Multivector Review and Training Center

AC Machines Part 2
TRANSFORMERS

Transformer – it is an AC device that transfers power from one circuit to

another without a rotating part and change of frequency.

Transformer Construction
1. Core type – the coils surround a considerable part of the magnetic circuit
(core).
Laminations

Coils

2. Shell type – the magnetic circuit (core) surrounds a considerable portion of

the windings.
Laminations

Primary and
Secondary
Coils

Elementary diagram of a simple transformer

Mutual flux (Useful flux)
Laminated silicon steel sheets (Core) - flux that links the primary
Primary winding and secondary windings
Primary Secondary
Circuit Circuit

+
AC
Source ~ L

Secondary
winding

Primary leakage flux (Wasted flux) Secondary leakage flux (Wasted flux)
- it links the primary turns only. - it links the secondary turns only.

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TRANSFORMER VOLTAGES
Ep = 4.44 f Npm (10-8) volts
Es = 4.44 f Ns m (10-8) volts

where: Ep – primary induced voltage

Es – secondary induced voltage
f – frequency, Hz
Np – number of primary turns
Ns – number of secondary turns
m – maximum value of the mutual flux, lines or maxwells
m = BmAn
Bm – maximum flux density, line/cm2 or maxwells/cm2
An – core net cross-section, cm2

Voltage and Current Ratios in Transformers

Ep Np
 a
Es Ns

where: a = turn ratio or the induced-voltage ratio, also called the ratio of
transformation

If there is no-loss (for ideal transformer only),

Input (primary) power = Output (secondary) power

Vp Ip (pfp) = Vs Is (pfs)

where pfp = pfs, therefore Vp Ip = Vs Is

Vp I s
  a  approximat e ratio of transformation
Vs I p

where: Vp = primary line (impressed) voltage

Vs = secondary line (impressed) voltage
Ip = primary line current
Is = secondary line current
pfp = primary power factor
pfs = secondary power factor

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Rp Xp Rs Xs

IN Ib
Ip Is

I I
Vp Bo Go Ep Es L Vs

Transformer Exact Equivalent Circuit Diagram

I 2N  I 2  I 2 Ep I b  Es I s
Is
I s  aI b ; I b  Core loss  E P I 
a
Ep Is
  a  exact ratio of transformation
Es Ib

where: IN = no-load current

I = magnetizing current
I = no-load energy current
Ib = component of Ip that supplies Is
rp = primary resistance
rs = secondary resistance
Xp = primary leakage reactance (due to primary leakage flux)
Xs = secondary leakage reactance (due to secondary leakage flux)
Bo = susceptance due to the magnetizing effect in the transformer
Go = conductance due to the core loss
Rp Xp a2Rs a2 Xs

IN
Ip Ib

Vp I Bo Go I L aVs

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Transformer exact equivalent ckt. diagram referred to the primary.

Note: IN « Ip , hence Ip  Ib
Ze-p

rp Xp a2rs a2Xs Re-p Xe-p

Ip Ip

Vp L aVs Vp L aVs

Transformer approximate equivalent circuit diagram referred to the

primary. (No-load current IN is neglected)

R ep  rp  a 2rs Xep  Xp  a 2 Xs

Z ep  R ep2  Xep2

In complex form, Z e  p  R e  p  jX e  p
Vp  aVs  I p Ze  p

In magnitude, Vp  aVs cos   Ip Rep  2  aVs sin   Ip Xep  2

where: Re-p = equivalent resistance of the transformer referred to the primary
Xe-p = equivalent reactance of the transformer referred to the primary
Ze-p = equivalent impedance of the transformer referred to the primary
Vp = no-load primary line voltage
 = p.f. angle of the load
(+) = for lagging p.f.
(-) = for leading p.f. Z e-s

Re-s Xe-s
rp/a2 Xp/a2 rs Xs

Is Is

Vp/a L Vs Vp/a L Vs

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Transformer approximate equivalent circuit diagram referred to the

secondary. (No-load current IN is neglected)
rp Xp
R e  s  2  rs X e s  2  X s
a a
Z es  R es2  Xes2

In complex form, Ze  s  R e  s  jX e  s
Vp
 Vs  I s Z e  s
a
Vp
In magnitude,  Vs cos   I s R es  2  Vs sin   I s Xes  2
a

where: Re-s = equivalent resistance of the transformer referred to the secondary

Xe-s = equivalent reactance of the transformer referred to the secondary
Ze-s = equivalent impedance of the transformer referred to the secondary
Vp
= no-load secondary line voltage
a

Note the following relationships:

Re-p = a2 Re-s Xe-p = a2 Xe-s Ze-p = a2 Ze-s

Transformer Regulations
V  VFL
%VR  NL x 100
VFL

a. As referred to the primary,

Vp  aVs(rated )
%VR  x 100
aVs(rated )

b. As referred to the secondary,

Vp
 Vs(rated )
a
%VR  x 100
Vs(rated )

Note: The transformer regulation must be the same whether referred to the
primary or to the secondary.

