisation pattern has given rise to three zones viz. forest, fringe and non-

1-3
forest. The first zone (forest) is a result of natural forces while second and third zones
(fringe and non-forest) are primarily man-made systems Fig. 1.1.2.

Due to the continuous interaction between the forest and non-forest systems,
there is an outward flow of resources from the forest towards the man-made (non
forest) systems through the fringe Fig. 1.1.2. This outward flow is characterised by
fragmentation of the forest and its fringe thereby resulting in low density of the
primary forests. The corrective measures that can reverse this shift vary according to
the prevailing forest, non-forest and fringe situations. The immediate challenge in
forest rehabilitation is to bring about a stabilisation of the boundaries by enhancing
the productivity of the fringe.

Very few attempts have been reported to stratify the forest density using
satellite remote sensing digital data. So far forest density mapping has been carried
out on the basis of tonal variations within a scene by most of the workers
(Madhavanunni et al. 1991). However with the increase in spectral and spatial
resolutions volume of data has increased considerably. With this, there is also an
increase in the information content and ‘mixed pixels’, which poses challenge to the
existing classification techniques of forest stratification (McCloy, 1980).

- -

FOREST FRINGE NON FOREST

Forest Resource Depletion Processes

• Demogr aphic Pr essur e • Demogr aphic Pr essur e
• Social / Gender unequality • Ur banisation
• Unemployment • Depletion of ar able land
• Low Agr icultur al • Pollution
Pr oduction ( land, water ,air )
• Lack of Oppor tunities • Agr icultur e -Low income
for economic r etur n

Resultant D i r e c t i o n

• Resour c e
Depletion

• Boundar y
Shifting

• Incr eased
Impac t

Fig. 1.1.2 Social and ecological interactions affecting forest management

1-4
3. Forest Cover Mapping and Monitoring
Satellite remote sensing data has been extensively used to map forests of
tropics where up to date data about spatial distribution are absent or lacking. In South-
east Asia region, a national level attempts have been made to map forests on 1: 1
million or 1:25,000 scale using interpretation of satellite data. High resolution
satellite images are even provide maps on 1:10,000 scale with resource and density
information. The techniques are operational in many of the countries and are being
used extensively.

3.1 Global / Regional Forest Cover Assessment

The Forest Resource Assessment (FRA 1990) of the FAO presented a global
analysis of the distribution of forest ecosystem in 1990, as well as changes during
1980-90. The study was conducted for three separate regions: temperate forests in
developed countries; tropical forests in developing countries and non-tropical forests
in developing countries (FAO 1996). The FRA 1990 assessment of the tropical zone
was conducted using two complementary approaches. The first was based on
statistical analysis of existing, reliable forest inventory data from different countries.
The second approach made use of multidate observations of forest cover using high-
resolution satellite images for 1980 and 1990 at statistical chosen sample locations.
The sample frame used by the FAO in this assessment was based on the Landsat
World Reference 2 System (WRS-2). The WRS-2 system is well known and is used to
identify Landsat scenes based on a system of paths and rows. It provides a convenient
sampling frame for a sample of Landsat scenes. Efforts have been started to map the
distribution and extent of the major land cover classes acceptable at global level. A
monitoring system that ideally encompasses all the geographical and ecosystem
dimensions of the changes, which have been followed as a result of massive
industrialization and urbanization, was developed as GLC 2000. This effort could
provide a baseline map, which can be used in conjunction with other data sets
available to define the extent of deforestation. SPOT vegetatio data has been used to
prepare a land use/land cover map of South Asia (Fig.1.1.3). This initiative is part of
the on going global land cover-mapping project (GLC 2000) to which Indian Institute
of Remote Sensing is a collaborator with Joint Research Centre (European
Commission) for mapping in the South Asia. The project aims to explore the
possibilities of SPOT Vegetatio for vegetation analysis.

In order to overcome problems of data compatibility due to differences in the base

years and standardize national level data, the assessment of tropical forests
incorporated demographic evolution and ecological zoning to model forest cover
change. The international Geosphere Biosphere Programme (IGBP), the US
Geological Survey (global land cover), the Commission of the European
Community’s TREES project (tropical moist forest), NASA’s PATHFINDER
programme, FAO’s AFRICOVER project and the Woods Hole Research Center are
using remote sensing techniques to map forest or land cover digitally at global and/or
regional level. The PATHFINDER project covers only the tropical moist forests with
high-resolution satellite data. The classification is simple, including forest and non-
forest as the main categories. The TREES, IGBP, Woods Hole efforts and US

1-5
Geological Survey rely on low-resolution (AVHRR) imagery. Earlier Global Area
Coverage (GAC) NOAA-AVHRR data of 1-km/4-km resolution has been used to
produce continental scale vegetation map (Townshend et al. 1987; Tucker et al. 1985).

Fig. 1.1.3 Classified Landuse Landcover map of South Central Asia

3.2 Forest Density

Forest density expressing the stocking status constitutes the single major stand
physiognomic characteristic of the forest. The canopy closure, number of trees per
unit area and basal area are often taken as parameters to measure density. Satellite
remote sensing provides a measure of the canopy closure. The percent crown closure
is a measure of area occupation rather than stand density. However it is an important
parameter used to stratify the forests. The ecological conditions like, light penetration
through the canopy, surface reflection and rainfall interception are dependent on the
crown density. Forest stock maps are the basic data used by the forest divisions in
preparing a working plan for forest management. It is prepared on a topographical
map of a large scale (1:15,750 approx.) by various state forest departments showing
the local forest types with conventional method of making stock maps using ground
surveys. In India reliable spatial database on the forest cover, its structure and

1-6
function are discrete. Forest stock maps, showing local forest types with their crown
density, site quality and age group of the crop, are the base data used by the forest
division for preparing a working plan. However conventional method of making
stock maps using ground survey is time consuming. It is therefore, difficult to
complete the revision in scheduled time. As a result most of the stock maps do not
reflect current status of forests.

3.3 Forest Stock Mapping

Stock maps depict forest type, density, encroachments cultivation patches

regeneration status and an idea about available resources. Conventional ground
surveys are time consuming and strenuous. They are also limited by the difficulty in
systematic traversing, boundary delineation etc. Visual or digital classification
interpretation methodology to update stock maps from high resolution satellite data
like IRS-1C PAN and now IKNUS have shown possibility of achieving more
informative stock maps than conventional although the latter data sets provide more
details.

Many of the countries have started using satellite remote sensing data for
mapping on 1:50 000 scale and overlaying compartment boundaries to obtain stocking
information. This approach needs further consolidation by incorporating digital
approaches in data enhancements or classification. In intensive forest management
areas this mapping should be done on 1:25 000 scale using IRS LISS III and PAN
hybrid images.

3.4 Conventional Methods for Forest Density Estimation

3.4.1 Measurement with instruments

Various instruments are used for the estimation of forest canopy density.
However all these instruments have the disadvantage as the density estimation is
having certain bias because of the instrument. The ‘moosehorn’ is a simple
instrument projecting a dot grid on the canopy. The instrument produces canopy
density estimates which are not significantly biased. Another instrument is the
spherical densiometer, which employs a concave or convex mirror in which canopy is
reflected. The ceptometer is also based on the same principle for canopy density
estimation. The estimation of canopy density by this method is time consuming and is
expensive. Also vertical stratification in the forest does create problem in
measurement of the canopy closure using grided mirror technique, especially in the
situation when bamboo occupies the understorey.

3.4.2 Qualitative Ocular Method

Qualitative ocular method is most commonly used method for canopy density
estimation within a specified range. In this method the observer takes a vertical
traverse and determines the canopy density depending on the presence of crown width
in a sample plot. With ocular estimate of the density, a tendency of under estimation

1-7
exists because gaps in the canopy are overestimated rather than underestimated as
observed in the tropical rain forests.

3.4.3 Application of Angle Count Method

The instrument used consists of a sighting rod and a traverse stick which is
exactly two thirds of the length of the sighting rod and defines the limiting angle α.
The number of tree crowns, projected into the horizontal sighting direction, appearing
broader than the angle α within the full 360O sweep, corresponds to the crown density
expressed in decimal parts of 1. This method is easy to perform but has not been
tested sufficiently in the determination of crown density. This procedure is
particularly suited for relatively low crowns and in open stands. In dense stands
values over 1.0 may occur because of the crown overlap.

3.4.4 Photographic Recording of the Canopy Density

Photographic recording can be used to estimate the forest canopy density. To

obtain density variability in the ground “fish eye” (divergent lens) photographs are
used. An ordinary camera is also used to photograph the canopy. While taking the
photograph the camera is aimed towards the canopy in a direction that excludes lower
storey vegetation. However fish eye camera is not used commonly because its wide
angle often includes adjacent vegetation outside the target area of the photograph.
The photographs thus taken can be digitised enabling computerised analysis and
thereby helping accurate unbiased analysis of forest canopy density. Also the
photographs can be scanned and converted to digital image having various grey levels.
The image thus obtained can be density sliced which will give an unbiased estimation
of forest canopy density. This method is accurate but is time consuming and most
expensive.

[Link] Aerial Photo-interpretation

Canopy density from aerial photographs can be measured either jocularly or

with the help of some measuring device. Ocular estimates require practice of
studying aerial photographs under stereoscope but the method is highly subjective.
Objective estimation of crown density can, however, be made by use of some device
such as dot sampling design or crown density scale. The dot sampling is a transparent
plate with a number of evenly distributed dots. The transparent plate is placed on one
photograph of the stereo pair so that the photograph of the stand whose density is to
be determined is fully covered. The proportion of the number of dots which fall on
the tree canopy to the total gives the canopy density.

A still better method is to dot sampling technique which involves comparing

the aerial photographs with certain standard scale showing various densities. These
standard scales can be made either from actual photographs of area whose canopy
density is to be estimated or by making diagrammatic representation of various
densities. In order to use the scale, the interpreter slides the scale placed besides the
aerial photographs under the stereoscope up and down till standard corresponds with
the photographs. The accuracy of the canopy density depends on the scale of aerial

1-8
photographs. The larger the scale of photographs more is the accuracy. Forest
density class interval depends on the nature of the photo quality and scale of
photographs. Following class intervals have been suggested by Tomar and Maslekar
for Indian conditions (Table 1.1.1)

Table. 1.1.1 Forest canopy density classes vis-à-vis scale in remote sensing

S. Large Scale Medium Scale Small Scale

No. (1:20,000 and larger) (1:20,000 to 1:40,000) (Smaller than 1:40,000 )
1. < 20% < 20% < 20%
2. 20-40% 20-40% 20-60%
3. 40-60% 40-60% --
4. 60-80% -- --
5. 80% + 60% + 60% +

However the canopy density estimation using aerial photographs could not
become popular due to difficulty in their procurement and high cost.

3.4.5 Satellite Based Methods

[Link] Visual Interpretation

In the visual interpretation method different types and density are separated
depending on the tonal variation. The visual interpretation technique has been widely
used for forest cover mapping (Anon. 1983, 1985; Porwal et al. 1994). However the
visual interpretation technique is subjective and depends on the field knowledge and
aptitude of the interpreter. The National Forest Cover Mapping programme
undertaken by Forest Survey of India is primarily based on visual interpretation
wherein forests are classified into three major density classes viz. dense forest (>
40%), open forest (40-10%) and scrub forest (< 10%) on 1:250,000 scale. The
methodology is subjective and varies with the aptitude of interpreter.

[Link] Image Ratioing

In general two satellite based methods have been used in conventional remote
sensing analysis of the forest vegetation viz. statistical method and physical method.
The statistical method (supervised and unsupervised classification) classifies similar
types of vegetation into specific categories through multivariate analysis of multi
spectral data. Classification of vegetation status using the statistical methods can
often be misleading because the spectral characteristics of different types of
vegetation are frequently quite similar at certain times of the year. Hence it is often
difficult to conduct detailed classification of vegetation status using the statistical
methods because the spectral characteristics are cumulative effect of variation due to
type of forest, canopy closure, background canopy roughness, illumination geometry
and spatial resolution of the sensor. It is possible to minimize this problem by
overlaying multi-temporal data covering the same area, observed at different seasons

1-9
of the year. However this will require a repetition of the analysis and will not be cost
effective.

In the physical method of determining vegetation status, the spectral

characteristics of chlorophyll-a are extracted from the satellite data. Vegetation
density is estimated through synthesis of vegetation index and bare soil index. The
NDVI is often used to stratify vegetation and non-vegetation areas. However,
physical method have the disadvantage as the subtle differences due to canopy density
in the infrared and red are not highlighted in the ratio based indices. The value of the
vegetation index derived from physical method is not so reliable in situation where the
crown closure is < 50%.

[Link] Forest Density Classification Approach

The vegetation crown closure density can be stratified using combined IRS
data and NDVI. The necessary information with respect to forest type and canopy
density can be obtained from IRS data with good percentage accuracy. It has been
observed that NDVI with normal data increases the accuracy in physiognomic
stratification. NDVI as such has shown positive relationship with the canopy closure
(Roy et al. 1990). However, the results are not reliable if crown closure is <50%.
Further the accuracy can be increased by merging IRS Panchromatic data (spatial
resolution 5.8 m) with IRS LISS III data. It enables to discriminate the maximum
texture with respect to forest canopy density (FCD) and hence provides an unbiased
estimation of FCD.

[Link] Biophysical Spectral Response Modelling

Biophysical vegetation indices are capable of handling variations introduced in

a scene due to atmosphere or sensor or vegetation background influences. They can
reduce the effect of bias and assist in the extraction of significant features of a
specified ground object (Curran 1980; Malila et al. 1981). These indices also help in
categorising mixed pixel effectively (McCloy and Hall 1991).

ITTO-JOFCA (1993), suggested that the subtle differences can be improved

by using power degree of the infrared response and it has been found to be more
sensitive to forest density and physiognomic vegetation classes. The index thus
calculated is termed as advanced vegetation index (AVI). For more detailed
estimation of vegetation status, a bare soil index (BI) is calculated. The underlying
logic for this approach is based on the high reciprocity of bare soil status and
vegetation status. Therefore, by combining both BI and AVI in the analysis, it
becomes possible to estimate the ground status on a continuum ranging from
vegetatively rich conditions to exposed soil conditions. The BI is formulated with
medium infrared information. In addition to vegetation type and status, the unique
characteristic of forest is its three dimensional structure. To extract information on
this shadow index (SI) is used through extraction of the low radiance of visible light.

This approach isolates vegetation feature space using advanced vegetation

index (AVI) and bare soil index (BI). The vegetation feature space is further stratified

1 - 10
using shadow index (SI) on the basis of texture variation introduced by the canopy
shadow of the forest stand.

The Landsat TM bands (except band 6) were normalised using linear

transformation. The temperature calibration using coefficients for Landsat 5 was
done to estimate ground temperature. The temperature data has only been used to
separate soil and non tree shadow. The spectral data set is subjected to physical
transformation using enhancement techniques (Anon. 1993). The vegetation feature
space data was stratified based on the ‘texture’ of the data as influenced by the canopy
shadow. Finally rule based logic is implemented to achieve land cover and forest
density classification. The results can be improved by using water mask from Landsat
TM band 7.

3.5 Growing Stock Estimation

Though the strategies have shifted from commercial forestry to conservation

forestry; people oriented productivity in terms of non wood forest products have to be
estimated for their yield regulation. Hence, estimating growing stock in terms of wood
and non-wood forest products is a priority. Multistage sampling approach using
remote sensing provides most reliable estimate of forest resource stockings (Chacko,
1964) (Singh and Roy, 1990) estimated volume of individual forest types and further
grouped in to utility groups using Landsat TM (1:50 000 scale images). Ultimately,
stratified populations (at different levels) are sampled to estimate total stock. This
approach with multi-resolution sensor systems can provide higher accuracy in
estimates.

4. Vegetation Type Mapping and Monitoring Changes

Forest vegetation types are classified based on physiognomy, structure,
function and composition and also on height classes and distinction of woody tissue.
Forest classification in the region is based on physiognomy, climate, sucession and
ecological status. Satellite remote sensing data presents above information on
integrated manner and has been used for vegetation stratification by several authors
(Houghton and Woodwell 1981; Botkin et al.1984; Roy, 1993). The different studies
carried out demonstrate that satellite remote sensing can stratify forest based on
following criteria:

• Phenological types as a function of leaf duration (e.g. Evergreen, Semi-

evergreen, Moist deciduous and Dry deciduous);
• Major communities and gregarious species (e.g. Sal, Dipterocarpus, Pine,
Teak, Bamboo, Oak, Deodar, etc.);
• Vegetation types of unique environmental setup (e.g. Mangroves, Sholas,
Riverine, Alpine pastures, etc.) and
• Canopy closure expressed as forest density (e.g. encroachments, shifting
cultivation and different density levels)

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 Since vegetation is the indicator of environmental condition, it continuous
monitoring acts as the watchdog for the environment. Remote sensing provides
information on any positive and negative change in vegetation cover unambiguously,
being above all the levels of socio-economic or political bias. Hence remote sensing
has the potential to act as a legal tool to overcome all the problems/difficulties &
socio-economic conflicts.

The basic premise of the change detection through remote sensing is that the
spectral signatures change commensurate with the change in the land cover (Roy et.
al., 1996). Superimposition of two period maps to find the change is an established
procedure. Digital change detection methods involve more time on computer for the
response and changes in ground facts limit its accuracy. Many procedures exist for
digitally Though it is possible to identify classes on both images, scene dependent
spectral detecting change viz. image differencing, image rationing, principal
component analysis, image regression etc.

Fig. 1.1.4 Criteria commonly used for rapid assessment of biodiversity

The medium resolution Wide Field Sensor (WiFS) in IRS -1C/1D and IRS -P3.
WiFS has also demonstrated of its ability in classifying forest type, land use/land
cover, and agricultural production in Indian subcontinent. It is well tuned for
monitoring vegetation status and dynamics. Improvement over existing accuracy of
80% using careful analysis and combination of multidate data has been suggested
(Roy et al .1995). The information derived from satellite remote sensing is being used
in varied facets of forest management.

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5. Deforestation Monitoring

The pressure of forests is greatest in the developing countries. The primary

causes of deforestation are encroachment of forest area for agricultural production and
exploitation of forest cover for meeting housing and industrial needs. Deforestation
leads to an increase in the loading of CO2 in the atmosphere. Increased albedo and
change in aerodynamic roughness over deforested areas alter the energy balance
bearing implications on atmospheric circulation patterns and rainfall statistics.
Deforestation leads to soil erosion & gradual loss of biodiversity.

The amount of vegetation loss/deforestation due to encroachment can be

estimated by the use of remote sensing technique. The impact of slash and burn during
and after the ‘jhumming’ operations is clearly visible from remote sensing imageries.
The representative relationship between the population density and the percent of
forest cover provides information about the rate of deforestation and thereby helps in
formulating the mitigation plan. Utilization of remote sensing tool for stock mapping
and growing stock estimation for forest management improves reliability.

5.1 Encroachment Monitoring

Reserved forests are always prone to encroachment by the locals. To monitor

the extent of forest loss & reserved area boundary, satellite imageries are useful by
providing regular and repetitive information. Thus it acts as a legal tool for the control
of encroachment and forest loss. Space Application Centre has demonstrated this in
Sanjay Gandhi National Park (Maharastra). However, operational needs demand
mapping ability on 1: 10,000 or larger with better than 10m positional accuracy.

6. Biodiversity Conservation Planning

India is identified as one of the important biodiversity pool known for their
genetic, economic and economic prudence. Conservation of biodiversity can only be
achieved through conservation of biological habitats, which require a detailed survey,
and inventory of the existing bioresources, conservation of ecosystems through
appropriate legislation and protection of marine resources, parks, sanctuaries, forests,
wetlands and coral reefs. Remote sensing techniques are useful in locating different
types of bioresources, to identify appropriate corridors surrounding natural habitats
and protect them from human intervention and other harmful influences, which
endanger the existence of these habitats.

Ecologists generally classify biodiversity under three categories, which

represent the biodiversity function associated with landscape features, already
identified inventory, differentiation diversity and pattern diversity. Spatial, temporal
and composition patterns and their interrelationships, can be derived from
identification and analysis of landscape units using remote sensing techniques. Using
different landscape ecological parameters along with restricted ground observation
biologically rich areas, hot spots, warm spots, hot specks, can be identified for
conservation prioritisation. A project is presently undertaken by the Department of

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Space and Department of Biotechnology at national level to prioritise the biologically
rich areas in the three mega-diversity sites of India. The conceptual hypothesis and the
approach are provided as Fig. 1.1.4 & 1.1.5 respectively. Biologically rich areas &
Disturbance index maps will be prepared in three important biologically sites viz.,
north eastern region, western Ghats and north west Himalayas. The database will
definitely form the basis for biodivesity conservation and prioritise the sites for more
intensive investigation. The data base will facilitate to formulate legislative measures
for conservation.

6.1 Habitat Management

Preservation and protection of habitats is the greatest way of bio-diversity

conservation. The essential parameters for habitat analysis are forest cover, food,
water and topography. Important national Parks have been analysed for various
habitat zones based on their attributes. Remote sensing provides valuable information
on vegetation landscape structure. Geographic Information System (GIS) is employed
to analyse for habitat interspersion and juxtaposition which indicate the degree of
suitability of an area for wildlife habitation. Interspersion and juxtaposition maps are
used with restrictive factors, availability of water, slope of the terrain, remoteness
from anthropogenic structures to stratify existing landscape structures. Habitat
suitability is modelled using spatial (derived from remote sensing) and non-spatial
(field data) information. Successful habitat analysis leads to the management of
habitat holistically (Roy et. al., 1995).

Fig. 1.1.5 Habitat suitability analysis

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6.2 Protected Areas

For more than two decades, attempts to protect wildlife and wildlife habitats
in India have been pursued by setting up national parks and sanctuaries. In these
protected areas, however, human activities such as animal grazing and forest produce
collection are banned or severely restricted, even though people may have lived in and
conserved the areas for generations. Ensuing conflicts, particularly when combined
with industrial pressures on the areas, have spurred many conservationists, social
activists and forest officials to reconsider on national and local levels the artificial
divide between conservation and human rights. A proper management plan prepared
for the village locals to satisfy their socio-economic needs is possible by using remote
sensing data.

The protected areas become totally isolated from the surroundings resulting in
‘islands’. Remote sensing images are utilized to study all the characteristics of ‘island’
and the balance between linkage from outside the island & configuration within it.
Hence the identification & study of the protected areas in general provide us with
'design principles' that can be used in the planning of 'nature reserves'. The habitat
maps can be used in GIS to analyse for suitability of particular wild life (Roy et al.
1995).

7. Biodiversity Characterisation at landscape level

Biodiversity is generally the greatest in the oldest ecosystems. It changes

across environmental gradients like, latitude, altitude, depth, aridity etc. The habitat
definitions in the form of vegetation cover types will allow ‘what to look and where?’.
The disturbance regimes assessed across the landscape will allow focusing on the
ecosystems, which are under ‘stress’. Landscape ecological principles provide insight
to the natural and human induced factors which may influence the biodiversity
distribution. Hence, if the field survey indicates that the region is an important habitat
for a species for bioprospecting, the ‘stress’ factor needs to be removed/reduced.
Biological Richness Indices (BR) asserts the areas, which should be treated on priority
in decision making and at management level for conservation of biodiversity.
Conventional methods of biodiversity assessment mainly focus on calculating species
richness, species dominance, similarity indices based on phyto-sociological data or
floristic inventory by Botanical Survey of India. In real world, these indices alone do
not depict biodiversity of natural landscape. Towards this India has conceived
national programme to create geospatial database on vegetation cover types,
disturbance regimes and biological richness. The spatial data have also been linked
with the species database of Botanical Survey of India-Red Data Book and field
sample data laid down in the different strata of vegetation. Attempts have also been
made to overlay Botanical Survey of India-Red Data Book-species locations (as
indicated habitats) on the maps generated in the present study. The ‘Gap Analysis’
carried out on these maps will guide management and decision making for
bioprospecting.

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 All plant species have basic requirements for its ecological optima (in
particular habitat within the range of tolerance and requirement). Habitat
identification and economic importance of the species can be useful inputs for
bioprospecting. Biologically rich (BR) areas are those habitats, where landscape
ecological conditions are favorable for natural speciation and evolutionary process.
These areas can be expected to be in an equilibrium, where species can occur, grow
and evolve in natural conditions (Fig. 1.1.6).

Each species requires minimum/optimum area for its survival, evolution and
gene exchange. Analysis of habitat fragmentation, patchiness, interspersion and
juxtaposition has impact on the definition of the limits (Fig. 1.1.7). Greater the
variety of types of habitat, greater is the diversity of species. Diversity also increases
with expanding architectural complexity of the physical habitat. Management of
contagious (large), intact and juxtaposed patches of high diversity in any landscape
should draw first attention for conservation. The ground inventories on
species/genetic diversity should further decide on priorities. The patches with genetic
and species diversity should draw first attention, followed by patches of high species
or genetic diversity. Most of the species growing in the natural conditions have some
sociological association with the species – environment complex and in general have
fairly well defined niche. Similar ecological conditions in different geographical
locations bear similarity if not same biodiversity, but they do have
differences/dissimilarities at genetic level. The vegetation cover types, their
composition, association, latitude, altitude, fragmentation levels, inferences on
possible corridors and species data base compliments the information needs.

Fig. 1.1.6 Approach used for biodiversity characterisation at landscape level

The study is a pioneering effort to build national database on biodiversity at

landscape level. This is an important task to check alarming biodiversity loss in vogue
in this part of the country. The information system evolved through multicriteria
analysis in GIS, facilitates the following:

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 • Rapid assessment of biodiversity and its monitoring (loss and/or gain);
• Assessment of nature of habitats and disturbance regimes therein;
• Evolving species – habitat relationship;
• Mapping biological richness and gap analysis; and
• Prioritizing conservation and bioprospecting.

8. Biomass and Productivity Estimation

Vegetation type, its biomass and productivity estimations are considered
important components affecting biosphere-atmosphere interactions. The
measurements of biomass per unit area and productivity have also been set as goals
for International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP).

Fig. 1.1.7 Schematic representation of Biodiversity Characterisation at Landscape

Level (Roy and Tomar, 2000)

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 Biomass distribution in the second method the empirical relationships are used
for converting multispectral response in biomass values. The ground measurements
are done in the homogenous vegetation sample stratums. The correlation coefficient
between observed and predicted biomass is 0.77 (with error of estimate as 10.5%).
Among the two methods, the first one has been found to more accurate and extendable
on larger landscapes.

Primary productivity and their seasonal variations are the key components in
the carbon cycling. Estimation of this provides insight for our better understanding of
the global climatic changes and the rates of mass and energy fluxes between plant
canopies and atmosphere, which are intricately linked with the landuse changes.

Recent research has shown that the integrated vegetation index can be related
directly to the regional primary productivity. However such studies have remained
confined to NOAA-AVHRR spatial resolution. Several models are now available for
the assessment of the forest productivity like model based on biome types only
(Whittaker and Likens, 1975), model utilising the meteorological parameters (Lieth,
l975) and Forest BGC model (Running and Coughltan, 1988).

With the recent advances in remote sensing for ecological research the
Production Efficiency Model approach has come up which takes into account the
most versatile parameter of vegetation i.e. APAR.

Thus, models utilising the direct relationship of APAR with satellite

parameters seem to attract the most. The physical basis of these models is that the
measurements of light interception by canopy can be related empirically to dry matter
production over time to produce predictive models of productivity as a function of
intercepted radiation. The relationship between dry matter production and intercepted
radiation under relatively constant environmental conditions at a single site usually is
linear (Monteith, 1977; Linder et. al., 1985; Cannel et. al., 1987).

W (t) = ε ϕ ∑(ϕabs) t

Where, W (t) is the dry matter accumulation during time interval t, ε ϕ is the
conversion efficiency of plant to convert light into dry matter and ϕabs is the absorbed
photosynthetically active radiation during time interval t.

(Kumar and Monteith, 1982) and others noted that vegetation indices
calculated ad the normalised difference vegetation index (N=[IN-IR]/[IN+IR]) or simple
vegetation index (IN/IR) are approximately linearly related to the fraction of the
incident photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) that is absorbed by the canopy
(FAPAR). These two relationships can be coupled to create a model in which primary
productions is related to the temporary sums of NDVI by means of a light conversion
efficiency factor (Prince, 1991). (Goward and Dye, 1987) has built upon the
conceptual framework of Monteith (1972) to develop a model of primary production
applicable at the regional scale. The model utilised for the study by Roy & Abhineet,
1998 is illustrated in Fig. 1.1.8.

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 NPP = ε Σ ( Nt St )

Where, NPP = Seasonal production in Kg ha-1; Nt= Integrated NDVI; St= Total
incident PAR (during time interval t); ε =Light conversion efficiency (gC/unit PAR)

9. Integrated Natural Resources Management

The answer to provide food security to the world without affecting ecological
balance lies in the adoption of new scientific tools available particularly, the use of
vital inputs from space remote sensing and biotechnological advances. Remote
sensing provides useful information related to agriculture, forestry, land resources,
and soil mapping, under ground and surface water, wasteland, coastal mapping,
mineral prospecting and ocean resource. Integration of these vital inputs from space
with socio-economic data at micro-level has resulted in the initiation of sustainable
integrated development strategies at each watershed level, for achieving increased
agricultural production without impairing ecological & environmental integrity &
affecting the future habitability of the planet.

Fig. 1.1.8 Approach for biomass estimation using remote sensing (Statistical
Sampling Technique)

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 Fig. 1.1.9 Approach for biomass / productivity estimation

Fig. 1.1.10 Model for estimation of net primary production using satellite derived
normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI)

9.1 Management of Land Resources

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 Continuous monitoring of land use / land cover with remote sensing imageries
agricultural planning have been of immense use in providing information on temporal
changes in forest, mangrove and shifting cultivation areas, enabling to take timely
measures for arresting and conserving its valuable resources. The ability to identify
saline / alkaline or reduce soil salinity / acidity as the case may be, and adoption of
alternate suitable crops or cropping patterns to restore the fertility of soil to the
original level (Raghavaswamy et. al, 1992).

National level land use mapping on 1:250 000 scale has been done using
satellite remote sensing data. The data has been put to use for agro-climatic zonation.
The physiographic analysis and landuse information has made it possible to map soil
association upto the scale of 1:25000 scale. National Bureau of Soil Survey (ICAR)
has mapped the soil of the country 0n 1:250 000 scale. Besides, methods are available
to map soil degradation processes like salinisation, erosion and water logging.

Grasslands or grazing lands are another important biome, which have been
degraded due to ever increasing cattle population. The pilot studies carried out have
demonstrated that besides physiognomic classification of grasslands, satellite data
also provide valuable information on the degradational status of the grasslands. The
spatial information of grassland types, stratumwise biomass estimation and socio-
economic information has been used to estimate carrying capacity of these grasslands.

9.2 Management of Water Resources

Remote sensing satisfies the first task in the management of water resources
by regular monitoring and inventorying of both surface and ground water potential.
Regular monitoring of the contour level changes of reservoirs over a period of few
years and use of appropriate regression models based on the well known cone
formula, has made it possible to quantitatively compute water storage capacity of the
reservoir as a function of time.

Integration of satellite derived & ground-based information using GIS has

helped in evaluating irrigation system performance, including the utilisation
efficiency of canals and distributaries, and to identify problem areas requiring correct
action. Staggering of crop showing dependence on water availability, particularly at
tail end of the canal system, identification of water logged areas to relieve water
congestion pockets, & detailed characterisation of deficiency in selected distributaries
to promote equity across and along distributaries. This information has generally
resulted in enhancing the paddy yield by almost 25% i.e. from 38 Qts/ha. to 48 Qts/ha,
in the Bhadra command area in India.

Application of space remote sensing for identifying underground aquifers in

India has enabled identification of drinking water resource in rural areas. Regular
receipt of feed backs from over 200,000 case studies, have confirmed that use of
remote sensing imageries followed by conventional geo-chemical methods has
increased the success rate of locating aquifers to 93% as against less than 45%
achieved using conventional methods alone. Remote sensing provides advance
drought warning, detection of crop pests and accurate assessment of crop damage due
to natural disasters.

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9.3 Wetland Conservation

Wetlands are ecologically important habitats, which are tremendous pressure

during recent years. Besides being economically important the wetland are termed as
kidney of terrestrial ecosystem. They harbour varied and unique biodiversity. Remote
sensing data has been used to map and monitor major wetlands on 1:250000. Selected
wetlands are also mapped on 1:50000 scale to characterise their surrounding. These
maps have been first reliable database on the wetlands. The seasonal characteristics
are analysed using pre and postmonsoon satellite images. It is expected that future
satellites with higher resolutions will prove an asset in inventory and management of
wetlands in the country.

9.4 Resources and Infrastructure Development

Remote sensing can play a vital role in the infrastructure development in the
following manner:

- assessing the need for infrastructure

- assessing the feasibility of the infrastructure
- providing baseline information needed for planning
- assessing the environmental implications of the infrastructure &
suggesting corrective, management measures.
- monitoring of updating of the information about infrastructure.

While infrastructure is an essential component of growth process, there are

several stages involved in its development, starting from assessment of the need,
location, technical feasibility & developmental strategies; remote sensing inputs are
useful in all these stages.

With increasing industrialisation, migration to cities & urban centres,

increasing industrial demand for water and increasing environmental concerns, it is
expected that use of remote sensing infrastructure development would dramatically
increase.

IRS-1C hybrid data (PAN + LISS-III) on 1:15,000 scale is used in urban

planning and infra structure development & development of information highway.
The enhanced output was utilised in developing City Information System (CIS), in
site selection for setting up of industrial park.

9.5 Urban Forestry

Appropriate location of sites for plantation based on environmental

components like soil, water, rainfall, temperature, maintenance cost, plant growth rate
etc. are needed for proper planning. This is not possible by the conventional method
of surveying. Remote sensing data provide information with respect to extent and
location of available lands and its spatial distribution of execution of urban social
forestry schemes.

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10. Forest Fires
Forest fires are recurrent problems in Indian forests. Prioritisation of fire risk
zones is a practical concept and an aid to fire management and planning (Jain et al.
1995) (Fig. 1.1.8). Such an approach provides information on fire prone areas and
helps in predicting forest fire. Forest managers can make use of this information to
create to construct watch towers or fire lines. Satellite remote sensing can provide
valuable information to identify and detect of forest fire. Optical remote sensing is
unable to map forest fire damage below the smoke of the fire. The temporal
resolution in presently available satellites does not provide capability to provide
information to combat forest fire. However, thermal data of NOAA-AVHRR are
being used to map hot pixels on daily basis. European Commission is compiling this
information as a part of global biomass burning monitoring mission. New initiative
with higher spatial resolution and eight bit thermal imaging is planned by German
Aerospace Agency (DLR).

11. Controlling Land Degradation

In appropriate landuse, erosion, salinisation, water logging and chemical

degradation are undoubtedly the major causes of degradation of land environment.
Desertification is the ultimate result arising from recurrent droughts, deforestation,
and overexploitation of agricultural lands and severe erosion of dry lands. Ready and
timely availability of satellite observations of existing landuse pattern from various
satellites enable all nations to take appropriate measures for improving the land
environment and recover degraded land for productive use. Wastelands critically
affected districts in India were mapped with approximate village boundaries on a 1:50,
000 scale. A geographic Information system has been used to arrive action plans for
sustainable rural development planning, considering production and conservation
(Anonymous, 1997).

12. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Environmental Impact Assessment is an activity designed to identify and
predict the impact of an action on the biogeophysical environment and on man’s
health and well being and to interpret and communicate information about the impacts.

It is essentially a dimension of the planning process rather than a specific

product. It bears a specific function i.e. ‘to influence the decisions to be made for the
environment’ and its values.

Remote Sensing by virtue of its capability to provide synoptic and frequent

coverage plays a potential role in both rapid and comprehensive EIA. It contributes
significantly to number of biophysical and cultural factors for impact analysis.
Methods of impact analysis are adhoc methods, overlays, checklists, networks,
matrices, quantitative or index method and models.

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 Fire History

Ground Data
on Fuel Fire Frequency

Satellite Vegetation Strata

Derived ( Fuel Value )
Vegetation
Type Map

Fire
risk
GIS Spatially derived
zone
Database Information
map

Digital
Terrain Model

Slope
Road Network

Ignition Sources

Landuse &
LandCover

Fig. 1.1.11 Approach for Fire Risk Modelling using Remote Sensing and
Geographic Information System

13. Environmental Information and Right of “information’

People living in the modern democracies are essentially safeguarded from
harm by free flow of information. Unfortunately, there are serious problems of a dual
society. Information rarely reaches to those people who end up suffering the impact of
environmental degradation due to lop sided development. Hence ‘right to information’
should be a fundamental right, enshrined in a legally binding entity so that any
company, government agency or multi- lateral institutions can be forced to release any
information relating to its own activities or of its subsidiaries or associated institutions,
which threatens peoples health or environment. The effective use of remote sensing
and space technology will provide timely, accurate and duly calibrated information
which can lend requisite edge to every sector.

The right to survive with a certain modicum of dignity – is the most

fundamental of all human rights, but unfortunately, this is not enjoyed by a large part
of human kind today. The world remains starkly divided between the rich and the
poor – between those who enjoy the resources of the earth and can worry about its
future and those who have to scrape the soil for less than bare survival. Economic
security today can become the very basis of ecological security tomorrow. An
internationally guaranteed ‘right to survive’ backed up with appropriate programmes
like space technology and remote sensing technology will only assure ecological and
environmental regeneration.

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14. Information needs in Forest Management
The information on the quality, distribution and the growing stocks of the
forest areas are required to prepare working plans. The working plan data is gathered
for this purpose every ten years, using ground-sampling techniques at divisional level.
The compartment level data relating to various factors is also maintained in the form
of maps and tables. The growing stock by species and stands of different site qualities
are also mentioned. Detailed forest cover type maps are needed for laying of
individual felling coupes, planning of roads, firelines, wildlife management etc.

The present practice of manual data collection and storing in registers, history
sheets, field formats, periodic reports etc. is cumbersome and not easily retrievable
and manageable because of sheer size and non-uniformity. Ground surveys take a lot
of time, money and labour to prepare stock maps. Satellite data combined with latest
data processing technology holds potential to provide above information and update in
desired interval.

14.1 Wildlife Management.

The factual information on habitat parameters i.e. food, water and shelter is
required to evolve plan for protected area. The data on human interventions and
impacts on wildlife are becoming increasingly important. Remote sensing provides
reliable data on three vital parameters viz., shelter, water and food, which when
integrated with other field data in GIS, can help in wildlife habitat evaluation and
management.

15 Issues on operationalisation of Satellite Remote Sensing

For optimising data selection for vegetation applications following aspects
need to be considered.

• Consideration of phenological stage of vegetation types;

• Phyto-geographical region under investigation;
• Landuse practice;
• Sun elevation and azimuth and
• Cloud and snow cover.

The areas where satellite remote sensing has potential to be used are
elaborated as below

15.1 Vegetation Type Mapping

• Phenological types as a function of leaf duration (e.g. Evergreen, Semi-

evergreen and Deciduous);
• Major communities and gregarious species (e.g. Sal, Dipterocarpus, Pine,
Teak and Bamboo);

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 • Vegetation types of unique environmental set up (e.g. Mangroves, Sholas,
riverain and alpine Zones);
• Canopy closure expressed as forest density (e.g. biotic interference like
encroachments and shifting cultivation) and
• Middle infrared band is critical.
(Type mapping accuracy in the range of 82-90 %).

15.2 National Forest Cover Mapping and Monitoring

• Robust digital approach in classification;

• Statistical approach for accuracy evaluation;
• Change areas need to be monitored on larger scale i.e. 1:50,000 (or larger);
• Creation of permanent sample points for obtaining training signature and
• Total mapping approach for change detection is not necessary (recommended
= 5yr cycle).

15.3 Forest Density Stratification and Analysis of Human Interventions

• ITTO (Anon., 1993) approach using biophysical spectral response modelling

approach is probably the most comprehensive method available today.
• With the advent of high resolution PAN data of IRS-1C/1D at 5.8 m now it is
possible to obtain to obtain better information on stand density.
• Most accepted approach is data fusion technique wherein LISS III
multispectral data set is combined with PAN data to obtain forest stand density
at 20% interval.
• Texture analysis of PAN data and subsequent merging with LISS III data has
also provided > 87 % accuracy in digital classification for density stratification.

15.4 Estimation of Growing Stock

• Identification of forest cover type, density, encroachment status, cultivation

patches available through remote sensing;
• Timber volume estimation only through ground studies. Forest maps derived
from satellite data provide basis for sampling;
• Multi-phase sampling design has been found to be very useful in growing
stock assessment for large areas;
• Some studies show usefulness of microwave multi-wavelength and multi-
polarization in volume / biomass estimation and
• Fused data set (high spatial resolution with multispectral data) enhance the
accuracy of estimation and level of stratification.

15.5 Areas where Forest Managers are looking for more information

• Species Identification.
• Plantation Monitoring (at early stage).
• Abandoned Shifting Cultivation Stage.
• Forest Density Stratification.
• Real Time Forest Fire Information.

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 • Merchantable Timber Estimation.
• Regeneration Status.

16. Conclusion
Apart from direct benefits, space technology has clearly demonstrated the
interconnectivity of both natural and anthropogenic phenomena occurring any where
in the earth, through weather, climate, geosphere and biosphere, inextricably linking
the fate of each country with that of the world as a whole. Unless sustainable
integrated development strategies based on space remote sensing and biotechnological
inputs consistent with societal demands and cultural practices are adopted in a world
wide scale, it will not be possible to ensure environmental security in the coming
decades.

The fundamental aspect of long-term sustainable development is based on the

paradigm of technological innovations, economic determinism and physical
constraints imposed by the environmental imperative of striking a judicious balance
between ultimate exploitability and regenerative capacity. Evolution and
implementation of well thought out, long-term national policies and creation of a
promotive international atmosphere alone can lead to such a development across the
world, enabling the entire human humankind to share the benefits of satellite remote
sensing.