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Transformer Phasor Diagrams: (As referred to the primary)

a. For lagging power factor b. For unity power factor

Vp
IpZe-p Vp
IpXe-p IpZe-p IpXe-p
o
 aVs o
IpRe-p Ip aVs IpRe-p
Ip =0 o

c. For leading power factor

Vp IpXe-p
Ip
IpZe-p
o  IpRe-p
aVs

Percentage Resistance, Reactance and Impedance

These quantities are usually measured by the voltage drop at full-load

current expressed as a percentage of the normal voltage of the winding on which
calculations are made.

a. Percent Resistance
Ip(rated )Re p Is(rated )Re s
%R  x 100  x 100
Vp(rated ) Vs(rated )
Rated Cu loss in kW
%R  x 100  % Cu loss
Rated kVA

b. Percent Reactance
Ip(rated ) Xe p Is(rated ) Xe s
%X  x 100  x 100
Vp(rated ) Vs(rated )

c. Percent Impedance
Ip(rated )Ze p Is(rated )Ze s
%Z  x 100  x 100
Vp(rated ) Vs(rated )

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%Z  %R 2  %X2
Transformer Losses

1. Core (Iron) loss – constant loss, its value is always rated

 E1.6 
a. Hyteresis loss, Ph  k h f B1m.6  k 1  0.6 
f 
 

b. Eddy current loss, Pe = ke f 2 Bm2 = k2 E2

Core loss, Pc = Ph + Pe

2. Copper (Electrical) Loss – varies as the square of the load

a. Primary copper loss = Ip2 rp
b. Secondary copper loss = Is2rs
Copper loss, Pcu = Ip2 rp + Is2rs
Copper loss, Pcu = Ip2 Re-p
Copper loss, Pcu = Is2 Re-s
Notes:
1. If the transformer is connected to the source, whether loaded or not loaded,
there is core loss in the transformer.
2. If the transformer is loaded, there is copper loss in the transformer. At no-
load, copper loss is negligible.
2
 Given load 
Copper loss at any given load    Rated or Full Load Copper Loss 
 Full load 
where given load & full-load must be apparent powers.

Transformer Efficiency
po Po x 100
 x 100 
Pin Po  Total losses

Po x 100

Po  Copper loss  Core loss

Condition for Maximum Efficiency

Copper loss = Core loss

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If Ip = primary current at maximum efficiency, then

Ip2 Re-p = Core loss
Core loss
Ip ' 
Rep

Core loss
Similarly, the secondary current at maximum efficiency is I s ' 
Res
Core loss
KVA load at max  Full load KVA
Full load Cu loss

All-day Efficiency (also known as “Operational Efficiency”). It is the ratio of

the energy (kilowatt-hours) delivered by the transformer in a 24-hour period
to the energy input in the same period of time.
Output energy per day x 100

Output energy per day  Energy losses per day

This efficiency is always less than the commercial efficiency of a transformer.

TRANSFORMER TESTS

1. The Open-circuit or No-load Test

The purpose of this test is to determine the no-load loss or core loss and
no-load current IN which is helpful in finding Go and Bo.

Voltage Regulator W
to Adjust voltage + +
Across Low Side
Accurately

Low Voltage Open High

To Low-Voltage Winding V ~ Voltage
AC source Winding

Open Circuit Test Circuit Diagram

Wrdg = Rated core loss + Negligible copper loss
Wrdg  Rated core loss

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2. The Short-circuit or Impedance Test

This is an economical method for determining the following:
a. Equivalent impedance (Ze-p or Ze-s), leakage reactance (Xe-p or Xe-s)
and total resistance (Re-p or Re-s) of the transformer as referred to the
winding in which the measuring instruments are placed.
b. Rated or full-load copper loss (and at any desired load). This loss is
used in calculating the efficiency of the transformer.
c. Knowing Ze-p or Ze-s, the total voltage drop in the transformer as
referred to primary or secondary can be calculated and hence
regulation of the transformer is determined.