For the sustainable and efficient management of forests, management plans must
include principles of adoptive management. Management practices aimed directly at a
particular objectives run the risk of losing ecosystem functions which might actually
be crucial for the sustainability, but which were unknown when the management plan
was created. Furthermore, maximizing benefits for one species may threaten others.
The ideal is to preserve overall ecosystem health, including species diversity. Given
the large number of species on the planet, it is impossible, or at best impractical, to
manage for every one of them. Instead, conservation biologists are now trying to
identify ways to simplify the task of landscape level management using space remote
sensing technology. The space remote sensing technology can be used for better
management of natural resources viz., landuse / landcover classification and density
stratification; biomass/growing stock estimation; assessment of encroachments,
deforestation or degradation; mapping of shifting cultivation areas, including current
and abandoned shifting cultivation; wildlife habitat characterisation and habitat
suitability analysis possible; afforestation / ecodevelopment and plantation
monitoring; post-fire damage assessment, affected area and fire-prone areas mapping ;
biodiversity characterisation at landscape level; land and water pollution assessment
and monitoring; detection, monitoring of environmental hazards and hazards
zonation ; Assessment of environmental impacts of major development activities;
illicit cutting, over-grazing and minor forest degradation assessment; Ecological
analysis such as biogeochemical cycling, carbon flux and Joint Forest Management
Action Plan development and their monitoring.

1 - 27
References
Anonymous 1983. Nationwide mapping of forest and non-forest areas using Landsat
False Colour Composite for the period 1972-75 and 1980-82, National Remote
Sensing Agency, Hyderabad, Technical Report, Vol. 1, pp. 1-36.

Anonymous 1985. The State of Forest Report, Forest Survey of India, New Delhi, pp
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Anonymous, 1997. Geographic Information System for Wasteland Mapping in

Purulia district (West Bengal). Pilot Project for Bandwan Block. Indian Institute
of Remote Sensing, Dehradun.

Abhineet Jain , S. A. Ravan, R.. K. Singh, K. K. Das and P. S. Roy. 1995. Forest fire
risk modelling using remote sensing and geographic information system. Current
Science, 70(10):928-933.

Botkin D.B, Estes J.E., McDonald R.M. and Wilson M.V. 1984. Studyimg the Earth’s
Vegetation from Space; Bioscience 34 508.

Cannell, M.G.R., Milne, R., Sheppard, L.J., and Unsworth, M.H. 1987. Radiation
interception and productivity in Willow. Journal of Applied Ecology, 24, 261-278.

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productivity with satellite data: Advances In Space Research. 7, 165-174.

Houghton, R.A and Woodwell, G.M 1981. Biotic contributions to the global carbon
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Machine Processing of Remote Sensing Data, West Lafayette, Indiana, pp 593-
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Malingreau J.P., 1991. Remote sensing for Tropical Forest Monitoring : an overview;
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McCloy K.R. 1980. Application of Landsat to mapping grassland condition in the

South East Region of South Austrialia; Soil Conservation Branch Report, Si/80,
S.A. Department of Agriculture, Adelaide pp 1-28.

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depth of subsurface coal mine fire in a part of Jharia coal field, Photogrammetry
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1.2 Concept of FCD Mapping Model and Semi-Expert System

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 Concept of FCD Mapping Model and Semi-Expert System

A. Rikimaru
Japan Overseas Forestry Consultants Association
Rinyuu-Blgd : 1-7-12 Koraku, Bunkyo-Ku, Tokyo, Japan
Abstract
Forest canopy density is one of the most useful parameters to consider in the planning
and implementation of rehabilitation program. This study is development of bio-physical
analysis model for obtaining of Forest Canopy Density (FCD) using LANDSAT TM data
image analysis. The four key components of FCD model are viz. vegetation, bare soil, thermal
and shadow. This work is implemented under the research project; PD32/93Rev. 2 (F) of
International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO).

1. Introduction

As generally applied in forestry, conventional RS methodology is based on qualitative

analysis of information derived from training areas (i.e. ground-truthing). This has certain
disadvantages in terms of the time and cost required for training area establishment, and the
accuracy of results obtained. In response to these problems, new methodology was
developed during ITTO Project PD 32/93 Rev. 2 (F), “Rehabilitation of Logged-over Forests
in Asia-Pacific Region, Sub-project III”. In this new methodology, forest status is assessed
on the basis of canopy density. The methodology is presently identified as the Forest Canopy
Density Mapping Model, or for short the FCD Model. Unlike the conventional qualitative
method, the FCD Model indicates the growth phenomena of forests which are quantitative
analysis. (Shown in Fig. 1.2.1, Fig. 1.2.2) The degree of forest density is expressed in
percentages: i.e. 10% FCD; 20%; 30%; 40% and so on. FCD data indicates the intensity of
rehabilitation treatment that may be required. The method also makes it possible to monitor
transformation of forest conditions over time including degradation. Additionally, it can
assess the progress of reforestation activities.

The Forest Canopy Density (FCD) Mapping and monitoring Model utilizes forest
canopy density as an essential parameter for characterization of forest conditions. FCD data
indicates the degree of degradation, thereby also indicating the intensity of rehabilitation
treatment that may be required.

The source remote sensing data for FCD model is LANDSAT TM data. The FCD
model comprises bio-physical phenomenon modeling and analysis utilizing data derived from
four (4) indices: Advanced Vegetation Index (AVI), Bare Soil Index (BI), Shadow Index or
Scaled Shadow Index (SI, SSI) and Thermal Index (TI). It determines FCD by modeling
operation and obtaining from these indices.

The canopy density is calculated in parentage for each pixel. The FCD model requires
less information of ground truth. Just for accuracy check and so on.

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 FCD model is based on the growth phenomenon of forests. Consequently, it also
becomes possible to monitor transformation of forest conditions over time such as the progress
of forestry activities. The application tests were implemented in this area. The evergreen
forests are in the islands of Luzon (Philippines) and Sumatra (Indonesia); and for monsoon
(subtropical deciduous) forests in Ching-Mai (Thailand) and Terai (Nepal).

Fig. 1.2.1 Analysis by conventional remote sensing method (ITTO / JOFCA, 1999)

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Fig. 1.2.1 Analysis by FCD mapping model (ITTO / JOFCA, 1999)

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2. Characteristics of Four Prime Indices

The indices have some characteristics as below. The Forest Canopy Density Model
combines data from the four (4) indices. Fig.1.2.3 illustrates the relationship between forest
conditions and the four indices (VI, BI, SI and TI). Vegetation index responses to all of the
vegetation cover such as the forest, bushes, scrubs and grassland. Advanced vegetation index
(AVI) reacts sensitively for the vegetation quantity compared with NDVI. Shadow and thermal
index increases as the forest density and vegetation quantity increases respectively. Black
colored soil area shows a high temperature. Bare soil index increases as the bare soil exposure
degrees of ground increase. These index values are calculated for every pixel. Fig.1.2.3 shows
the characteristics of four indices compared with forest condition.

Note that as the FCD value increases there is a corresponding increase in the SI value.
In other words where there is more tree vegetation there is more shadow. Concurrently, if there
is less bare soil (i.e. a lower BI value) there will be a corresponding decrease in the TI value. It
should be noted that VI is “saturated” earlier than SI. This simply means that the maximum VI
values that can be recorded appear earlier in the analysis. This happens because the VI
captures data from the total bio-mass, regardless of the density of the trees or forest. On the
other hand, the SI values are primarily dependent on the amount of tall vegetation such as trees
which cast a significant shadow. Table.2.1 shows combination characteristics between four
indices.

Fig. 1.2.3 The characteristics of four prime indices of the forest condition

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 Table.1.2.1 Characteristics combination between major four indices

Indices Hi- FCD Low-FCD Grass Land Bare Land

AVI Hi Mid Hi Low
BI Low Low Low Hi
SI Hi Mid Low Low
TI Low Mid Mid Hi

3. Calculation of Four (4) Indices

a. Advanced Vegetation index (AVI)

When assessing the vegetation status of forests, the new methods first examine the
characteristics of chlorophyll-a using a new Advanced Vegetation Index (AVI) that is
calculated with the following formulae.
B1-B7: TM Band 1-7 data
B43=B4-B3 after normalization of the data range.
CASE-a B 43 < 0 AVI= 0
CASE-b B 43 > 0 AVI = ((B 4 +1) x (256-B3) x B 43)1/3

b. Bare Soil Index (BI)

The value of the vegetation index is not so reliable in situations where the vegetation
covers less than half of the area. For more reliable estimation of the vegetation status, the new
methods include a bare soil index (BI) which is formulated with medium infrared information.
The underlying logic of this approach is based on the high reciprocity between bare soil status
and vegetation status. By combining both vegetation and bare soil indices in the analysis, one
may assess the status of forest lands on a continuum ranging from hi vegetation conditions to
exposed soil conditions.

BI= [(B5+B3)-(B4+B1)] / [(B5+B3) + (B4+B1)] x 100 +100; 0 < BI <200

The range of BI is converted within 8 bits range

c. Shadow index (SI)

One unique characteristic of a forest is its three dimensional structure To extract

information on the forest structure from RS data, the new methods examine the characteristics
of shadow by utilizing (a) spectral information on the forest shadow itself and (b) thermal
information on the forest influenced by shadow. The shadow index is formulated through
extraction of the low radiance of visible bands.

SI = [(256-B1) x (256-B2) x (256- B3)]1/3

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d. Thermal Index (TI)

Two factors account for the relatively cool temperature inside a forest. One is the
shielding effect of the forest canopy which blocks and absorbs energy from the sun. The other
is evaporation from the leaf surface which mitigates warming. Formulation of the thermal
index is based on these phenomenons. The source of thermal information is the thermal
infrared band of TM data.

4. The Procedure of FCD Model

The flowchart of the procedures for FCD mapping model are illustrated in Fig.1.2.4.
Image processed results corresponding to the flow chart shows in Fig.1.2.5.

LANDSAT TM data

Noise Reduction Process

Scan line noise, Atmospheric noise,
Cloud area, Cloud shadow area, Water area, etc.

Range Normalization of TM data for each band

Advanced Vegetation Index Bare Soil Index Shadow Index Thermal Index

Vegetation/Bare soil Black Soil Detection

Synthesis Model
Advanced Shadow Index Spatial Process

Vegetation density % Scaled Shadow Index Shadow Percentage

for Forest
Integration Model

Forest Canopy Density Map

Fig. 1.2.4 Flow Chart of FCD Mapping Model

a. Noise Reduction; Clouds, cloud shadow and water area

Clouds have a higher irradiance value than ground data. Moreover, the amount of
irradiance varies depending on whether the clouds are white, gray, black or combinations of
different shades. These factors adversely influence statistical treatment and analysis of
imagery data. Furthermore, cloud shadow can be confused with shadow cast by adjacent
mountains. These problems can be minimized by creating a cloud shadow mask, using a

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histogram based on data derived from TM band 1, 2, and 3. Thereafter, a shadow mask of the
mountain shadow area is formed at the ground level. This is done through parallel
transformation of the mask of the cloud area. Water bodies create similar problems. Since
water absorbs near infrared, water bodies should (and can) also be masked using a histogram
of TM Band4.

b. Vegetation Density; VD

It is the procedure to synthesize VI and BI by using principal component analysis. Since,

VI and BI have high negative correlation. Then it is scaled between zero to hundred percent.
Details in (Rikimaru, 1996)

c. Black Soil Detection

SI data is extracted from the low irradiance area of each visible band. Where the soil is
black or appears to be black due to recent slash-and-burn, low irradiance data may confuse
shadow phenomenon with black soil conditions. This is because black soil usually has high
temperature due to its high absorption rate of sun energy. But shadows lead to a decrease in
soil temperature. By overlaying TI data and SI data this confusion can be avoided. Overlays are
also useful when evaluating the relative irradiance of different parcels of land characterized by
various shades of black soil.

d. Advanced Shadow Index; ASI

When the forest canopy is very dense, satellite data is not always be able to indicate the
relative intensity of the shadow. Consequently, crown density might be underestimated. To
deal with this problem, the new methods include those described below for determining the
spatial distribution of shadow information. Details in (Rikimaru,1996)

e. Scaled Shadow Index; SSI

The shadow index (SI) is a relative value. Its normalized value can be utilized for
calculation with other parameters. The SSI was developed in order to integrate VI values and
SI values. In areas where the SSI value is zero, this corresponds with forests that have the
lowest shadow value (i.e.0%). In areas were the SSI value is 100, this corresponds with forests
that have the highest possible shadow value (i.e. 100%). SSI is obtained by linear
transformation of SI.
With development of the SSI one can now clearly differentiate between vegetation in
the canopy and vegetation on the ground. This constitutes one of the major advantages of the
new methods. It significantly improves the capability to provide more accurate results from
data analysis than was possible in the past.

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f. Integration process to achieve FCD model

Integration of VD and SSI means transformation for forest canopy density value. Both
parameter has no dimension and has percentage scale unit of density. It is possible to
synthesize both indices safely by means of corresponding scale and units of each.

FCD = (VD x SSI+1)1/2 -1

5. Development of the Semi-expert System for the FCD Mapping Model

At present, RS assessment of forest conditions is a task reserved for personnel who have
received special training in remote sensing analysis. Furthermore, the images derived from
conventional RS analysis have rarely been simple enough to be readily understood by
practicing foresters, planning officers and other concerned individuals.

As a follow-on phase of the previous project, the Japan Overseas Forestry Consultants
Association (JOFCA) has been implementing ITTO Project, PD 13/97 Rev. 1 (F), and
developed the Semi-expert System to make the new methodology more available to persons
who are not RS experts. The system is now available on CD-ROM format.

6. Principal Features of the Semi-expert System

The Semi-expert System, or named the FCD-Mapper, is a computer software package

compatible with Windows-type personal computers. The FCD Mapper contains the
algorithms and other formulas utilized to compute values of the several indices contained in
the FCD Model for the analysis of satellite imagery data. The system will upgrade the
planning capacity of decision-makers in forest management and increase the information
collecting capability of foresters, while reducing costs and saving time.

Use of the Semi-expert system will facilitate production of “user-friendly” satellite

imagery that accurately portrays forest conditions. Access to such imagery will increase the
capability of foresters to provide accurate, unbiased data on the status of forests in a format
that is easy to understand.

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Fig. 1.2.5 Procedure for Forest Canopy Density (FCD) mapping model (ITTO / JOFCA, 1999)

1 - 40
7. The Concept of FCD-Mapper

The concept of FCD-Mapper is the useful system for the forester, and not for the remote
sensing engineer. The Practical Processing System for the Forester which implements FCD
Mapping Process as if the Remote Sensing Professional would operate. FCD-Mapper has the
knowledge of remote sensing specialist for analysis of FCD model.

Conventional Processing System

System RS expert Forester

Semi-Expert System

System
(RS expert knowledge) Forester

Fig. 1.2.6 The Concept of FCD-Mapper

8. Specifications of the Semi-expert System

• Data Source: Landsat TM data

• Optional Mode: IRS-1C; 1D; SPOT-4, etc.
• Output Results: FCD Map (Color Hard Copy); Area Counting Statistics of FCD Stratification
(Comments of FCD Condition)
• Export File Format: BMP and GeoTIFF
• Computer: DOSV/Windows 95, 98 or NT type
• CPU: Pentium 133 MHz or above
• Memory: 32 MB or above (64MB recommended)
• Hard Disk Capacity: Free-space 500 MB or above (for processing of TM full scene, 1GB or above
recommended)
• Image Display: 1024x768 pixels, 64k color variation or above
• Printer: Windows compatible type (color/monochrome)
• FCD Model: Interactive Operation with Assistance of Semi-expert System
• Sub-memory Media: MO-Disk 230MB (640MB recommended)

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 Table. 1.2.2 Comparison of the Semi-expert System with Conventional Methods

Semi-expert System Work Station Personal Computer

Processing Time 0.5 days 4~5 days 5~6 days
Operator Forester Remote-sensing Remote-sensing
Expert Expert
Time Required for 2~3 days 2~3 months 2~3 months
Training
Hardware Cost $ 3,000~4,000 US $ 20,000 US~ $ 3,000~4,000 US
Software Cost Provided for the $ 10,000 US~ $ 4,000 US~
ITTO Members

9. The Core-members of the Development Team

The FCD Model and FCD Mapper were developed by Dr. Atsushi Rikimaru. This
work was carried out in collaboration with Dr. P. S. Roy, Dean of the Indian Institute of
Remote Sensing, India; Dr. Surachai Ratanasermpong, senior research officer of the National
Research Council of Thailand, Mr. Ruandha Agung Sugardiman of the Directorate General of
Forest and Estate Crops Inventory and Land Use of Indonesia, and Mr. Virgilio Basa and Ms.
Alma Arquero of the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority of the Philippines.
Computer software programming of the FCD Mapper has been accomplished by Mr. Minoru
Nakajima. Continuing improvement in the FCD Model and the Semi-expert System is a
collaborative task of all those just mentioned.

References
[Link] system on logged-over forests. A workshop for the ITTO project
PD 2/87(F) Sub- project II. Rehabilitation of logged-over forests in Asia/Pacific
region. Manila, Philippines, December 1991
[Link] of logged-over forests in Asia/Pacific region, final report of
Sub-project II. Prepared for ITTO. March 1993. Part II pp.1-41
[Link] of the workshop on utilization of remote sensing in site assessment
and planning for rehabilitation of logged-over forests. Cisarua, Bogor, Indonesia,
September 25-28, 1995.
[Link] of the workshop on utilization of remote sensing in site assessment
and planning for rehabilitation of logged-over forests. Bangkok, Thailand, July 30-
August 1, 1996.
[Link] TM Data Processing Guide for Forest Canopy Density Mapping
and Monitoring Model , ITTO workshop on utilization of remote sensing in site
assessment and planning for rehabilitation of logged-over forests. Bangkok, Thailand,
July 30- August 1, 1996. pp.1-8
[Link] of remote sensing in site assessment and planing for rehabilitation of
logged-over forests. Project report on PD32/93 Rev.2(F) Rehabilitation of logged-over
forests in Asia/Pacific region, Sub-project III. Prepared for ITTO. January 1997.

1 - 42
1.3 Algorithms used in FCD Mapping Procedures
Basic algorithms programmed in FCD-Mapper Ver. 2 are the same as those in
FCD-Mapper Ver. 1. However, new methods are incorporated in the system of
FCD-Mapper Ver. 2 along with various new functions. These new methods have
increased the accuracy of computation to determine the Forest Canopy Density (FCD).
Hereunder are the algorithms used in FCD-Mapper Ver. 1 and the new methods
incorporated in FCD-Mapper Ver. 2.

1 - 43
1.3.1 Algorithms used in FCD Mapper Ver.1
The following are the technical parameters used in the FCD Model and their
description.

a. Vegetation Index (VI)

i. NDVI ; Normalized Differential Vegetation Index (NOAA original)

i. NDVI = (NIR-R) / (NIR+R)
ii. AVI ; Advanced Vegetation Index (ITTO/JOFCA Original)
i. AVI = (NIR x (256-R) x (NIR-R) + 1)1/3 , 0 < (NIR-R)
iii. ANVI ; Advanced Normalized Vegetation Index
i. ANVI ; Synthesized Index from NDVI and AVI ,
with Principal Component Analysis

b. Bare Soil Index (BI)

BI = ((SWIR+R) - (B+NIR)) / ((SWIR+R) + (B+NIR))

c. Thermal Index (TI)

TI; Calibrated Value of Thermal Band Information

d. Shadow Index (SI)

SI = ((256-B) x (256-G) x (256-R))1/3

B; Blue Band, G; Green Band, R; Red Band
NIR; Near Infra-Red Band, SWIR; Short Wave Infra-Red

e. Advanced Shadow Index (ASI)

Forest Gap Detection; IF VI value is smaller than vegetation threshold level, the subject pixel
looks upon Non Forest area. Then ASI value is zero (0).
Black Soil Detection; IF TI value is larger than Thermal threshold level, the subject pixel
looks upon Black soil area. Then ASI value is zero (0). This process is implementing for
avoidance of mistake as black soil to be forest shadow area.
Spatial Process; The case of Forest Canopies are closed condition, Shadow area is few
observed from satellite. Then three (3) by three (3) pixel area are searched, surround of subject
pixel. Then maximum SI value input as SI vale of subject pixel.

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f. Vegetation Density (VD)

VD ; Vegetation Cover Density (%) for each pixel

Calculate from 1st Principal Component of VI and BI, and Calibrate of Minimum and
Maximum Vegetation Cover Level.

g. Scaled Shadow Index (SSI)

SSI; Calibrated Shadow Index for Forest Area

h. Forest Cluster (FC)

FC; Indicate a tendency level of Forest Area,

High value shows high possibility of Forest Area.
FC=(VI x SI x (256-BI) +1)1/3

i. Forest Canopy Density (FCD)

FCD; Forest Canopy density (%) for each pixel

FCD= (VD x SSI +1)1/2 -1

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For the first time, it makes FCD. Reprocessing of
Registration of the New project the existence project

Import image

FCD Map making preparation work

Set Water area, Cloud area, Cloud shadow area
Normalization of image

Selects of the Vegetation Index (VI), as following

Advanced Vegetation Index (AVI)
Normalized Differential Vegetation Index (NDVI)
Advanced Normalized Vegetation Index (ANVI)

Calculation of the Bare soil Index (BI)

Calculation of the Thermal Index (TI)

Calculation of the Shadow Index (SI)

Calculation of the Vegetation Density (VD)

Calculation of the Scaled Shadow Index (SSI)

Producing the Forest Canopy Density Map

Fig. 1.3.1 Outline of FCD mapping procedure flow

1 - 46
(1) Designation of the project name, for the first step
The first step in implementation of FCD Mapping is to designate the project name. The
project records the processing procedure, the reference expert sheet name and the name
of the person performing the analysis.
Each project is arranged or managed by project name. When the project is registered by
its designated name, this makes is easier to conduct the analysis, produce the FCD
maps, do the necessary processing, change the processing procedure if required, and
resume processing after stoppages due to rest breaks, or for other reasons.
The expert sheet is the recording file. It contains the knowledge built into the
semi-expert system by a remote-sensing expert. The expert sheet includes the
processing procedure, the various computations and formulas, the parameters for input
by the operator of the system and so on.

a. For the first step to make FCD Map, it requires to register the Project name
For the first step to make FCD Map, sets the project name, the expert sheet, the
analysis person name and so on.

b. The case of Re-Open the project

When you resume processing after any pause or interruption of a previously-registered
project, the work begins at this place (i.e., at the file name). Here is where the name of
the project will appear, along with the map as it appeared at the time of pause or
interruption. This is also the place to make changes in the processing procedure if
necessary.

(2) Designation of the image and the analysis area

This means designation of the format, the file name, and the analysis area of the input
image.

a. Designation of the format of the input image

This means selection of the format to be used (i.e., BSQ, BIL, or BMP), the size of the
image, and the band of the input image.

b. Designation of the file name of the input image

c. Designation of the analysis area

It designates an input range and the sampling interval. Alternatively, the range to input
can be designated from the display image. Procedures are as follows:

d. Confirmation of the input image

These procedures display the input image and confirm the analysis range and the band.

1 - 47
 Expert Sheet Project Sheet

Project Name
FCD Method Setting up of the New Project Reference Expert Sheet
FCD Method
Threshold (ALL 0) etc

Image Format

Image Format, Band

Image Input Process Analyzed Area Info. etc

Cloud Noise & Reduction Info.

Equation Parameters Noise reduction and Normalization Mask Threshold

AVI,NVI,ANVI,BI,SI
Equation Parameters Index Process Made Index Info.
TI Calibration Coef.

PCA Parameters Vegetation Density Process Made VD Info.

VD Threshold

Clustering Parameters Scaled Shadow Index Process Made SSI Info.

Cluster Result Info.

FCD FCD Process and Map Statistics Made FCD Info.

Equation Parameters Accounting FCD Map

Fig. 1.3.2 Relationship between Expert Sheet and Project Sheet

1 - 48
(3) Preparatory procedures for making maps, and normalization of the image
The normalization of the image is the process through which all data is adjusted to
conform to a common standard. It is necessary because of variations in shade on
different parts of the image due the time period and site specific features of the place.

a. Procedures for masking bodies of water

These procedures set the value of those portions of the image where noise exists because
of water, and remove (i.e. mask) the area.

b. Procedures for masking clouds

These procedures set the value of those portions of the image where noise exists because
of clouds, and remove (i.e. mask) the area.

c. Procedures for removing (masking) the cloud shadow area

These procedures are automatically synchronized with the procedures for masking
clouds (Fig. 1.3.3 ). As explained above the cloud mask responds to Drag & Drop
movement of the left mouse button. The semi-expert system produces point information
(i.e. the extent of movement on the image) of the cloud shadow, which of course relates
to movement of the cloud. This point information is used to create the cloud shadow
mask. A maximum of three (3) information points can be derived to delineate the area of
the cloud shadow. Basically, the right button menu of the cloud shadow mask is made by
adding [Point Select], [Point Initialize], [Mask] to the right button menu of the false
color image.

1 - 49
Fig. 1.3.3 Procedure of noise reduction

1 - 50
 Fig. 1.3.4 Procedure of normalization

(4) Designation of the Vegetation Index (VI)

The FCD Model chooses a vegetation index from the relation between AVI, NDVI, ANVI
and Bare soil Index (BI).

1 - 51
(5) Calculation of the Thermal Index (TI)
The FCD Model utilizes thermal band of the thematic data and produces thermal index
for the chosen area
(6) Calculation of the Shadow Index (SI)
Calculation of the shadow index involves a choice among of two kinds of normal
equation or a log equation, both of which are included in the semi-expert system. The
system also revises forest gap and black soil information. Additionally, the system can
calculate the Advanced Shadow Index (ASI).

a. Correction of the forest gaps

Quite often, there are Forest Gap areas in the analysis range. The semi-expert system
delineates the boundaries of these gaps by calculating their value through use of a
Vegetation Index.

b. Procedures for dealing with black soil

In many instances, the area being analyzed contains patches of black soil. These
patches can be confused with shadow. The following steps are taken to eliminate this
confusion.

c. Calculation of the Advanced Shadow Index (ASI)

When revising the Forest Gap or dealing with Black Soil, the semi-expert system
calculates ASI.

1 - 52
Fig. 1.3.5 Procedure of Advance Shadow Index (ASI)

1 - 53
(7) Calculation of the Vegetation Density (VD)
The system calculates the density of vegetation by the percentage.

a. Designation of the vegetation area

The system designates the minimum value of the vegetation area by VI.

b. Designation of the Bare Soil

The system designates the minimum value of the bare soil by BI.

c. Designation of the range which calculates the VD

It calculates VD in the designated bare soil area and designates that vegetation density
at that part of the image is 0 %. Next calculates VD in the designated vegetation area
and it designates where the density 100%.

d. Calculation of the VD

Fig. 1.3.6 Vegetation Density Model

1 - 54
Fig. 1.3.7 Principle Component Analysis of BI and VI

1 - 55
Fig. 1.3.8 Procedure of Vegetation Density (VD)

1 - 56
(8) Calculation of Scaled Shadow Index (SSI)
The semi-expert system first classifies a cluster using VI-BI-SI and the TI image. It
then identifies a forest area. It next adjusts the range of SI in the forest area from 0 to
100 % and calculates SSI.

a. Confirming the conditions for processing SSI from VI-BI-SI false color display
The system changes VI-BI-SI into GRB and it displays in false color image. It also
confirms the mutual relationships of VI, BI, and SI. The following features appear on
the false color image:
- the area of High Density Forest is displayed in the cyan.
- the area in grass, agricultural crops and so on is displayed in green.
- the area in bare soil is displayed in red.

b. Designation of the forest area

The system performs cluster classification using the VI- BI-SI and TI images and the
result is displayed. This designates the classification category of the forest and inputs
the forest area.

c. Calculation of SSI
This function of the system adjusts the range of SI in the forest area from 0 to 100 %
and calculates SSI.

1 - 57
Fig. 1.3.9 Procedure of Scaled Shadow Index (SSI)

1 - 58
(9) Takes statistics of Forest Canopy Density (FCD), Implementation of the accounting area
This part of the system performs the following functions:

- Takes statistics FCD every Grid or polygon area.

- Presentation of the data in number of hectares per FCD category.
- Saving of results in an Excel file format.
- Saving of images in a Bitmap file (BMP) format.

a. Producing the FCD Map

The FCD map is produced using data from the VI and the SSI.

b. Accounting the area in each FCD category and saving the FCD Map
This function of the system calculates FCD in every Grid or polygon area. When it takes
statistics in the polygon area, inputting the mask file. The mask file is a bitmap file (256
colors) which is produced using existing imagery software. The same palette value can
be used to distinguish one FCD category area from another. The results can be
presented in tables and saved as an Excel file. The image can be saved as a bitmap file.

c. Presentation of the results

Results showing the number of hectares in each FCD category can be based on either
the whole Grid or polygon area.

d. Designation of the partition which take statistics of FCD Map and, Designation of
the display color
The default is 11 pieces of partition in all. (0% and 1 partition per 10% from 1%)
Also, display color is suitably arranged.

e. Accounting of the FCD Map

It takes statistics of the area accounting.

f. Saving of the results

When the TABLE OF MAPPING STATISTICS window is displayed the results can be
saved for the first time. Tables are saved in Excel file format and the image is saved as a
bitmap file.

(10) Close of the project to be processing

1 - 59
Fig. 1.3.10 Ground Condition and Remote Sensing Data (ITTO / JOFCA, 1999)

1 - 60
Fig. 1.3.11 The Situation of Forest Canopy Density for One Pixel (IITI / JOFCA, 1999)

1 - 61
Fig. 1.3.12 Schematic representation of Forest Canopy Density Model

1 - 62
Fig. 1.3.13 FCD Integration Model

1 - 63
Fig. 1.3.14 Effect of Integration Model

1 - 64
1.3.2 Algorithms used in FCD Mapper Ver.2
The new methods are incorporated in the various processing functions of FCD-Mapper Ver. 2. The
following chart shows comparison in the operational procedures of the FCD-Mapper Ver. 1 and Ver. 2.
FCD-Mapper Ver.1 FCD-Mapper Ver.2

New Project New Project

Open Project Open Project

Noise Reduction Noise Reduction

Surface Water Surface Water

Cloud Cloud

Cloud Shadow Cloud Shadow

Atmospheric Noise
Normalization
Slope Shadow

VI・BI・SI・TI

Normalization
VD

VI・BI・SI・TI
SSI

VD
FCD

SSI

Multi VD Model

FCD

Ground

Fig1.3.15
Operational procedures of Ver. 1 and Ver. 2 FCD Range

1 - 65
The following paragraphs explain the new methods and functions incorporated in
FCD-Mapper Ver. 2.

(1) Reduction of Atmospheric “noise”

Atmospheric “noise” due to factors such as haze, cloud and cloud shadow may be found
in the satellite image data. The system can reduce effect of these noises to compute the
FCD with higher accuracy.

a. Procedure for reducing “noise” caused by haze

In this procedure, those specific portions of the imagery affected by haze are corrected
by spatial filter processing. This correction is reflected on the image data of band 1-3.

b. Procedure for reducing “noise” caused by cloud and cloud shadow

In this procedure, the portions of cloud and cloud shadow are replaced by their identical
portions of another image data that are free from cloud or cloud shadow. Consequently,
these portions can be counted in analysis.

(2) Reduction of effect of Topographic Shadow

Result of FCD analysis can be affected by topographic shadow. In this procedure, the
portion of topographic shadow is extracted using the Topographic Shadow Index (TSI)
and its influence on the Band 1-5 data is reduced.

a. Calculation of Topographic Shadow Index (TSI)

The TSI is calculated using the following formula.

TSI = ((256-BI) x (256-VI) x SI + 1)1/3 -1

b. Extraction of topographic shadow area
The shadowed portion is extracted by the statistic of TSI value.

c. Correction of topographic shadow

The portion of topographic shadow in the image data is corrected so that it corresponds
with the non-shadow area of the data. The results of this processing are reflected on the
band 1-5 data.

1 - 66
Fig. 1.3.16 Procedure for correction of haze area

1 - 67
Fig. 1.3.17 Procedure for free mosaic cloud and cloud shadow

1 - 68
Fig. 1.3.18 Procedure for Correction of Topographic Shadow

1 - 69
(3) Procedure for calculating Multiple Vegetation Density (Multi Model VD)
Multi Model VD can reduce the effects of seasonal change on forest conditions and the
effects due to the difference of various forest structures.

a. Designation of the Multi Model Class

The area identified as the forest according to the statistic of SSI is divided into clusters
using VI, BI, SI and TI images. The clusters are then grouped into their respective
categories (four categories at most).

b. Designation of the range which calculates the VD in each class

The maximum value of the vegetation density (VD 100%) is set for each category. The
minimum value (VD 0%) that is derived from the single model processing is applied to
that of all the categories.

c. Calculation of Multi VD
The Multi Model VD is calculated, using the above values set for each category.

(4) Inputting the Ground information

Ground information collected in the field survey can be input into the system for
comparison with the calculated FCD values. The ground information which is combined
with the geographic information (longitude and latitude) and FCD value is transformed
into the CSV format file; the ground data can then be displayed in the window of
FCD-Mapper.

(5) Adjustment of FCD by the Ground information

The calculated FCD values can be adjusted to correspond with the ground data by using
regression analysis. This processing is performed by either using the ground data as in
(4) above or inputting the data manually.

1 - 70
Fig. 1.3.19 Procedure for calculation Multi VD

1 - 71
(6) New Utility Menu
New utility menu is added in this system.

a. Geometric Correction of image

Image data of various formats can be corrected geometrically.

b. Addition of geographic information

Geographic information such as longitude and latitude can be input to FCD-Mapper
image file (FBI).

c. Export of image
Image data developed in the FCD analysis can be exported to the TIFF/GeoTIFF file.

d. Scatter Diagram
The scatter diagram can be displayed using the image data.

1 - 72
2. How to Use the FCD-Mapper Ver.2

2-1
2.1 Introduction to the FCD Mapper Ver.2

2.1.1 The calculation procedure of FCD Mapping

The flow of the operation system of FCD-Mapper Ver. 2 is shown in Fig. 2.1.1.

Fig 2.1.1 Flowchart of FCD-Mapper Ver.2 system

2-2
A. Pre-process
In order to develop an FCD map, the data used in the analysis process must be in the
FCD-Mapper image format (FBI). Therefore, before proceeding to the Main Process of
FCD analysis, it is first necessary to transform satellite image data that is in other
formats into the FBI format. This processing (Pre-process) is performed in preparation
for conducting the FCD analysis. It is carried out as follows.

A.1 Image Subset

The satellite image data of various formats (CEOS, TIFF/GEO TIFF, BMP or BSQ/BIL)
is transformed into FCD-Mapper image format (FBI). The area to be analyzed is
selected along with this processing; the size of the image is also changed.

A.2 Geometric Correction

The satellite image data of various formats is geometrically corrected. The area to be
analyzed is selected along with this processing; the size of the image is also changed.
The corrected data is saved in the FCD-Mapper image format (FBI).

A.3 Geo-Coordination
The geographic information (Longitude & Latitude / UTM) can be input in FCD-Mapper
image file (FBI). The input information will be shown in the window of the Main
Process.

B. Main Process
After the Pre-process, designation of a file name and setting of the expert sheet are
performed; Main Process of FCD-Mapper operation can then begin. The Main Process is
comprised to two parts: Pass 1 and Pass 2. During Pass 1, a series of processing
functions are applied to the data to calculate the FCD. If there are no conflicts in the
results, Pass 1 will complete the FCD analysis and provide the results. However, if part
of the data is affected by topographic shadow, it will be necessary to apply the Pass 2
process after completing the Pass 1 process. The FCD calculation will be more accurate
after accomplishing Pass 2. The flowchart of FCD Main Process is shown in Fig. 2.1.2.

B.1 Designation of the project name

The first step in the Main Process of the FCD-mapping operation is to designate a
project name. Each project is managed or arranged by its project name. By designating
a specific name for the project, it becomes easier to conduct the analysis and produce the
FCD map. For example, if there are interruptions during the analysis, the processing
can be stopped and then later resumed by going back to the project name.
Additionally, the operator (analyst) might want to change the processing procedure for a
specific project.

2-3
 Fig 2.1.2 Flowchart of FCD Main Process

In this case, it is essential to have a project name to identify the project for which a
different processing procedure will be applied. Each project name contains a record of
how the data has been processed, the name of the person operating the process and the
name of the expert sheet. The expert sheet is a recording file. It contains the knowledge
built into the semi-expert system by a remote sensing expert. The expert sheet includes
the processing procedure, the various computations and formulas, parameters for input
by the operator and so on.

a. Registration of the project name

Enter the project name, the expert sheet, the name of the person doing the analysis.
These are the first steps to implement for development of an FCD Map.

b. Re-opening a project file

To resume processing after a pause or interruption, click the project name. This will
re-open the file. You can then resume processing at the same place where processing
was interrupted.

2-4
B.2 Pass 1 Process
(1) Opening the image file
The first process is to open the image data file (FBI) to be analyzed. Thus, it is necessary
to identify the specific file to be analyzed and then open it, as explained in paragraphs
“a” and “b” below.

a. Designation of the image file to be opened

Click the file name of the image to open. Note that the image file must be in the
FCD-Mapper format (FBI).

b. Confirmation of the opened image

After completing “a” above (Designation of the import image file), the opened image will
be displayed in the window. Confirm the range and band data to be used.

(2) Procedures for noise reduction, and normalization of the image

Normalization of the image is the process by which all data are adjusted to conform to a
common standard. Noise reduction is necessary to eliminate the effects of Water, Cloud,
Cloud Shadow and Haze on the analysis results. This is done by “masking” which
means removing the values (data) contained in the affected areas as explained below.

a. Procedures for masking of water area

Select the areas (pixels) in the image that correspond to and are affected by existing
surface water such as lakes and remove (i.e. mask) the areas from analysis.

b. Procedures for masking of cloud area

Select the areas (pixels) in the image that are covered by clouds and remove (i.e. mask)
the areas from analysis.

c. Procedures for masking of cloud shadow area

First, extract the area covered by cloud shadow in the image using the mask data that is
developed in the procedure for masking the clouds as in “b” above and remove (i.e.
mask) the areas from analysis.

d. Procedures for correction of haze area

The portion of the image affected by haze is corrected by spatial filter processing. The
correction is reflected on the image data of Band 1-3.

e. Procedures for analyzing the masked areas affected by cloud and cloud shadow
The portion of cloud and cloud shadow is replaced by its identical portion of another
image data that is not affected by cloud or cloud shadow. In other words, use the values
of the pixels that are not affected as a surrogate for pixels that are affected. Thus,

2-5
analysis of the masked areas becomes possible.

f. Procedure for normalization of image

After completing the masking and replacement procedures explained above, the image
must be normalized.

(3) Designation of the Vegetation Index (VI)

FCD-Mapper Ver. 2 calculates three Vegetation Indices; VI/AVI, NDVI and ANVI. All of
these calculations use data from the Red and Near Infra-red (NIR) bands. A vegetation
index is chosen by taking into consideration the correlation between the values of AVI,
NDVI or ANVI and the Bare soil Index (BI).

(4) Calculation of the Bare soil Index (BI)

The Bare Soil Index (BI) is calculated using data from the Blue, Green, Red and SWIR
bands.

(5) Calculation of the Thermal Index (TI)

The Thermal Index (TI) is calculated by calibrating the values of Thermal band
information.

(6) Calculation of the Shadow Index (SI)

The Shadow Index (SI) is calculated, using data from the Blue, Green and Red bands.
Calculation of the shadow index involves choosing between two kinds of methods: a
normal equation or a logarithmic equation. This index also revises forest gap and black
soil information. Additionally, this index can be used to calculate the Advanced Shadow
Index (ASI).

a. Correction of the forest gaps

There are often forest gaps in portions of an image that are being analyzed.
FCD-Mapper Ver. 2 delineates the boundaries of these gaps by calculating their values
through use of the Vegetation Index.

b. Procedures for dealing with black soil

In many cases, the area being analyzed contains patches of black soil. These patches can
be confused with shadow. FCD-Mapper Ver. 2 mitigates this confusion by using the
Advanced Shadow Index.

c. Calculation of the Advanced Shadow Index (ASI)

When the forest gaps are revised (corrected) or black soil is detected, the system
calculates the Advanced Shadow Index.

2-6
(7) Calculation of the Vegetation Density (VD)
FCD-Mapper Ver.2 calculates the vegetation density in percentage.

a. Designation of the vegetation area

FCD-Mapper Ver.2 designates the minimum value of the vegetation by VI and then
extracts the range of the vegetation. “Range” in this case means the area covered by
vegetation.

b. Designation of the Bare Soil

FCD-Mapper Ver.2 designates the minimum value of the bare soil by BI, and then
extracts the range of bare soil; i.e. the area covered by bare soil.

c. Designation of the range which calculates the VD

The processing applies principal component analysis (PCA) for VI and BI. VD is
calculated by setting minimum value (0 %) and maximum value (100%) in the 1st PCA.
The minimum value (VD 0%) is set, referring to the histogram of the bare soil area. The
maximum value (VD 100%) is set, referring to the histogram of the vegetation area.

d. Calculation of the VD
The Vegetation Density is calculated by using the values set above (c ).

(8) Calculation of the Scaled Shadow Index (SSI)

To calculate SSI, FCD-Mapper Ver. 2 first performs classification into clusters using
VI-BI-SI and the TI image. It then identifies the forested area. It finally adjusts the
range of SI within the forested area and calculates SSI (from 0 to 100 %).

a. Confirming the conditions for processing SSI from the VI-BI-SI false color display
The system changes VI-BI-SI into GRB and displays it in the false color image. It also
confirms the mutual relationships of VI, BI, and SI. The following features appear on
the false color image:
- the area of High Density Forest is displayed in cyan color.
- the area in grass, agricultural croplands and so on is displayed in green.
- the area covered by bare soil is displayed in red.

b. Designation of the forest area

The result of cluster classification using VI-BI-SI and the TI image is displayed. The
classification category of the forest is designated and the forested area is input.

c. Calculation of SSI
This function of the system adjusts the range of SI within the forested area and
calculates SSI (from 0 to 100 %).

2-7
(9) Calculation of the Multi-Vegetation Density (Multi VD)
The Multi-Model VD is calculated in order to deal with the influence of seasonal
changes in forest conditions and the difference of various forest structures.

a. Designation of the Multi Model Class

The image data is divided into clusters which are then grouped using VI, BI, SI and the
TI images within the forested area. Among the groups of clusters, the different groups of
forest categories are identified using the result of cluster classification.

b. Designation of the range which calculates the VD in each class

In each forest group (class), the maximum value of the vegetation density (VD 100%) is
set. Then the minimum value is set using the value that was derived from the single VD
processing.

c. Calculation of Multi VD
FCD-Mapper Ver.2 calculates the Multi Model VD using the values set above “b” in each
group.