Adjusting Rheostat W Shorted

Irated Low Voltage
+ +
Winding
A
~

V
~
To Low-Voltage
AC Source

High voltage winding

Short Circuit Test Circuit Diagram

Ardg  I rated
Vrdg
Vrdg  I rated Z e ; Z e 
A rdg
Wrdg  Rated Copper loss  Negligible Core loss
Wrdg  Rated Copper loss, I rated
2
Re
Wrdg
Re 
A rdg 2
Xe  Ze2  R e2

Transformer Polarity
Polarity refers to the relative directions of the induced voltages in the primary
and secondary windings of a transformer with respect to how the terminal leads
are brought out and marked accordingly.

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In practice, transformers are marked as shown:

H1 X1 H1 X2
+ + +
+
H2 X2 H2 X1
a. Subtractive polarity marking b. Additive polarity marking

where: H1 & H2 are the high voltage side terminals

X1 & X2 are the low voltage side terminals
H1 & X1 have the same instantaneous polarity
H2 & X2 have the same instantaneous polarity

Voltmeter Test to Determine Transformer Polarity

a. If Vrdg > V1, then

polarity is additive.
V
Vrdg  V1  1
Impressed a
Voltage V1
b. If Vrdg < V1, then
polarity is subtractive.
V V
~ Vrdg  V1  1
a
Why does the polarity of a transformer must be known?
1. In order to know what terminals are to be connected together if windings are
to be connected in series or in parallel.
2. In order to know what terminals are to be connected together if transformers
are to be connected in bank or in group.

Autotransformer – it is a transformer with one winding only, part of this being

common to both primary and secondary. Obviously, in this transformer the
primary and secondary windings are electrically connected to each other.

Three (3) Principal Types of Autotransformers

1. Step down autotransformer
2. Step up autotransformer
3. Variable autotransformer

Step-down Autotransformer (a > 1)

Nac Eac I s Vp
a   
Ncb Ecb I p Vs

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a
Ip
b
Vp Is
Vs L
Icb

The autotransformer acts exactly like a two-winding transformer if, from the
standpoint of transformer action, it is considered that the portion of the winding
ab is the primary and the portion of the winding bc is the secondary. To prove
this

Nab Eab I cb I s  I p I s
    1a1
Nbc Ebc I p Ip Ip

Re-p Xe-p Re-s Xe-s

Ip Is
Vp
Vp L (a – 1)Vs L Vs
(a – 1)

Approximate equivalent circuit Approximate equivalent circuit

diagram referred to the primary diagram referred to the secondary.
rp
R ep  rp  a  1 rs R es   rs
2

a  12
Xp
X ep  X p  a  1 X s Xe  s  X
2

a  12 s
Power transformed inductively (thru ab)
  
Ptrans  Vp  Vs I p  Vs I s  I p 
 1
Ptrans  Vp I p  1  
 a
 1
Ptrans  Power Input  1  
 a

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Power transformed conductively (thru bc)

1
Pcon  Pin  
a
Total power transferred to the secondary
Ps  Pcon  Ptrans

Step-up Autotransformer (a < 1)

Is
a

b
Ip Vs L N bc Ebc I s
a  
Vp N ab Eac I p
Ibc

N bc Ebc I Is 1 1 a
  s   
N ab Eab I bc I p  I s Ip  Is 1 1a
1
Is a

Variable Autotransformer

Is
Ip

Movable
brush Vs L
Vp Ic
Prepared
winding
surface

Instrument Transformers

Two (2) kinds of instrument transformers:

1. Current transformer (CT) – it is a special transformer used in conjunction
with ordinary ac measuring instruments to measure high current, power at

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high current and energy at high current. Its secondary is almost always
designed for 5 A maximum.

2. Potential transformer (PT) – it is a special transformer used in conjunction

with ordinary ac measuring instruments to measure high voltage, power at
high voltage and energy at high voltage. The transformation ratios are
usually designed for a nominal secondary voltage of 120 V.

Note: Loads of instrument transformers are called “burdens”.

Parallel Operation of Transformers

Conditions to be met for ideal operation

( I ) of two (2) or more single phase (1) transformers in parallel:

1. Same voltage ratings (same ratios)
2. Same polarities
1 1
3. Z e1  , Z e 2  , etc.
Rated KVA 1 Rated KVA 2
R e 1 R e  2 R e  3
   etc.
X e  1 X e  2 Xe  3

If only two (2) transformers are connected in parallel, then

Ze 1 Rated KVA 2

Ze  2 Rated KVA 1

( II ) of two (2) or more three phase (3) transformers in parallel:

1.
2. Same conditions as in single phase (1) transformers in
parallel.
3.
4. Same winding connections (i.e. - to be connected in parallel
with Y-Y).
Exception: - can be connected in parallel with Y-Y.

Effects/Consequences if these conditions are not met.

If condition 1 is not met (1 or 3 ), there will be current that will circulate thru
the transformer secondaries which will contribute to the transformer losses.
If condition 2 is not met (1 or 3), there will be big current that will circulate
thru the transformer secondaries which may damage the windings.

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If condition 3 is not met (1 or 3), the transformers will not share the common
load in proportion to their KVA ratings.
If condition 4 is not met (3), there will be current that will circulate thru the
transformer secondaries which will contribute to the transformer losses.

No-load Operation

For two (2) transformers in parallel,

Let a1 = the ratio of transformation of transformer 1

a2 = the ratio of transformation of transformer 2

As referred to their secondaries at no-load, the circulating current is

a. In complex form, b. In magnitude (approximate),

Ic 
Vs1  Vs 2
Ic 
a1  a 2 Vs
Z e  s1  Z e  s 2 a1 Z es1  a 2 Z es2

Load Operation-Equal Ratios of Transformation

Ze-s 1

Is1
Is2 ILT
Vp Ze-s2 L Vs
a

Equivalent circuit of two transformers as referred to their secondaries, having

equal ratios of transformation, connected in parallel and supplying power to a
common load.
I s1 Z e  s 2
I s1 Z es1  I s2 Z es2 
I s2 Z e  s1
KVA 1 Z es 2

KVA 2 Z es1

Load current of each transformer,

 Z e s 2   Z es1 
I s1  I LT   I s 2  I LT  
 Z e s  Z e s   Z e s  Z e s 
 1 2   1 2 

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KVA load of each transformer,

 Z e s 2   Z es1 
S1  S T   S2  ST  
 Z e s  Z e s   Z e s  Z e s 
 1 2   1 2 

where: IL - total load current

ST – total KVA of the common load

Load Operation – Unequal Ratios of Transformation

Load current of each transformer,

a. In complex form,

I s2 

E s 2 Z e  s1  E s1  E s 2 Z L 

Z e  s1 Z e  s 2  Z L Z e  s1  Z e  s 2 
where: E s1 - secondary induced voltage of transformer 1.
E s 2 - secondary induced voltage of transformer 2.
ZL – load impedance

b. In magnitude,
a 2  a1 Vs  a 2 Z es I L 
I s1  2 T

a 1 Z e  s1  a 2 Z e  s 2

a1  a 2 Vs  a1 Z es I L 

I s2  1 T

a 1 Z e  s1  a 2 Z e  s 2

THREE PHASE (3) TRANSFORMERS

Three Phase (3) Transformer Ratings

1. The KVA rating of a 3 transformer is a 3 KVA.
2. The voltage ratings of a 3 transformer are line to line voltages.
3. The percent impedance (%Z) or equivalent impedance (Ze) of a 3
transformer is per phase.

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Three Phase Transformer Connections

There are various methods available for transforming 3-phase voltages to higher
or lower 3-phase voltages. The most common connections are
1. Y –Y - it has the advantage that the insulation is stressed only to
the extent of the line to neutral voltage, which is 57.7% of
the line to line voltage.
2.  –  - this arrangement is generally used in systems of moderate
voltages but high current.
3.  – Y - it is generally employed to step up the voltage, as, for
example, at the beginning of a high-tension transmission
system. It is also used for stepping down the voltage. The
ratio of the line to line voltage, high to low, is 1.73a.
4. Y –  - it is used primarily for stepping down the voltage, as, for
example, at the end of a transmission line.
5. V – V or Open Delta – it is employed when
a. the three-phase load is comparatively small, so that the
installation does not warrant a  -  bank.
b. one of the transformers in a  -  bank fails.
c. it is anticipated that the future load will increase to warrant the
closing of the open  at some later time.
Note: Total capacity of the V – V (open delta) bank is 57.7% of the -
bank.
6. Three-Phase Scott Tee or T –T – used to transform power from
a. three-phase to three-phase
b. three-phase to two-phase and vice-versa
This connection uses two special transformers, the main transformer
whose primary and secondary windings are provided with the center
(50%) taps and the teaser transformer whose windings are provided
with 86.6% taps.
Note: Total capacity of the two Scott-connected transformers is also
57.7% of the  -  bank.

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