(10) Compiling Forest Canopy Density (FCD) statistics and performing area calculation
This part of the system performs the following functions:

- Producing the FCD map.

- Compiling the FCD statistics for every grid or polygon area.
- Presenting the data which shows how many hectares there are within each FCD category.
- Saving of the statistical results in an Excel file format.
- Saving of the images in a Bitmap file (BMP) format.

a. Producing the FCD Map

The FCD is calculated using the VI and SSI data. Using these calculations,
FCD-Mapper Ver. 2 produces the FCD map.

b. Calculating the area in each FCD category and saving the FCD Map
The FCD value is calculated for every grid or polygon area. It is necessary to input the
mask file when statistics are taken in a polygon area. The mask file is a bitmap file (256
colors) which is produced using existing image-processing software. The same palette
value can be used to distinguish one FCD category area from another. The results can be
presented in tables and saved as an Excel file. The image can be saved as a bitmap file.

c. Presentation of the results

The results showing the number of hectares in each FCD category can be based on
either the whole grid or a polygon area.

2-8
d. Designation of the partition which compiles statistics of FCD Map, and the display
color
Values of the FCD are grouped in the ranges for every 10 % in default; including the
“0 %” range, there are 11 FCD ranges. Color to represent each range is also arranged in
default as well.

e. Calculating the area in the FCD Map

To perform calculation, FCD-Mapper Ver. 2 uses the statistics from the various
processes discussed earlier.

f. Saving of the results

The operator can save the results of area calculation in Excel file format and the image
results as a bitmap file.

(11) Inputting Ground Data

In this context “ground data” refers to information collected in the conventional manner
to assess forest conditions. For example, inventory conducted in research plots. Ground
data collected in field surveys can be inputted (i.e. entered) so that this data can be
compared with the calculated FCD map. The ground data is input in the CSV format
file, along with the geographic information (longitude and latitude) and FCD value. The
ground data can be displayed in the window of FCD-Mapper.

(12) Adjustment of the FCD base on the Ground Data Information

The calculated FCD can be adjusted to conform with the results of surveys that
produced ground data information. The adjustment is done by performing regression
analysis. The data to be used can be derived from (12) above or inputted (entered)
manually.

B.3 Pass 2 Process

The objective of the Pass 2 process is to reduce the effects of topographic shadow on the
satellite image data. Pass 2 re-processes Band 1-7 data that was already analyzed in the
Pass 1 process; the noises such as surface water, cloud, cloud shadow, haze, etc. was also
reduced in the Pass 1.

(1) Procedures for correction of topographic shadow, and normalization of the image
Normalization of the image is the process by which all data are adjusted to conform to a
common standard. It is also necessary to conduct normalization in order to reduce the
topographic shadow that can influence the FCD analysis.

2-9
a. Procedure for correction of topographic shadow
In this procedure, the portion of topographic shadow is extracted, using the Topographic
Shadow Index (TSI) and the influence of the shadow to the Band 1-5 data is reduced.

b. Procedure for normalization of image

This procedure normalizes the image after completing the steps required to reduce the
effects of the topographic shadow.

The procedure to be followed after this processing is the same as that in the Pass 1
process. Therefore, the detailed explanation is omitted; only the procedure title is listed.

(2) Designation of the Vegetation Index (VI)

(3) Calculation of the Bare soil Index (BI)
(4) Calculation of the Thermal Index (TI)
(5) Calculation of the Shadow Index (SI)
(6) Calculation of the Vegetation Density (VD)
(7) Calculation of Scaled Shadow Index (SSI)
(8) Calculation of the Multi Vegetation Density (Multi VD)
(9) Takes statistics of Forest Canopy Density (FCD) and area accounting
(10) Inputting the Ground Information
(11) Adjustment of FCD by the Ground Information

(12) Close of the project to be processing

After finishing all of the above, the FCD Main Process is completed.

C. Utility
In the FCD-Mapper Ver.2 software, there are various utility menus to be used for
applying the FCD analysis effectively.

C.1 Export of TIFF / GeoTIFF image file

The image data produced in the FCD analysis can be exported to the TIFF/GeoTIFF
format image file.

C.2 Producing False / Pseudo image

The image data produced in the FCD analysis can be displayed in the window as False
Color image or Pseudo image. These images can be saved as Bitmap files (BMP) format.

C.3 Scatter Diagram

Scatter diagrams can be displayed using the image data produced in the FCD analysis.

2 - 10
2.1.2 The menu list of FCD-Mapper Ver.2

A. The pull down menu of the main window

Main Menu Sub Menu Function

File New Project Creation of New Project and New Project file
Open Project Opening the existence Project and Project file
Close Project Closing the Project and Project file
Project Property Editor of current project property
Menu Property File maintenance of Project files
Import Import to FCD-Mapper format file (FBI)
Image Subset Cutting and change of image size
Geometric Correction Geometric correction of image
File
Geo-Coordination Input the geographic information
Exit Termination of Import menu
Export Export to TIFF/GeoTIFF file
Load False Image False color display of BMP file
Load Pseudo Image Pseudo color display of BMP file
Scatter Diagram Display of scatter diagram
Exit Termination of FCD-Mapper
Window FCD Menu Show ON/OFF switch of the FCD menu display
Tile Windows Horizontally Image windows tiling with horizontally
Tile Windows Vertically Image windows tiling with vertically
Cascade Windows Image windows display with piling up
Arrange all All of images icons display (minimized size)
Link Windows Link of display among plural windows
Help FCD Help Help menu
About The version information of FCD MAPPER

2 - 11
B. FCD Menu

Menu Main Menu / Sub Menu

Group Pass 1 Pass 2 Function
Image Open － The source satellite image data import
Display － The selected area display and confirmation
Noise Deceleration of the noise condition and selection
Check/Reduction Check/Reduction
of the noise reduction menu
Water Set － The water area masking process
Cloud Set － The cloud area masking process
Cloud Shadow Set － The cloud shadow area masking process
Atmos Set － Haze reduction and cloud-free mosaic process
－ Slope Shadow Set Topographic shadow correction process
Normalization Normalization Radiometric normalization process
Index AVI AVI Advanced vegetation index analysis
NDVI NDVI Normalized difference vegetation index analysis
ANVI ANVI Advanced normalized vegetation index analysis
BI BI Bare soil index analysis
PCA Select PCA Select Selection of optimum VI from AVI, NDVI, ANVI
TI TI Thermal index analysis
SI Select SI Select Selection of optional shadow index process
SI SI Shadow index analysis
Gap Set Gap Set Designation of the threshold for forest gap
Black Soil Set Black Soil Set Designation of the threshold level for black soil
ASI ASI Advanced shadow index analysis
VD Vegetation Set Vegetation Set Designation of the minimum level value of VI
Bare-Soil Set Bare-Soil Set Designation of the minimum value of BI
Designation of the minimum and maximum
VD Range Set VD Range Set
level in the VD (vegetation density) analysis
VD VD VD (vegetation density) image analysis
SSI Confirmation of interim results by false color
VI-BI-SI VI-BI-SI
composite of VI / G , BI / R , SI / B
Cluster Select Cluster Select Semi-automatic classification for the forest area
SSI SSI SSI image analysis
Model Designation of the minimum and maximum
Multi VD Set Multi VD Set
level in the Multi VD analysis
Multi VD Model Multi VD Model Multi VD image analysis
FCD FCD FCD Integration analysis for FCD map
Map Statistics Map Statistics Statistics account for each FCD classes
GROUND Ground Set Ground Set Inputting the ground information
Ground Ground Display the ground data
FCD FCD Range Set FCD Range Set Adjustment of FCD using ground data
Range FCD Range FCD Range Display the adjusted FCD map

2 - 12
2.1.3 File Specification

A. Expert Sheet

The expert sheet is a recording file. It contains the knowledge built into the semi-expert
system by a remote-sensing expert. The expert sheet includes the processing procedure,
the various computations and formulas, the parameters to be input by an operator of
the system, and so on. The Expert Sheet has 15 sections as shown below.

No Section Name
1 INDEX Default selection in INDEX method
2 CLOUD General equation parameters of making CLD file
3 AVI General equation parameters of making AVI file
4 NDVI General equation parameters of making NDVI file
5 BI General equation parameters of making BI file
6 TI Calibration coefficient of making TI file
7 SI General equation parameters of making SI file
8 TSI General equation parameters of making TSI file
9 SSI_CLU Parameters of Cluster Analysis
10 FC General equation parameters of FC Analysis
11 FCD General equation parameters of making FCD file
12 SEMIAUTO Default selection of automatic method
13 ATMOSPHERIC Calibration coefficient of Atmospheric noise reduction
14 TSI FILTER Calibration coefficient of slope shadow noise reduction

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B. Project Sheet

The project sheet saves the reference expert sheet name, the processing parameters, the
processing logging and so on. The Project Sheet has 22 sections as below.

No Section Name
1 PROJECT Description of Comment and author
2 FORMAT Information of Image
3 BAND Information of Image
4 ASSIGN Information of Image
5 IMAGE Information of Image
6 FILE File name of expert sheet file, image file and so on
7 FILESTT Output operation state
8 INPUTSTT Input operation state
9 TASKSTT Task state
10 THRESHOLD Threshold values
11 NOISE CHECK Noise information
12 NOISE REDUCTION Noise reduction operation state
13 MASK Information of Mask setting
14 INDEX Default selection in INDEX method
15 NEIGHBORING Information values of generated image files
16 AVE_RESULT Average values of generated image files
17 SD_RESULT Standard Deviation values of generated image files
18 CLU_RESULT Clustering result
19 CLUSTER Choice cluster number in SSI cluster analysis
20 MULTIMODEL Choice cluster number in Multi Model cluster analysis
21 GROUND Matrix count number in Ground analysis
22 FCDRANGE Information of FCD Range analysis

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2.1.4 Operating environment

Computer: Windows®95, 98, XP or NT 2000 type

CPU: Pentium 500 MHz or above
Memory: 128 MB or above (256MB recommended)
Hard Disk Capacity: Free-space 10G or above (30G recommended)
Image Display: 1024×768 pixels, 64k color variation or above
Printer: Windows compatible type (color/monochrome)
Sub-memory Media: MO-Disk 230MB (640MB recommended)

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2.1.5 Installation Guide

(1) Starts a Windows.

It is strongly recommended that you exit all Windows programs before running this
Setup program.

(2) Sets the CD-ROM disk of FCD-Mapper in the CD-ROM drive.

The Setup window is displayed.
Click Next.

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(3) The User Information dialog box is displayed.
Input your name to the Name box.
Input name of your company to the Company box.
Input the product serial number to the Serial box.
Click Next.

Example:

Name : Forest Green ---------- Your Name

Company : JOFCA ---------- Your Company
Serial : ABCDE123456789 ---------- Your Product Serial Number

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(4) The Choose Destination Location dialog box is displayed.
Confirmed install directory and click Next.

Case of installation to a different directory.

Click the Browse.

The Choose Directory dialog box is displayed.
Select another directory and click OK.

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(5) The Select Program Folder dialog box is displayed.
Decide the program folder name in order to add program icon to the Program Folder
list. The program icon of FCD-Mapper is registered into the decided folder.
Especially, it is not necessary to change the designated program folder name.
Click Next.

(6) The Start Copying Files dialog box is displayed.

Confirm the information of installation and click Next.

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(7) The installation of FCD-Mapper is begun and a progress situation is displayed.
When the installation completed, the Setup Complete dialog box is displayed.
Click Finish.

In this, the installation of FCD-Mapper is ending.

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2.2 Preparation Process to use FCD-Mapper

2.2.1 Start-up and Registration Process

A. How to Start the FCD-Mapper

There are two ways in the starting.

(1) Starts from the start menu.

a) Click Start in the task bar. The Start Menu is displayed.
b) Adjusts a mouse pointer to the Program. The Program Menu is displayed.
c) Adjusts a mouse pointer to the FCD-Mapper and the FCD Program Name is
displayed.

d) Click the FCD Menu. FCD-Mapper starts and the opening window is displayed.

(2) Starts from the Icon.

a) Double Click the FCD-Mapper Icon on the Desktop.

b) FCD-Mapper starts and the opening window is displayed.

Note:
In order to start in the latter way, it is necessary to make the shortcut icon on
the Desktop. The original icon exists in the folder where the FCD-Mapper has
been installed.

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B. Registration of the expert file

When an expert file and a project file aren’t registered on the system after installation,
but you try to start New Project, the following message is displayed.

The expert file is registered in a following way.

(1) Click OK on the dialog box.

(2) The Open dialog box is displayed.

(3) Select the expert file of the install folder and click Open.

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C. Setting up of the Project Name

C.1 Designation of the project name, for the first step

The first step in the FCD-mapping operation is to designate a project name. Each
project contains a record of the processing procedure, the name of the reference expert
sheet and the name of the person operating the process.

Each project is arranged or managed by its project name. By designating a specific

name for the project, it becomes easier to conduct the analysis and produce the FCD
map. For example, if there are interruptions during the analysis, the processing can be
stopped and then later resumed by going back to the project name. Additionally, the
operator (analyst) might want to change the processing procedure for a specific project.

C.1.1 Registering the Project name is the first step to produce an FCD map

Enter the project name, the expert sheet, the name of the person doing the analysis.
These are the first steps to implement for development of an FCD Map.

(1) Click the New Project in the File menu.

(2) The New Project dialog box is displayed.
Choose the expert sheet to refer to the new project from the Base Expert list.
(3) Type the name of the new project in the New Project Name box.
(4) Type the project file name in the File position box.
(5) Type the user name in the Author box.
(6) Type any specific comments in the Comment box.
(7) Click OK.

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C.1.2 The case to Re-Open the project

When you resume the project that is previously registered, the work begins from Open
Project. All registered project file is shown in the Open Project window. Select the
project file on this window to resume working on the project after interruption by such
as taking a rest or other reasons.

(1) Click the Open Project in the File menu.

(2) The Open Project dialog box is displayed.
Choose the project from the Select list.
Click OK.

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2 – 27
2.2.2 How to Import Satellite Image Data

It is necessary to transform the format of satellite image data to FCD-Mapper format

(FBI) before analyzing the satellite data (Main Process) by using FCD-Mapper Ver. 2.
This processing (Pre-process) is performed using the Import of the File menu. The
Import has the following sub-menus.

Image Subset
The satellite image data of various formats (CEOS, TIFF/GEO TIFF, BMP or
BSQ/BIL) is transformed into FCD-Mapper image format (FBI). The area to be
analyzed is selected along with this processing; the size of the image is also
changed.

Geometric Correction
The satellite image data of various formats is geometrically corrected. The area to
be analyzed is selected along with this processing; the size of the image is also
changed. There are two ways of data-processing for Geometric Correction: One
using the referential image data and the other using the map coordinate system.
The corrected data is saved in the FCD-Mapper format.

Geo-Coordination
The geographic information (Longitude & Latitude / UTM) can be input in
FCD-Mapper image file (FBI) either directly or by using the World File. The input
information will be shown in the window of the Main Process.

These menus are used not only for preparation of FCD-Mapper operation but also for
FCD analysis (Main Process).

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A. Image Subset

In this menu, the satellite image data of various formats is imported into the system
and its format is transformed into the FBI format. The area to be analyzed is selected
along with this processing; the size of the image is also changed.
The image data to be used is designated first. This process is completed with selection of
the image format to be used (i.e. FBI, CEOS, TIFF, BMP, BSQ, or BIL), the size of the
imported image and the bands of the imported image. Next, the area to be analyzed and
the size of the image are determined. The image data is saved in the FCD-Mapper
format (FBI).

(1) Click the Image Subset from File menu of Import window.
(2) The Select Original File Format dialog box is displayed. Choose the format of the
original data from FCD-MAPPER Format, CEOS, TIFF / GEO TIFF, BMP or BSQ /
BIL Format. Click Next.
Note:
FCD-MAPPER Format : FCD-Mapper image format.(FBI)
CEOS: Committee on Earth Observing Satellites format.
TIFF / GEO TIFF: Tag Image File Format.( include GeoTiff format)
BMP: Standard image format of the Windows program.(8 bit only)
BSQ / BIL Format: Raw image file.
(3) The Input File Format Parameter dialog box is displayed. Input the import file
parameter. (In case of selecting BSQ / BIL Format.)
a) In the Import Format, check the data format to choose between BSQ and BIL.
b) In the Header Size box, input the size of the header in byte if the header is
attached to the image data.
c) Input the number of pixels contained in the image data in the Pixel Max box.
d) Input the number of lines contained in the image data in the Line Max box.
e) Input the number of bands contained in the image data in the Band Count box.
f) Input the size per pixel in the Distance / Pixel box by the meter unit.
Note:
In order to record the information on the format, the operator can utilize the
Format Template File; the operator can input items to be taken into account
and his or her name in the Comment box and Author box respectively and click
Save. Then, name the file and save it. In case of loading the format information
that was previously saved, click the Load, select the Format Template File to
open.

Click Next.

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(4) The Select Original Files dialog box is displayed.
Select required import file, and input the file name in the BAND 1 – BAND 7 boxes.
Click Next.
Note:
The simple way to do this is first to input one file name and then click the Same
File. This will automatically present a file name with seven numbers. Thus,
there will be file name for each band.
(5) The Select Output Files dialog box is displayed.
Input the name of output file (FBI) in the BAND 1 – BAND 7 boxes.
Input the size of a pixel in meter in the Distance / Pixel box.
Click Next.

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(6) Use the Select View Files dialog box to control display of the image.
In the Color Display Mode box, choose the color display mode between False Color
and Pseudo Color.
In the Display Channel box, select the image channel for the image to be displayed.
Click OK.
(7) The Select Subset Area dialog box and the Overview window are displayed.
The Select Subset Area dialog box designates the range of the data to be input and
the sampling pixels. The range of the data to be input can be designated from the
display image.
a) Type the number of the starting pixel in the analysis area in the Start Pixel box.
b) Type the number of the starting line in the analysis area in the Start Line box.
c) Type the number of the pixels removed between the pixels in the data in the
Interval box.
d) After these steps have been completed, the ending position and the size of the
analysis area are calculated and the results are displayed in each box.
e)-1 Case of inputting the ending position of the analysis area.
Type the number of ending pixels on analysis area in the End Pixel box.
The number of pixels in the analysis area is displayed in the Pixel Size box.
Type the number of ending line in the analysis area in the End Line box.
The number of lines in the analysis area is displayed in the Line Size box.
e)-2 Case of entering the size of the analysis area.
Type the number of pixels in the Pixel Size box.
The number of ending pixel of the analysis area is displayed in the End Pixel box.
Type the number of lines in the Line Size box.
The number of ending line of the analysis area is displayed in the End Line box.
e)-3 Case of displaying the image, and setting the analysis area by visual observation.
In Overview dialog box, choose the analysis area by using the mouse left button
to Drag & Drop on the display image.
The value of the analysis area is displayed at the Start Pixel, End Pixel, Pixel Size,
Start Line, End Line, Line Size boxes.

Click Next.

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(8) Subset Image window and Import End dialog box are displayed.
In Subset Image window, the image of the area selected to analyze is displayed.
This image is the imported image (CH1-7), and it is saved in FCD-Mapper format
(FBI).
(9) After this menu is completed, click the Import End button in the Import End dialog
box. Then the Image Subset window is closed. In order to work on the Image
Subset again, click the Back. Previous menu will resume.

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B. Geometric Correction

Using this menu, the satellite image data of various formats is geometrically corrected.
The area to be analyzed is selected along with this processing; the size of the image is
also changed.
There are two ways in applying the Geometric Correction. In one way, correction of the
image data coincides with the referential image data. In the other way, correction of the
image data coincides with the map coordinate system; the referential image data is not
used.
The data to be corrected is called the “Transformation Data”.
The data to be referred to for correction is called the “Reference Data”.
Finally, the corrected data is saved in the FCD-Mapper format (FBI).

B.1 Case of the correction using the referential image data

(1) Click the Geometric Correction from File menu of Import window.
(2) The Select Original File Format “Trans. Data” dialog box is displayed. Choose the
format of the original data form FCD-MAPPER Format, CEOS, TIFF / GEO TIFF,
BMP or BSQ / BIL Format. Click Next.
(3) The Select Original Files “Trans. Data” dialog box is displayed. Select the original
file (Transformation Data) to import. Click Next.
(4) The Select Output Files “Trans. Data” dialog box is displayed. Input the file name
(Transformation Data) to output. Click Next.
(5) The Select Original File Format “Ref. Data” dialog box is displayed. Choose the
format of the original data form FCD-MAPPER Format, CEOS, TIFF / GEO TIFF,
BMP, BSQ / BIL Format. Click Next.
(6) The Select Original Files “Ref. Data” dialog box is displayed. Select the original file
(Reference Data) to import. Click Next.
(7) The Select Output Files “Ref. Data” dialog box is displayed. Input the file name
(Reference Data) to output. Click Next.
Note:
The simple way to do this is first to input one file name and then click the Same
File. This will automatically present a file name with seven numbers. Thus,
there will be file name for each band.

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(8) The Select View Files “Transformation Data” dialog box is displayed.
In the Color Display Mode box, choose the color display mode between False Color
and Pseudo Color.
In the Display Channel box, select the image channel for the image to be displayed.
(Recommendation: Select the CH1, CH4 and CH5.)
Click OK.
Note:
In this menu, the CH4 data is necessary into program system. Therefore the
CH4 is already selected.
(9) The Select View Files “Reference Data” dialog box is displayed.
In the Color Display Mode box, choose the color display mode between False Color
and Pseudo Color.
In the Display Channel box, select the image channel for the image to be displayed.
(Recommendation; Select the CH1, CH4 and CH5.)
Click OK.
(10) The Adjustment dialog box and the Adjust Window are displayed.
In the Adjust Window, the composite image of Transformation Data and Reference
Data is displayed. The Transformation Data and Reference Data are distributed in
the RGB Color. The Reference Data is distributed in the R Color (Red). The
Transformation Data is distributed in the G and B Colors (Green & Blue).

Make the Transformation Data coincide with the Reference Data in the Adjust
Window. These coincided data will be used in processing on the next menu
(acquisition of GCPs).
The Reference Data is fixed in the Adjust Window. On the other hand, it is able to
move the Transformation Data by the Drag & Drop or using the Adjustment dialog
box.
In the Adjust Window, the Transformation Data moves to the direction as
designated in the Adjustment dialog box.
When the Transformation Data coincides with the Reference Data, click Next.

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(11) The Input GCP “Trans. Data” & “Ref. Data” dialog box, the Reference Data
window and the Transformation Data window are displayed.
In this menu, the Ground Control Points (GCPs) are acquired to implement the
geometric correction. Before beginning this processing, the image window should be
adjusted so that acquisition of the GCP becomes easy.

a) Adjustment of the image display color (Case of False Color)

the image color is adjusted for recognizing the ground information.
Click the mouse right button on the Reference Data window, and select the False
Setting menu. The False Select Window is displayed.
In this window, the RGB Color is set for image display. It is recommended that the
R-Color (Red) sets the R-CH5, the G-Color (Green) sets the R-CH4, and the B-Color
(Blue) sets the R-CH1.
Adjustment of the image color is implemented in the same way for the
Transformation Data window
When CH5, CH4, and CH1 are distributed to the RGB Colors as instructed above,
the water area is shown in the blue color element, the vegetation is shown in the
green color element, and the bare land and urban are shown in the red color element.

b) Adjustment of the image zoom

The image zoom is adjusted for recognizing the ground information.
Click the mouse right button on the window, and select the Zoom menu.
Select the optimal zoom value for recognizing the ground information.

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(12) After the image window is adjusted, it is ready to acquire the GCPs.

a) Click the Select GCP button on the Input GCP “Trans. Data” & “Ref. Data” dialog
box.
b) In the Sub window of the Reference Data window, click the left button of the
mouse on the point where you want to acquire the GCP.
Then the InpGcpDlg dialog box is displayed, and the GCP information (X, Y) is
shown. When it is right, click OK.
Note:
The Sub window links with the target mark set in the Main window. The
magnified image of the target mark set in the Main window appears in the Sub
window. The target mark can move by Drag & Drop using the left button of
mouse.
c) In the same way, click the left button of the mouse on the point where you want to
acquire the GCP in the Sub window of the Transformation Data window.
d) The acquired GCPs are shown in the Input GCP “Trans. Data” & “Ref. Data” dialog
box.
e) Repeat the above processing to acquire four points of the GCP or more.
(It is recommended to acquire more than ten points of the GCP in the wide range.)
Note:
In order to delete a GCP, click the GCP Number on the Input GCP ”Trans.
Data” & “Ref. Data” dialog box.
To delete all GCPs, click the Clear GCP button.

Click the Save GCP button or the Next button to save the acquired GCP. It is
also able to load the saved GCP information by clicking the Load GCP button.
Because the information is renewed every time the GCP is saved, the past
information is removed every time new GCP information is saved.

In order to finish process of acquiring the GCP, click Next.

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(13) The Select Subset Area dialog box and the Overview window are displayed.
The Select Subset Area dialog box designates the range of the data to be input and
the sampling pixels. The range of the data to be input can be designated from the
display image.

a) Type the number of the starting pixel in the analysis area in the Start Pixel box.
b) Type the number of the starting line in the analysis area in the Start Line box.
c) Type the number of the pixels removed between the pixels in the data in the
Interval box.
d) After these steps have been completed, the ending position and the size of the
analysis area are calculated and the results are displayed in each box.
e)-1 Case of inputting the ending position of the analysis area.
Type the number of ending pixels on analysis area in the End Pixel box.
The number of pixels in the analysis area is displayed in the Pixel Size box.
Type the number of ending line in the analysis area in the End Line box.
The number of lines in the analysis area is displayed in the Line Size box.
e)-2 Case of entering the size of the analysis area.
Type the number of pixels in the Pixel Size box.
The number of ending pixel of the analysis area is displayed in the End Pixel box.
Type the number of lines in the Line Size box.
The number of ending line of the analysis area is displayed in the End Line box.
e)-3 Case of displaying the image, and setting the analysis area by visual observation.
In the Overview dialog box, choose the analysis area by using the mouse left
button to Drag & Drop on the display image.
The value of the analysis area is displayed at the Start Pixel, End Pixel, Pixel
Size, Start Line, End Line, Line Size boxes.

Click Next.

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(14) The Import End dialog box and the Subset Image window are displayed.
By this point, the Geometric Correction processing has already been completed.
The composite images of the Transformation Data and Reference Data are displayed
in the Subset Image window.
The result of the Geometric Correction is confirmed in this window.
Note:
To change the channel of RGB color, adjust the False Select window of False
Setting menu (click the right button of mouse).
In the False Select window, select the channel from the Transformation Data
(CH1-4) and the Reference Data (CH1-3).
(15) In order to finish this menu, click the Import End button in the Import End dialog
box. Then, the Geometric Correction window is closed.
In order to resume processing on the Geometric Correction, click the Back. The
previous menu will reappear.

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B.2 Case of correction using the map coordinate system

(1) Click the Geometric Correction from File menu of Import window.
(2) The Select Original File Format “Trans. Data” dialog box is displayed. Choose the
format of the original data form FCD-MAPPER Format, CEOS, TIFF / GEO TIFF,
BMP or BSQ / BIL Format. Click Next.
(3) The Select Original Files “Trans. Data” dialog box is displayed. Select the original
file (Transformation Data) to import. Click Next.
(4) The Select Output Files “Trans. Data” dialog box is displayed. Input the file name
(Transformation Data) to output. Click Next.
(5) The Select Original File Format “Ref. Data” dialog box is displayed. Select the
Unused and click Next.

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(6) The Select View Files “Transformation Data” dialog box is displayed.
In the Color Display Mode box, choose the color display mode between False Color
and Pseudo Color.
In the Display Channel box, select the image channel for the image to be displayed.
(It is recommended to select the CH1, CH4 and CH5.)
Click OK.
(7) The Input Latitude & Longitude “Trans. Data” dialog box and Input Longitude and
Latitude window are displayed.
Select the map coordinate system and the position format in the Input Format box.
(8) Before proceeding to the next processing, adjust the color of the image to be
displayed and zooming of the image.
Click the mouse right button on the Input Longitude and Latitude window. (The pull
down menu is displayed.)
Color or the mage to be displayed is adjusted by using the False Setting menu.
Zooming of the image is adjusted by using the Zoom menu.

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2 - 53
(9) After the image window is adjusted, input the geographic information of the
Transformation Data in the Input Longitude and Latitude window.
Note:
When the Input Format is UTM (X, Y), it is necessary to designate the Center
Longitude of the UTM zone. Click the Input button in the Center Longitude
box of the Input Longitude & Latitude “Trans. Data” dialog box, and the Input
Center Longitude dialog box is displayed. Input the center longitude and click
OK.
Then the longitude value is shown in the Center Longitude box.
a) In the Sub window of the Input Longitude and Latitude window, click the point
that you want to input the geographic information.
b) Then the Input Longitude and Latitude dialog box is displayed, input the longitude
and latitude (or UTM). Click OK, and the information is shown in the Input
Longitude and Latitude dialog box.
c) Repeat the above processing in the same way; input the geographic information at
four points or more.
Note:
To delete the inputted information, click the information number in the Input
Longitude & Latitude “Trans. Data” dialog box. Then the Input Longitude and
Latitude dialog box is displayed. Click the Delete button.

To finish inputting the geographic information, click OK.

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(10) The Select Subset Area dialog box and the Overview window are displayed.
The Select Subset Area dialog box designates the range of the data to be input and
the sampling pixels. The range of the data to be input can be designated from the
display image.

a) Type the number of the starting pixel in the analysis area in the Start Pixel box.
b) Type the number of the starting line in the analysis area in the Start Line box.
c) Type the number of the pixels removed between the pixels in the data in the
Interval box.
d) After these steps have been completed, the ending position and the size of the
analysis area are calculated and the results are displayed in each box.
e)-1 Case of inputting the ending position of the analysis area.
Type the number of ending pixel on analysis area in the End Pixel box.
The number of pixels in the analysis area is displayed in the Pixel Size box.
Type the number of ending line in the analysis area in the End Line box.
The number of lines in the analysis area is displayed in the Line Size box.
e)-2 Case of entering the size of the analysis area.
Type the number of pixels in the Pixel Size box.
The number of ending pixel of the analysis area is displayed in the End Pixel box.
Type the number of lines in the Line Size box.
The number of ending line of the analysis area is displayed in the End Line box.
e)-3 Case of displaying the image, and setting the analysis area by visual observation.
In the Overview dialog box, choose the analysis area by using the mouse left
button to Drag & Drop on the display image.
The value of the analysis area is displayed at the Start Pixel, End Pixel, Pixel
Size, Start Line, End Line, Line Size boxes.
(10)
Click Next.

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(11) The Import End dialog box and the Subset Image window are displayed.
By this point, the Geometric Correction processing has already been completed.
Then the geographic information is added to the corrected data (FBI) automatically.

To finish this menu, click the Import End button in the Import End dialog box. Then
the Geometric Correction window is closed.
To resume processing on geometric correction, click the Back. The previous menu
will reappear.

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C. Geo-Coordination

Using this menu, geographic information is added to the imported image file.
There are two ways in implementing Geo-Coordination. The one is to input geographic
information in the image file and the other is to input the World File in the image file.
The image file used in this Geo-Coordination processing is the FCD-Mapper format file
(FBI).

(1) Click the Geo-Coordination from File menu of Import window.

(2) The Select Original Files dialog box is displayed. Input the original file (FBI format)
to the BAND1-BAND7 box. Click Next.
(3) The Select View Files dialog box is displayed.
In the Color Display Mode box, choose the color display mode between False Color
and Pseudo Color.
In the Display Channel box, select the image channel for the display image.
Click OK.

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C.1 Case of inputting the longitude and latitude

(1) In the Select Input dialog box, choose the method of the Input Longitude and
Latitude.
Click Next.
(2) The Input Latitude & Longitude dialog box and the Input Latitude and Longitude
window are displayed. In this window, input the geographic information (latitude
and longitude).

Before beginning the processing, it is recommended to adjust the image window so

that inputting the geographic information becomes easy.
a) Adjustment of the image display color (Case of False Color)

b) Adjustment of the image zoom

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(3) After the image window is adjusted, input the geographic information (longitude
and latitude).

a) In the Sub window of the Input Longitude and Latitude window, click the point
where you want to input the geographic information by using the left button of
mouse.
b) Then the Input Longitude and Latitude dialog box is displayed. Input the
longitude and latitude information, and click OK.
Note:
The Sub window links with the target mark set in the Main window. The
magnified image of the target mark set in the Main window appears in the Sub
window. The target mark can move by Drag & Drop using the left button of
mouse.
c) The inputted information is shown in the Input Longitude & Latitude dialog box.
d) Repeat the above processing and the geographic information is input at four
corners on the image.
Note:
To delete the geographic information, click the Number on the Input Longitude
& Latitude dialog box. Then Input Longitude and Latitude dialog box is
displayed, and click the Delete.

Click Next.

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(4) The Input Geographic Information End dialog box and the Subset Image window
are displayed.
By this point, the Geo-Coordination processing has already been completed.
To finish this menu, click the Import End button in the Input Geographic
Information End dialog box. Then the Geo-Coordination window is closed.
To resume processing on the Geo-Coordination, click Back. The previous menu will
reappear.

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C.2 Case of inputting the World File

(1) In the Select Input dialog box, choose the method of the World File.
Click Next.
(2) The Select World File dialog box is displayed.
Select the World File.
Click Next.

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(3) The Select World File dialog box is displayed. The information of World File is
shown in the dialog box.
Choose the kind of World File (Longitude, Latitude or UTM).
Note:
In case of choosing the UTM, click the Input button in Center Longitude box.
Then the Input Center Longitude dialog box is displayed, and input the value of
the center longitude in UTM zone. Click OK and it is shown in the Center
Longitude box.

Click Next.
(4) The Input Geographic Information End dialog box and the Subset Image window
are displayed.
By this point, the Geo-Coordination processing has already been completed.
To finish this menu, click the Import End button in the Input Geographic
Information End dialog box. Then, the Geo-Coordination window is closed.
To resume processing on the Geo-Coordination, click Back. The previous menu will
reappear.

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2.3 FCD-Mapper Operations Guide - Pass 1 -

In the FCD-Mapper Ver.2, the FCD analysis procedure is divided into Pass 1 process
and Pass 2 processes. In the Pass 1 process, it can implement all menus of excluding
the Slope Shadow Set menu. When there is not influence of topographic shadow, the
FCD is able to calculate at only the Pass 1 process.
(The Slope Shadow Set menu is implemented at Pass 2 process.)

2.3.1 Process to open the Image File

A. Opening the Image File

This means to select the image files to open for analysis.
The file to select using this menu is FCD-Mapper format file (FBI).

(1) Click Open in the FCD menu.

(2) The Image Open dialog box is displayed.
Input the image file name to the BAND1-BAND7 box.
Note:
The simple way to do this process is to click the Same File after inputting one
file name. This will automatically present a file name with seven numbers.
Thus, the file name will be inputted each band.
(3) Click Open and the image files are imported.

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B. Displaying the Image

(1) Click Display in the FCD menu.

(2) The False Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable method for displaying the data and click OK.
(3) The false color image is displayed in the IMAGE DISPLAY PASS 1 window

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2.3.2 Noise Reduction and Normalization Process

The normalization of the image is the process that all data is adjusted to conform as a
common standard. It is also necessary to reduce the noise that has nothing to do with
analysis such as Water, Cloud, Cloud Shadow, Atmospheric Noise and Slope Shadow.
And in this menu, it implements the select to make the Model menu effective.

(1) Click Check/Reduction in the FCD menu.

(2) The Noise Check and Reduction dialog box is displayed.
It selects the related item responsible for the noise existing in the input image.
Check the item that has to be masked in order to reduce the NOISE from Surface
Water, Cloud, Cloud Shadow, Atmospheric Noise, and Slope Shadow. And click
ON to implement reduction of Noise.
(3) When it implements the Multi VD processing, check the Multi VD Model and click
ON to make the Model menu effective.
(4) Click OK. Then, checked menu becomes active on the FCD menu. However, Slope
Shadow Set menu is not active in this Pass 1 process because of Pass 2 process.

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A. Procedures for masking bodies of water

In this procedure, it extracts the portion of existing water in the image and removes (i.e.
mask) the range from analysis area.

(1) Click Water Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The Set Threshold of Surface Water Mask with Histogram dialog box and the Set
Threshold of Surface Water Mask with Histogram window are displayed.
Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the threshold of the water area on the histogram.
The portion of the image below the threshold of the water area is displayed in the
black. Everything of others is displayed in the white.
Click OK.

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B. Procedures for masking clouds

In this procedure, it extracts the portion of existing cloud in the image and removes (i.e.
mask) the range from analysis area.

(1) Click Cloud Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The Set Threshold of CLOUD MASK with Histogram dialog box and the Set
Threshold of CLOUD MASK with Histogram window are displayed.
Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the threshold of the cloud area on the histogram.
The portion of the image above the threshold of the cloud area is displayed in the black.
Everything of others is displayed in the white.
Click OK.

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C. Procedures for removing (masking) the cloud shadow area

These procedures are automatically synchronized with the procedures for masking
clouds. As explained above (B.) the cloud mask responds to Drag & Drop movement of
the left mouse button. The semi-expert system produces point information (i.e. the
extent of movement on the image) of the cloud shadow, which of course relates to
movement of the cloud. This point information is used to create the cloud shadow mask.
A maximum of three (3) information points can be derived to delineate the area of the
cloud shadow. Basically, the right button menu of the cloud shadow mask is made by
adding Point Select, Point Initialize, Mask to the right button menu of the image
window.

(1) Click Shadow Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The Set Cloud Shadow Mask dialog box and the Set Cloud Shadow Mask window
are displayed.
Drag & Drop the cloud mask (displayed in the gray) to the cloud shadow area on the
Set Cloud Shadow Mask window.
This moves the cloud shadow in the area encompassed by the information points (the
cloud mask).
The points to be set and a cloud shadow position (i.e. the extent of movement on the
image) are displayed at the status bar.
(3) When it makes another shadow mask (a maximum is three), choose the point of
cloud shadow mask from either Point1 or Point2 or Point3 in the Point Select of the
sub menu that is opened by the mouse right button.
(4) When it retries from the beginning, choose the Point Initialize in the sub menu. The
cloud shadow area returns to the initiative position.
(5) When confirming what cloud shadow mask was made at setting point, choose Mask.
The cloud shadow mask is displayed in the black.
(6) Click OK.

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D. Procedures for Reduction of Atmospheric Noise

Atmospheric noise such as haze and cloud (cloud shadow) which exist in image data is
reduced by using this menu. The reduction of haze is implemented by spatial filter
analysis, and the result is adapted to the image data of band 1-3. The area affected by
cloud (cloud shadow) is reduced by replacing the cloud area (using cloud and cloud
shadow mask) with its identical area, which is free from cloud or cloud shadow, of other
image data, and the result is adapted to the image data of band 1-7. It is also possible to
apply only either of these processing.

Caution:
The image data processed using the Atmos Set menu will overwrite the initially opened
data. When the processing for this menu completes, the following message dialog box is
opened.

If you want to stop processing and reset the parameters, click Retry, and this dialog box
disappears.
If you want to continue processing, click Yes. The processing is implemented, and the
image data overwrite the initially opened image data. It must be careful, because it is
not possible to undo this process. In order to reset the noise reduction menu (Water Set,
Cloud Set, Atmos Set and so on) after this processing is implemented, it is necessary to
start processing from the Open menu again.

D.1 Reduction of Haze

(1) Click Atmos Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The Haze Reduction dialog box and the Haze Reduction window are displayed.
Note:
When it is not necessary to implement this processing (Haze Reduction), click
CANCEL. Then the Open Project window that is used for the Cloud-Free
Mosaic processing is displayed.
(3) Type how many times Minimum Filter is executed and click Preview.
Then the filter processing is implemented, and the image data which reduced the
haze is calculated.
(4) The preview image is displayed in the Haze Reduction window. And click OK.

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D.2 Cloud-Free Mosaic

In the Cloud-Free Mosaic processing, it converts the portion of cloud and cloud shadow
into observed image data at other time. Therefore this portion becomes object area for
analysis. For the Cloud-Free Mosaic, it is necessary to make another project using
image data of same size. It can reduce the influence of cloud and cloud shadow using
plural projects.

(1) The Open Project dialog box is displayed. Choose the project in the Open Project
dialog box, and click OK.
The Cloud-Free Mosaic processing is implemented.
(2) The Cloud-Free Mosaic dialog box and the Cloud-Free Mosaic are displayed.
When it implements the Cloud-Free Mosaic using plural project so that it reduces
the influence of cloud and cloud shadow completely, click Retry Select Project.
The Open Project dialog box is displayed again, then it repeats the above process.
(3) When it finishes the processing, click End.

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E. Procedures for Slope Shadow

In the Slope Shadow Set menu, it is able to correct the influence of topographic shadow
in the image data. However, this processing isn’t implemented in Pass 1, but in Pass 2.

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F. Normalization Processing

It normalizes the image data which various noises were reduced in the Noise menu.
This means that all data is adjusted to conform as a common standard in the FCD
analysis.

(1) Click Normalization in the FCD menu.

The Normalization processing is implemented.
(2) The False Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable method for displaying the data and click OK.
(3) The NORMALIZATION PASS 1 window is displayed.
The false color image is shown in the window. And the Normalization processing is
finished.

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2.3.3 Index Process

A. Designation of the Vegetation Index (VI)

The FCD Model chooses a vegetation index on the basis of correlation between Bare Soil
Index (BI) and AVI, NDVI or ANVI. If a vegetation index to be used is already
determined before processing, select that index. If a vegetation index to be used is not
determined yet, on the other hand, it is recommended to select the vegetation index
with the highest correlation coefficient value.

(1) Click PCA Select in the FCD menu.

AVI, NDVI, ANVI and BI are calculated.
(2) The Select VI dialog box is displayed.
Choose the VI from AVI, NDVI and ANVI. Then click OK.

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B. Calculation of the Thermal Index (TI)

(1) Click TI in the FCD menu.

TI is calculated.
(2) The False Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable method for displaying the data and click OK.
(3) The TI image is displayed in the window.

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C. Calculation of the Shadow Index (SI)

Calculation of the shadow index involves a choice between two kinds of equations:
Normal equation or logarithmic equation, both of which are included in this system. The
system also revises forest gap, black soil information and spatial process. Additionally,
the system can calculate the Advanced Shadow Index (ASI).

(1) Click SI Select in the FCD menu.

(2) The SI Select dialog box is displayed.
(3) To calculate SI, choose either Normal Equation or Log Equation.
(4) To calculate ASI, select Gap Detect, Black Soil Detect or Spatial Process.
Click OK. The menu becomes active on the FCD menu.
(5) Click the SI in the FCD menu, then SI is calculated, and the SI image is displayed in
the window.
(6) Check the box for the menu items in the ASI Generate Options, and processing of
the checked item (Gap Detect, Black Soil Detect) becomes activated. Then, the ASI is
calculated. At the same time, the Spatial Process is implemented automatically.

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C.1 Correction of forest gaps

Quite often, there are forest gap areas in the analysis range. This system delineates the
boundaries of these gaps by calculating their value through use of a Vegetation Index.

(1) Click Gap Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The Set Threshold of GAP with Histogram dialog box and the Set Threshold of
GAP with Histogram window are displayed.
Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the threshold of the gap on the histogram.
The portion of the image below the threshold of the forest gap area is displayed in
the black. Everything of others is displayed in the white.
Then click OK.

Factor to Lead to Failed Analysis:

The setting of the extreme threshold such as impractical value is problem for analysis.
It is necessary to be careful of the setting because it may influence future processing.
When it is impossible to calculate at the ASI, the error message is displayed.

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C.2 Procedures for dealing with black soil

In many instances, the area being analyzed contains patches of black soil. These
patches can be confused with shadow. The following steps are taken to eliminate this
confusion.

(1) Click Black Soil Set in the FCD menu.

The Set Threshold of Black Soil with Histogram dialog box and the Set Threshold
of Black Soil with Histogram window are displayed.
Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the threshold of the black soil on the histogram.
The portion of the image above the threshold of the black soil area is displayed in the
black. Everything of others is displayed in the white.
Then click OK.

Factor to Lead to Failed Analysis:

The setting of the extreme threshold such as impractical value is problem for analysis.
It is necessary to be careful of the setting because it may influence future processing.
When it is impossible to calculate at the ASI, the error message is displayed.

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C.3 Calculation of the Advanced Shadow Index (ASI)

After it revises the forest gap or the black soil and executes the spatial process, this
system calculates Advanced Shadow Index (ASI).

(1) Click ASI in the FCD menu.

In case of chosen Spatial Process in SI Select, Spatial Process is calculated.
And the ASI is calculated.
(2) The False Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable method for displaying the data and click OK.
(3) The ASI is displayed in the window.

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2.3.4 Vegetation Density (VD) Process

The system calculates the density of vegetation in percentage.

A. Designation of the vegetation area

In this menu, it extracts the vegetation area by utilizing Vegetation Index (VI).
It designates the minimum value of the vegetation area by VI.

(1) Click Vegetation Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The Set Threshold of Vegetation with Histogram dialog box and the Set Threshold
of Vegetation with Histogram window are displayed.
Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the threshold of the vegetation on the histogram.
The portion of the image above the threshold of the vegetation area is displayed in the
white. Everything of others is displayed in the black.
Then click OK.

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B. Designation of the Bare Soil

In this menu, it extracts the bare soil area by utilizing Bare soil Index (BI).
It designates the minimum value of the bare soil by BI.

(1) Click Bare-Soil Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The Set Threshold of Bare Soil with Histogram dialog box and the Set Threshold of
Bare Soil with Histogram window are displayed.
Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the threshold of the bare soil on the histogram.
The portion of the image above the threshold of the bare soil area is displayed in the
white. Everything of others is displayed in the black.
Then click OK.

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C. Designation of the range which calculates the VD

It designates the 0% vegetation density at the histogram of 1st PCA (Principal

Component Analysis). The suggested 0% point is the intersection of each histogram
between bare soil maximum value and vegetation minimum value. (Ref. [1])
It designates the 100% vegetation density at the histogram of 1st PCA. The suggested
100% point is the border of vegetation maximum value. (Ref. [2])
When it sets by using statistic information, it recommends the following way.
The suggested 0% point is Mean-2σ, the suggested 100% point is Mean+2σ, at statistics
of vegetation area. (Ref. [3], [4])

(1) Click VD Range Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The Set Threshold of VD with Histogram dialog box and the Set Threshold of VD
with Histogram window are displayed. This is the designated minimum value of the
VD. Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the minimum value of the VD on the histogram.
The portion of the image above the minimum value of VD is displayed in the white.
Everything of others is displayed in the black.
And click OK.
(3) Again the Set Threshold of VD with Histogram dialog box and the Set Threshold of
VD with Histogram window are displayed. This is the designated maximum value of
the VD. Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the maximum value of the VD on the
histogram. The portion of the image above maximum value of the VD is displayed in
the black. Everything of others is displayed in the white.
Then click OK.

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Factor to Lead to Failed Analysis:
In the designating of the range which calculates the VD (processing of C.), the setting of
VD is influenced with the range of vegetation area and bare soil area.
Therefore it is necessary to be careful about the setting of vegetation area and bare soil
area. (processing of A. and B.)

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D. Calculation of the VD

(1) Click VD in the FCD menu.

VD is calculated.
(2) The Pseudo Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable method for displaying the data and click OK.
(3) The pseudo color image is displayed in the VD PASS 1 window.

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2.3.5 Scaled Shadow Index (SSI) Process

The system first classifies a cluster using VI-BI-SI and the TI image. It then identifies a
forest area.
It next adjusts the range of SI in the forest area and calculates SSI (from 0 to 100 %).

A. Confirming the conditions for processing SSI from VI-BI-SI false color
display

The system changes VI-BI-SI into GRB and it displays in false color image. It also
confirms the mutual relationships of VI, BI, and SI. The following features appear on
the false color image:
- the area of High Density Forest is displayed in the cyan.
- the area in grass, agricultural crops and so on is displayed in the green.
- the area in bare soil is displayed in the red.
To confirm the conditions and move ahead on processing, the following steps are
required:

(1) To display the false color image of VI-BI-SI, click VI-BI-SI in the FCD menu.
(2) The False Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the preferred method for displaying the data and click OK.
(3) The VI-BI-SI false color image is displayed in the VI-BI-SI window.

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B. Designation of the forest area

The system performs cluster classification using the VI-BI-SI and TI and the result is
displayed. This designates the classification category of the forest and inputs the forest
area. The value of the FC (Forest Clusters), VI and SI becomes high in forest.
Oppositely the value of BI and TI becomes low in forest. And when you have the
information of field, it is important to make the information reflect into designation of
forest area.
Thus in this menu, it designates category of forest using these characteristic forest
condition.

(1) Click Cluster Select in the FCD menu.

Cluster classification is calculated.
(2) The statistical result (Clustering of VI-BI-SI-TI to identify Forest Clusters (FC) dialog
box) of the classification class and the cluster image are displayed.
On the Clustering of VI-BI-SI-TI to identify Forest Clusters (FC) dialog box, click the
classification class of the forest area.
The chosen classification category is displayed in the green.
To cancel, click the chosen class one more time.
(3) When all classification categories of the forest area have been chosen, click OK.

Factor to Lead to Failed Analysis:

The designated forest area plays an important role for future processing and affects the
result of FCD analysis. The class that is considered to partially include the forest should
be counted as the designated forest area.

The indicated area (green) in the above figure is forest certainly. However, the forest
does not only exist in this area but also exists in the portion except the area. At this time,
it is necessary to set the forest area widely so that it includes forest almost.

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(4) The Set Threshold of SSI with Histogram dialog box and the Set Threshold of SSI
with Histogram window are displayed. This is the designated minimum value of the
SSI.
Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the minimum value of the SSI on the histogram. The
portion of the image above the minimum value of SSI is displayed in the white.
Everything of others is displayed in the black.
Then click OK.
(5) Again the Set Threshold of SSI with Histogram dialog box and the Set Threshold of
SSI with Histogram window are displayed. This is the designated maximum value of
the SSI.
Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the maximum value of the SSI on the histogram.
The portion of the image above maximum value at the SSI is displayed in the black.
Everything of others is displayed in the white.
Then click OK.

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C. Calculation of SSI

(1) Click SSI in the FCD menu.

SSI is calculated from the designated forest area.
(2) The Pseudo Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable method for displaying the data and click OK.
(3) The pseudo color image is displayed in the SSI PASS 1 window.

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2.3.6 Multi VD Model

By using this menu, it is possible to calculate the Multi Model VD that can mitigate the
influence of seasonal difference in forest conditions and the difference of various forest
structures. The multi-model processing first categorizes the area regarded as the forest
into groups (four groups at most) by using the results of cluster classification. The VD is
calculated for each forest group and the VD of each group is integrated to produce the
Multi Model VD.

A. Multi VD Set

The system performs cluster classification using the VI-BI-SI and TI within the area
regarded as the forest. The forest area is then divided into various forest categories
using the result of the cluster classification; four categories can be set at most. The
classification is based on the value of each index (VI-BI-SI-TI and FC) which is
calculated through cluster classification. The classes with similar characteristics are
grouped into the same category. Information and knowledge about the field can be
applied to the classification as well.

(1) Click Multi VD Set in the FCD menu.

Cluster classification is calculated.
(2) The statistical result (the Clustering of VI-BI-SI-TI to identify Forest Clusters (FC)
dialog box) of the classification class and the cluster image are displayed.
On the Clustering of VI-BI-SI-TI to identify Forest Clusters (FC) dialog box, click the
classification class of the Multi VD Group 1-4.
The chosen classification category is displayed in the each color (Group1;Red,
Group2;Green, Group3;Blue, Group4;Yellow).
(3) When all classification categories of the Multi VD Group have been chosen, click OK.

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This function of the system adjusts VD in each area of Multi VD Group1-4 and
calculates Multi VD Model (from 0 to 100%).
The 0% vegetation density is fixed by the value of VD which it had been setting already.
In this menu, it designates the 100% vegetation density at the histogram of 1st PCA.
The suggested 100% point is the border of vegetation maximum value in each group.

(4) The Group1 Set Threshold of VD with Histogram dialog box and the Group1 Set
Threshold of VD with Histogram window are displayed.
Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the maximum value of the VD on the histogram.
The portion of the image above the maximum value of Group1 VD is displayed in the
black, the Group1 area is displayed in the white. Out of Group1 area is displayed in
the Gray.
Then click OK.
(4) In the Group2-4, the maximum value of VD is set in the same way.
Click OK.
(5) Multi VD is calculated.

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B. Multi VD Model

(1) Click Multi VD Model in the FCD menu.

(2) The Pseudo Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable method for displaying the data.
(3) The pseudo color image is displayed in the MULTI VD PASS 1 window and click OK.

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2.3.7 FCD Process and Map Statistics

This part of the system performs the following functions:

- Compiling FCD statistics for every Grid or polygon area.

- Presentation of the data in number of hectares per FCD category.
- Saving of results in an Excel file format.
- Saving of images in a Bitmap file (BMP) format.

A. Producing the FCD Map

The FCD map is produced using VI and SSI.

(1) Click FCD in the FCD menu.

FCD is calculated.
(2) The Pseudo Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable format for displaying the results and click OK.
(3) The pseudo color image is displayed in the FCD PASS 1 window and click OK.

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B. Calculating the area in each FCD category and saving the results

This function of the system takes the statistics of FCD in the grid area or the polygon
area. When it takes statistics in the polygon area, inputting the mask file. The results
can be presented in tables and saved as an Excel file. Then the image can be saved as a
bitmap file.

(1) Click Map Statistics in the FCD menu.

(2) The Mapping Statistics dialog box is displayed.

B.1 Presentation of the results

Results showing the number of hectares in each FCD category can be based on either
the whole grid or polygon area.

Case-1: Designates the area by Grid.

(1) Click Grid tab.
(2) Chooses one unit of Grid at Pixel or Distance.
(3) Type the size (pixel or meter) of a grid.

Case-2: Designates the area by mask file.

The mask file is a bitmap image file (Index color of 8 bits), and the mask produces in 2
colors. The counted area uses a color except black (i.e. color level > 0), and non-counted
area uses black color (i.e. color level = 0). The counted area to be designated is only one
per mask file.
(1) Click Mask tab.
(2) Click “…” button in the Mask File.
(3) Input the mask file name in the File name box.

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B.2 Designation of the partition which compiles statistics of FCD Map, and the display
color

Values of the FCD are grouped in the ranges for every 10 % in default; including the
“0 %” range, there are 11 FCD ranges. Color to represent each range is also arranged in
default as well.

(1) To change the color of partition, it designates where the division into FCD categories
begins and where it ends using the Drag & Drop function of the left mouse button on
the color bar. FCD value is shown under the Default button.
(2) Then the Color dialog box is displayed, selects the desirable color for presenting the
data and click OK.
(3) The FCD Map is displayed in the Mapping Statistics window.

B.3 Calculating of the FCD Map

Calculation of the area is based on statistics.

(1) Click Calculation.

(2) The results are displayed in the TABLE OF MAPPING STATISTICS window.

B.4 Saving of the results

The displayed results in the TABLE OF MAPPING STATISTICS window can save at files.
Tables are saved as the Excel file format, and the information of FCD Map is saved as
the Bitmap file.

(1) Click Save.

(2) The system first saves the information of FCD Map.
It automatically saves as the Bitmap file under the file name to be preserved.
Click OK.
(3) After saving the Bitmap file, the system automatically saves the tables as the Excel
file under the file name to be preserved. Click OK.

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2.3.8 Ground Process

By using this menu, the FCD Map can be produced on the basis of the field information.
This FCD Map is produced by using the Ground Data in which the field information is
inputted in the CSV format.
First of all, the Ground Data has to be developed. It is necessary to input the
information on the crown density collected in field into the CSV format file as the
Ground Data.
The following information is inputted into the CSV format file.

Point No., longitude (D), longitude (M), latitude (D), latitude (M), FCD value (%)

ex. : 1 , N30 , 13.5 , E78 , 4.5 , 25

2 , N30 , 24.5 , E77 , 40.5 , 40
3 , N30 , 26.5 , E78 , 52.7 , 80

The filed data to be input in this processing requires the position information (longitude
& latitude); therefore, the data to be used in this project must have the position
information as well.
If the data processed in this project is not accompanied with the position information, it
is necessary to input the position information into the calculated FCD file (FBI) at the
Geo-Coordination of Import menu.

A. Ground Set

(1) Click Ground Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The Ground Data Select dialog box is displayed.
(3) Select the ground data file of the CSV format.
(4) Type the Matrix Count in the Options. The Matrix Count is a pixel size of the
assigned point from the Ground Data.
Click OK and mask image of Ground Data is calculated.

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B. Ground

(1) Click Ground in the FCD menu.

(2) The Pseudo select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable format for displaying the results and click OK.
(3) The Ground Data is displayed in the GROUND PASS 1 window.
When it clicks the point of plot on the window, the information bar is displayed.

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2.3.9 FCD Range Process

By using this menu, the FCD Map is adjusted by regression analysis so that the FCD
values can be coincided with the field condition. This processing has two ways, one is to
utilize the Ground Data and the other is to manually set the regression equation.
(Reference data : The scatter diagram using FCD and Ground Data)

A. FCD Range Set

A.1 Case of Utilizing the Ground Data

(1) Click FCD Range Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The FCD RANGE CORRECTION dialog box is displayed.
Select the Ground Data and click OK.
It calculates the FCD that had been adjusted by regression analysis.

A.2 Case of Manual Setting

(1) Click FCD Range Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The FCD RANGE CORRECTION dialog box is displayed.
Select the Manual. Then it inputs a value of the Slope and Intercept. When the Multi
VD is calculated in the FCD analysis, it sets the value in each Multi VD Group.
Click OK.
Then it calculates the FCD that had been adjusted by regression analysis.

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B. FCD Range

(1) Click FCD Range in the FCD menu.

(2) The Pseudo select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable format for displaying the results and click OK.
(3) The adjusted FCD Map is displayed in the FCD RANGE PASS 1 window.

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2.4 FCD Mapper Operations Guide - Pass 2 -

In the Pass 2 process, it corrects the influence of topographic shadow in the image data
which has been produced at Pass 1 process. And it calculates the FCD by using the
corrected data.
In the FCD menu it changes the Pass 1 to Pass 2, and then the Pass 2 process starts.
The correcting of topographic shadow is implemented in the Slope Shadow Set menu.
To implement the processing, it is necessary to check the Slope Shadow at the
Check/Reduction menu of Pass 1. When the Slope Shadow had been checked at Pass
1 process, the Slope Shadow Set menu becomes active.

When there is not influence of topographic shadow, it is not necessary to implement the
Pass 2 process. (The FCD is able to calculate at Pass 1 process only.)

2.4.1 Noise Reduction and Normalization Process

The normalization of the image is the process that all data is adjusted to conform as a
common standard. It is also necessary to reduce the noise which exists in the analysis
data, and in the Pass 2 process it corrects the topographic shadow only.
And in this menu, it implements the select to make the Model menu effective.

(1) Click Check/Reduction in the FCD menu.

(2) The Noise Check and Reduction dialog box is displayed.
When it implements the Multi VD processing, check the Multi VD Model and click
ON to make the Model menu effective.
(3) Click OK. Then, checked menu becomes active on the FCD menu.

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A. Procedures for Slope Shadow

In this menu, it extracts the portion of topographic shadow by the Topographic Shadow
Index (TSI) and corrects the influence at the Band 1-5 data.
The TSI is automatically calculated using VI, BI and SI, and it is able to adjust by using
spatial filter.
Then it designates the minimum value of the slope shadow area by using the TSI
histogram, it makes the mask image of topographic shadow area.
In the portion of extracted topographic shadow, it corrects the image data so that it
agrees with the data of non-shadow area. The results of this processing are reflected to
the band 1-5 data.

(1) Click Slope Shadow Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The Spatial Filter dialog box and Spatial Filter window are displayed.
Type the number of times which it executes the Spatial Filter, and click Preview.
The Spatial Filter is implemented.
(3) The preview is displayed in the Spatial Filter window. And click OK.

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(4) The Set Threshold of TSI with Histogram dialog box and the Set Threshold of TSI
with Histogram window are displayed.
(5) Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the threshold of the topographic shadow on the
histogram.
(6) The portion of the image above the threshold of the topographic shadow is displayed
in the black. Everything else is displayed in the white. And click OK.
The image data (CH1-5 file) for analysis are calculated.

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B. Normalization Processing

It normalizes the image data which topographic shadow is corrected in the Noise menu.
This means that all data is adjusted to conform as a common standard in the FCD
analysis. At this time, the mask image (water, cloud and cloud shadow) which is
produced at the Pass 1 process is reflected.

(1) Click Normalization in the FCD menu.

The Normalization processing is implemented
(2) The False Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable method for displaying the data and click OK.
(3) The NORMALIZATION PASS 2 window is displayed.
The false color image is shown in the window. And the Normalization processing is
finished.

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2.4.2 Index Process

A. Designation of the Vegetation Index (VI)

The FCD Model chooses a vegetation index on the basis of correlation between Bare Soil
Index (BI) and AVI, NDVI or ANVI. If a vegetation index to be used is already
determined before processing, select that index. If a vegetation index to be used is not
determined yet, on the other hand, it is recommended to select the vegetation index
with the highest correlation coefficient value.

(1) Click PCA Select in the FCD menu.

AVI, NDVI, ANVI and BI are calculated.
(2) The Select VI dialog box is displayed.
Choose the VI from AVI, NDVI and ANVI. Then click OK.

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B. Calculation of the Thermal Index (TI)

(1) Click TI in the FCD menu.

TI is calculated.
(2) The False Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable method for displaying the data and click OK.
(3) The TI image is displayed in the window.

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C. Calculation of the Shadow Index (SI)

Calculation of the shadow index involves a choice between two kinds of equations:
Normal equation or logarithmic equation, both of which are included in this system. The
system also revises forest gap, black soil information and spatial process. Additionally,
the system can calculate the Advanced Shadow Index (ASI).

(1) Click SI Select in the FCD menu.

(2) The SI Select dialog box is displayed.
(3) To calculate SI, choose either Normal Equation or Log Equation.
(4) To calculate ASI, select Gap Detect, Black Soil Detect or Spatial Process.
Click OK. The menu becomes active on the FCD menu.
(5) Click the SI in the FCD menu, then SI is calculated, and the SI image is displayed in
the window.
(6) Check the box for the menu items in the ASI Generate Options, and processing of
the checked item (Gap Detect, Black Soil Detect) becomes activated. Then, the ASI is
calculated. At the same time, the Spatial Process is implemented automatically.

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C.1 Correction of forest gaps

Quite often, there are forest gap areas in the analysis range. This system delineates the
boundaries of these gaps by calculating their value through use of a Vegetation Index.

(1) Click Gap Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The Set Threshold of GAP with Histogram dialog box and the Set Threshold of
GAP with Histogram window are displayed.
Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the threshold of the gap on the histogram.
The portion of the image below the threshold of the forest gap area is displayed in
the black. Everything of others is displayed in the white.
Then click OK.

Factor to Lead to Failed Analysis:

The setting of the extreme threshold such as impractical value is problem for analysis.
It is necessary to be careful of the setting because it may influence future processing.
When it is impossible to calculate at the ASI, the error message is displayed.

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C.2 Procedures for dealing with black soil

In many instances, the area being analyzed contains patches of black soil. These
patches can be confused with shadow. The following steps are taken to eliminate this
confusion.

(1) Click Black Soil Set in the FCD menu.

The Set Threshold of Black Soil with Histogram dialog box and the Set Threshold
of Black Soil with Histogram window are displayed.
Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the threshold of the black soil on the histogram.
The portion of the image above the threshold of the black soil area is displayed in the
black. Everything of others is displayed in the white.
Then click OK.

Factor to Lead to Failed Analysis:

The setting of the extreme threshold such as impractical value is problem for analysis.
It is necessary to be careful of the setting because it may influence future processing.
When it is impossible to calculate at the ASI, the error message is displayed.

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C.3 Calculation of the Advanced Shadow Index (ASI)

After it revises the forest gap or the black soil and executes the spatial process, this
system calculates Advanced Shadow Index (ASI).

(1) Click ASI in the FCD menu.

In case of chosen Spatial Process in SI Select, Spatial Process is calculated.
And the ASI is calculated.
(2) The False Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable method for displaying the data and click OK.
(3) The ASI is displayed in the window.

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2.4.3 Vegetation Density (VD) Process

The system calculates the density of vegetation by the percentage.

A. Designation of the vegetation area

In this menu, it extracts the vegetation area by utilizing Vegetation Index (VI).
It designates the minimum value of the vegetation area by VI.

(1) Click Vegetation Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The Set Threshold of Vegetation with Histogram dialog box and the Set Threshold
of Vegetation with Histogram window are displayed.
Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the threshold of the vegetation on the histogram.
The portion of the image above the threshold of the vegetation area is displayed in the
white. Everything of others is displayed in the black.
Then click OK.

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B. Designation of the Bare Soil

In this menu, it extracts the bare soil area by utilizing Bare soil Index (BI)
It designates the minimum value of the bare soil by BI.

(1) Click Bare-Soil Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The Set Threshold of Bare Soil with Histogram dialog box and the Set Threshold of
Bare Soil with Histogram window are displayed.
Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the threshold of the bare soil on the histogram.
The portion of the image above the threshold of the bare soil area is displayed in the
white. Everything of others is displayed in the black.
Then click OK.

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C. Designation of the range which calculates the VD

It designates the 0% vegetation density at the histogram of 1st PCA (Principal

Component Analysis). The suggested 0% point is the intersection of each histogram
between bare soil maximum value and vegetation minimum value. (Ref. [1])
It designates the 100% vegetation density at the histogram of 1st PCA. The suggested
100% point is the border of vegetation maximum value. (Ref. [2])
When it sets by using statistic information, it recommends the following way.
The suggested 0% point is Mean-2σ, the suggested 100% point is Mean+2σ, at statistics
of vegetation area. (Ref. [3], [4])

(1) Click VD Range Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The Set Threshold of VD with Histogram dialog box and the Set Threshold of VD
with Histogram window are displayed. This is the designated minimum value of the
VD. Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the minimum value of the VD on the histogram.
The portion of the image above the minimum value of VD is displayed in the white.
Everything of others is displayed in the black.
And click OK.
(3) Again the Set Threshold of VD with Histogram dialog box and the Set Threshold of
VD with Histogram window are displayed. This is the designated maximum value of
the VD. Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the maximum value of the VD on the
histogram. The portion of the image above maximum value of the VD is displayed in
the black. Everything of others is displayed in the white.
Then click OK.

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Factor to Lead to Failed Analysis:
In the designating of the range which calculates the VD (processing of C.), the setting of
VD is influenced with the range of vegetation area and bare soil area.
Therefore it is necessary to be careful about the setting of vegetation area and bare soil
area. (processing of A. and B.)

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D. Calculation of the VD

(1) Click VD in the FCD menu.

VD is calculated.
(2) The Pseudo Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable method for displaying the data and click OK.
(3) The pseudo color image is displayed in the VD PASS 2 window.

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2.4.4 Scaled Shadow Index (SSI) Process

The system first classifies a cluster using VI-BI-SI and the TI image. It then identifies a
forest area.
It next adjusts the range of SI in the forest area and calculates SSI (from 0 to 100 %).

A. Confirming the conditions for processing SSI from VI-BI-SI false color
display

The system changes VI-BI-SI into GRB and it displays in false color image. It also
confirms the mutual relationships of VI, BI, and SI. The following features appear on
the false color image:
- the area of High Density Forest is displayed in the cyan.
- the area in grass, agricultural crops and so on is displayed in the green.
- the area in bare soil is displayed in the red.
To confirm the conditions and move ahead on processing, the following steps are
required:

(1) To display the false color image of VI-BI-SI, click VI-BI-SI in the FCD menu.
(2) The False Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the preferred method for displaying the data and click OK.
(3) The VI-BI-SI false color image is displayed in the VI-BI-SI window.

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B. Designation of the forest area

The system performs cluster classification using the VI-BI-SI and TI and the result is
displayed. This designates the classification category of the forest and inputs the forest
area. The value of the FC (Forest Clusters), VI and SI becomes high in forest.
Oppositely the value of BI and TI becomes low in forest. And when you have the
information of field, it is important to make the information reflect into designation of
forest area.
Thus in this menu, it designates category of forest using these characteristic forest
condition.

(1) Click Cluster Select in the FCD menu.

Cluster classification is calculated.
(2) The statistical result (Clustering of VI-BI-SI-TI to identify Forest Clusters (FC) dialog
box) of the classification class and the cluster image are displayed.
On the Clustering of VI-BI-SI-TI to identify Forest Clusters (FC) dialog box, click the
classification class of the forest area.
The chosen classification category is displayed in the green.
To cancel, click the chosen class one more time.
(3) When all classification categories of the forest area have been chosen, click OK.

Factor to Lead to Failed Analysis:

The designated forest area plays an important role for future processing and affects the
result of FCD analysis. The class that is considered to partially include the forest should
be counted as the designated forest area.

The indicated area (green) in the above figure is forest certainly. However, the forest
does not only exist in this area but also exists in the portion except the area. At this time,
it is necessary to set the forest area widely so that it includes forest almost.

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(4) The Set Threshold of SSI with Histogram dialog box and the Set Threshold of SSI
with Histogram window are displayed. This is the designated minimum value of the
SSI.
Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the minimum value of the SSI on the histogram. The
portion of the image above the minimum value of SSI is displayed in the white.
Everything of others is displayed in the black.
Then click OK.
(5) Again the Set Threshold of SSI with Histogram dialog box and the Set Threshold of
SSI with Histogram window are displayed. This is the designated maximum value of
the SSI.
Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the maximum value of the SSI on the histogram.
The portion of the image above maximum value at the SSI is displayed in the black.
Everything of others is displayed in the white.
Then click OK.

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C. Calculation of SSI

(1) Click SSI in the FCD menu.

SSI is calculated from the designated forest area.
(2) The Pseudo Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable method for displaying the data and click OK.
(3) The pseudo color image is displayed in the SSI PASS 2 window.

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2.4.5 Multi VD Model

By using this menu, it is possible to calculate the Multi Model VD that can mitigate the
influence of seasonal difference in forest conditions and the difference of various forest
structures. The multi-model processing first categorizes the area regarded as the forest
into groups (four groups at most) by using the results of cluster classification. The VD is
calculated for each forest group and the VD of each group is integrated to produce the
Multi Model VD.

A. Multi VD Set

The system performs cluster classification using the VI-BI-SI and TI within the area
regarded as the forest. The forest area is then divided into various forest categories
using the result of the cluster classification; four categories can be set at most. The
classification is based on the value of each index (VI-BI-SI-TI and FC) which is
calculated through cluster classification. The classes with similar characteristics are
grouped into the same category. Information and knowledge about the field can be
applied to the classification as well.

(1) Click Multi VD Set in the FCD menu.

Cluster classification is calculated.
(2) The statistical result (the Clustering of VI-BI-SI-TI to identify Forest Clusters (FC)
dialog box) of the classification class and the cluster image are displayed.
On the Clustering of VI-BI-SI-TI to identify Forest Clusters (FC) dialog box, click the
classification class of the Multi VD Group 1-4.
The chosen classification category is displayed in the each color (Group1;Red,
Group2;Green, Group3;Blue, Group4;Yellow).
(3) When all classification categories of the Multi VD Group have been chosen, click OK.

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This function of the system adjusts VD in each area of Multi VD Group1-4 and
calculates Multi VD Model (from 0 to 100%).
The 0% vegetation density is fixed by the value of VD which it had been setting already.
In this menu, it designates the 100% vegetation density at the histogram of 1st PCA.
The suggested 100% point is the border of vegetation maximum value in each group.

(4) The Group1 Set Threshold of VD with Histogram dialog box and the Group1 Set
Threshold of VD with Histogram window are displayed.
Drag & Drop the cursor bar to the maximum value of the VD on the histogram.
The portion of the image above the maximum value of Group1 VD is displayed in the
black, the Group1 area is displayed in the white. Out of Group1 area is displayed in
the Gray.
Then click OK.
(5) In the Group2-4, the maximum value of VD is set in the same way.
Click OK.
(6) Multi VD is calculated.

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B. Multi VD Model

(1) Click Multi VD Model in the FCD menu.

(2) The Pseudo Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable method for displaying the data.
(3) The pseudo color image is displayed in the MULTI VD PASS 2 window and click OK.

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2.4.6. FCD Process and Map Statistics

This part of the system performs the following functions:

- Compiling FCD statistics for every Grid or polygon area.

- Presentation of the data in number of hectares per FCD category.
- Saving of results in an Excel file format.
- Saving of images in a Bitmap file (BMP) format.

A. Producing the FCD Map

The FCD map is produced using VI and SSI.

(1) Click FCD in the FCD menu.

FCD is calculated.
(2) The Pseudo Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable format for displaying the results and click OK.
(3) The pseudo color image is displayed in the FCD PASS 2 window and click OK.

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B. Calculating the area in each FCD category and saving the results

This function of the system takes the statistics of FCD in the grid area or the polygon
area. When it takes statistics in the polygon area, inputting the mask file. The results
can be presented in tables and saved as an Excel file. Then the image can be saved as a
bitmap file.

(1) Click Map Statistics in the FCD menu.

(2) The Mapping Statistics dialog box is displayed.

B.1 Presentation of the results

Results showing the number of hectares in each FCD category can be based on either
the whole grid or polygon area.

Case-1: Designates the area by Grid.

(1) Click Grid tab.
(2) Chooses one unit of Grid at Pixel or Distance.
(3) Type the size (pixel or meter) of a grid.

Case-2: Designates the area by mask file.

The mask file is a bitmap image file (Index color of 8 bits), and the mask produces in 2
colors. The counted area uses a color except black (i.e. color level > 0), and non-counted
area uses black color (i.e. color level = 0). The counted area to be designated is only one
per mask file.
(1) Click Mask tab.
(2) Click “…” button in the Mask File.
(3) Input the mask file name in the File name box.

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B.2 Designation of the partition which compiles statistics of FCD Map, and the display
color

Values of the FCD are grouped in the ranges for every 10 % in default; including the
“0 %” range, there are 11 FCD ranges. Color to represent each range is also arranged in
default as well.

(1) To change the color of partition, it designates where the division into FCD categories
begins and where it ends using the Drag & Drop function of the left mouse button on
the color bar. FCD value is shown under the Default button.
(2) Then the Color dialog box is displayed, selects the desirable color for presenting the
data and click OK.
(3) The FCD Map is displayed in the Mapping Statistics window.

B.3 Calculating of the FCD Map

Calculation of the area is based on statistics.

(1) Click Calculation.

(2) The results are displayed in the TABLE OF MAPPING STATISTICS window.

B.4 Saving of the results

The displayed results in the TABLE OF MAPPING STATISTICS window can save at files.
Tables are saved as the Excel file format, and the information of FCD Map is saved as
the Bitmap file.

(1) Click Save.

(2) The system first saves the information of FCD Map.
It automatically saves as the Bitmap file under the file name to be preserved.
Click OK.
(3) After saving the Bitmap file, the system automatically saves the tables as the Excel
file under the file name to be preserved. Click OK.

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2.4.7 Ground Process

By using this menu, the FCD Map can be produced on the basis of the field information.
This FCD Map is produced by using the Ground Data in which the field information is
inputted in the CSV format.
First of all, the Ground Data has to be developed. It is necessary to input the
information on the crown density collected in field into the CSV format file as the
Ground Data.
The following information is inputted into the CSV format file.

Point No., longitude (D), longitude (M), latitude (D), latitude (M), FCD value (%)

ex. : 1 , N30 , 13.5 , E78 , 4.5 , 25

2 , N30 , 24.5 , E77 , 40.5 , 40
3 , N30 , 26.5 , E78 , 52.7 , 80

The filed data to be input in this processing requires the position information (longitude
& latitude); therefore, the data to be used in this project must have the position
information as well.
If the data processed in this project is not accompanied with the position information, it
is necessary to input the position information into the calculated FCD file (FBI) at the
Geo-Coordination of Import menu.

A. Ground Set

(1) Click Ground Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The Ground Data Select dialog box is displayed.
(3) Select the ground data file of the CSV format.
(4) Type the Matrix Count in the Options. The Matrix Count is a pixel size of the
assigned point from the Ground Data.
Click OK and mask image of Ground Data is calculated.

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B. Ground

(1) Click Ground in the FCD menu.

(2) The Pseudo select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable format for displaying the results and click OK.
(3) The Ground Data is displayed in the GROUND PASS 2 window.
When it clicks the point of plot on the window, the information bar is displayed.

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2.4.8 FCD Range Process

By using this menu, the FCD Map is adjusted by regression analysis so that the FCD
values can be coincided with the field condition. This processing has two ways, one is to
utilize the Ground Data and the other is to manually set the regression equation.
(Reference data : The scatter diagram using FCD and Ground Data)

A. FCD Range Set

A.1 Case of Utilizing the Ground Data

(1) Click FCD Range Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The FCD RANGE CORRECTION dialog box is displayed.
Select the Ground Data and click OK.
It calculates the FCD that had been adjusted by regression analysis.

A.2 Case of Manual Setting

(1) Click FCD Range Set in the FCD menu.

(2) The FCD RANGE CORRECTION dialog box is displayed.
Select the Manual. Then it inputs a value of the Slope and Intercept. When the Multi
VD is calculated in the FCD analysis, it sets the value in each Multi VD Group.
Click OK.
Then it calculates the FCD that had been adjusted by regression analysis.

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B. FCD Range

(1) Click FCD Range in the FCD menu.

(2) The Pseudo select Window dialog box is displayed.
Choose the desirable format for displaying the results and click OK.
(3) The adjusted FCD Map is displayed in the FCD RANGE PASS 2 window.

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2.5 FCD-Mapper File Menu

2.5.1 Close of the project to be processing

(1) Click Close Project in the File menu.

(2) Return to the first window that appeared at the start of the FCD exercise.

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2.5.2 Changing the expert file, the name of the person conducting the
analysis, and comments on the project

(1) Click Project Property in the File menu.

(2) The Project Property dialog box is displayed.
a) Type the name of the expert file in the Expert File box.
b) Type of name the person conducting the analysis in the Author box.
c) Input comments in the Comment box.
Click OK.

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2.5.3 Adding to or deleting from the project file, the expert file,
or the name of the person conducting the analysis

(1) Click Menu Property in the File menu.

(2) The Menu Property dialog box is displayed.
(3) When ending, click Close.

A. Deleting the name of a person in conducting the analysis

(1) Click Authors tab.

(2) Choose the name to delete from the list.
(3) Click Delete...

B. Adding and Deleting of the project file

(1) Click Project Files tab.

(2)-1 When adding:
a) Click Add Files...
The File dialog box is displayed.
b) Type the project file name in the File box.
(2)-2 When deleting:
a) Choose the project file name to delete from the list.
b) Click Delete...
(2)-3 When confirming of the statistics:
a) Choose the project file name to confirm from the list.
b) Click Statistics...

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C. Adding to and Deleting of the expert file

(1) Click Expert files tab.

(2)-1 When adding:
a) Click Add Files...
b) The File dialog box is displayed.
c) Type the name of the expert file in the File box.
(2)-2 When deleting:
a) Choose the expert file to delete from the list.
b) Click Delete...
(2)-3 When editing:
a) Choose the expert file to edit from the list.
b) Click Edit...
c) The Input Password dialog box is displayed.
d) Type the password and Click OK. And the Expert sheet dialog box is opened.
(2)-4 When making the new expert file:
a) Click New File...
b) Type the new expert file name, Author and Comment in the New Expert File dialog
box. Click OK and Expert sheet dialog box is opened.

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2.5.4 Export to the TIFF or GeoTIFF file

This function of the system exports the produced image data in the FCD analysis to the
TIFF / GeoTIFF format file.

(1) Click Export in the File menu.

(2) The Export dialog box is displayed.
a) Select the project file, and select “Pass 1” or “Pass 2”.
b) Select the file which is exported from the file list.
c) Click Save to export the TIFF or GeoTIFF file.

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2.5.5 False color display of the processing image

This function of the system allocates various processing images for RGB such as FCD
and displays them in false color.

(1) Click Load False Image in the File menu.

(2) The Load False Image dialog box is displayed.
Choose the image to display. （To a maximum of 7 images）
a) Click Add.
The File dialog box is displayed.
b) Type the file name to the File box.
c) A file name is displayed in the list.
d) When canceling a chosen image, choose the file to cancel and click Remove.
Click OK.
(3) The False Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Allocating the images for RGB, it displays in false color.

2.5.6 Pseudo color display of the processing image

This function of the system displays various processing images such as FCD in pseudo
color.

(1) Click Load Pseudo Image in the File menu.

(2) The File dialog box is displayed.
Type the file name to the File box.
(3) The Pseudo Select Window dialog box is displayed.
It designates a color and it displays in pseudo color.

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2.5.7 Scatter Diagram

This function of the system displays the Scatter Diagram by selecting two files to
analyze. It is able to select the file of different project.

(1) Click Scatter Diagram in the File menu.

(2) The Scatter Diagram File Select dialog box is displayed.
a) Horizontal File Select
Select the project file.
Select the “Pass1” or “Pass2”.
Select the file of horizontal axis from the file list.
b) Vertical File Select
Select the project file.
Select the “Pass1” or “Pass2”.
Select the file of vertical axis from the file list.
Click OK.
(3) The Scatter Diagram dialog box is displayed.

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2.6 Image display window operation

Click the right mouse button on the image display window, and the sub menu of the
various processing is displayed.

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A. False Setting

Changing the RGB band and threshold.

(1) Click False Setting in the display sub menu.

(2) The False Select Window dialog box is displayed.
(3) Click band.
Click on the following buttons as required.
Linear Stretch：Linear stretch transform.
Histogram Equalization：Histogram Equalization transform.
User：Designates the minimum value and the maximum value of the input by
Drag & Drop of the left mouse button.
Click OK.
(4) False color image is displayed.

B. Pseudo Setting

Changing the pseudo band and color.

(1) Click the Pseudo Setting in the display sub menu.

(2) The Pseudo Select Window dialog box is displayed.
Click on the following buttons as required.
Linear Stretch：Linear stretch transform.
Histogram Equalization：Histogram Equalization transform.
linear 0-100：The range to display is image value from 0 to 100.
(3) Click on the following buttons as required.
Default：It does suitable coloring.
User：Designates the minimum value and the maximum value of the color partition
by Drag & Drop of the left mouse button.
a) Color partition is displayed at the box under the Default button.
b) When designating color partition, the Color Select dialog box is displayed.
c) Select new color. A color bar is renewed.
Click OK.
(4) Pseudo color image is displayed.

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C. Save Bitmap

Saving the image as a bitmap file.

(1) Click Save Bitmap in the display sub menu.

(2) The File dialog box is displayed.
Type the name of bitmap file (.BMP) in the File box.
Click OK.

D. Print

Printing the image.

E. Zoom

Zooming the image.

(1) Click Zoom in the display sub menu.

(2) Select one of the following sub menu as required.
/m：magnification is 1/m.
*n ：magnification is N.

F. Histogram

(1) Click Histogram in the display sub menu.

(2) The histogram window dialog box is displayed.
In case of false color, it chooses Blue, Green, Red.

G. Ruler

(1) Click Ruler in the display sub menu.

(2) Displaying a ruler in the upper and left side of the window.
The display of the ruler is a 100 pixel unit.

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H. Scale

(1) Click Scale in the display sub menu.

(2) Displaying the scale bar which is shown in the lower right of the screen by 100
pixels.

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Appendix
A. List of Abbreviation

ANVI Advanced Normalized Vegetation Index

ASI Advanced Shadow Index
AVI Advanced Vegetation Index
BI Bare soil Index
BIL Band Interleaved by Line
BMP Bitmap
BSQ Band sequential
CEOS Committee on Earth Observing Satellites
CSV Comma Separated Value
FBI Fcd Bianry Image
FC Forest Clusters
FCD Forest Canopy Density
ITTO International Tropical Timber Organization
JOFCA Japan Overseas Forestry Consultants Association
NDVI Normalized Differential Vegetation Index
PCA Principal Component Analysis
SI Shadow Index
SSI Scaled Shadow Index
TI Thermal Index
TIFF Tag Image File Format
TSI Topographic Shadow Index
VD Vegetation Density
VI Vegetation Index

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