Social Studies

Vere Technical High School

Compiled by Mr. D. Gooden

NB: The following information does not originate with me but was
downloaded from [Link] web site, a domain operated by
the Gleaner Company (Jamaica). If you are interested in visiting this
site, open the web page, click on youth link and then on CXC/CAPE.

All credits MUST be given to the host of the site ([Link])

and the contributors to the site. The compiler of this page wishes to
apologize for the missing contributors’ names and invite all interested
persons to visit [Link] website for contributors’ names.

This document must be used solely for educational purposes. No

financial gains must be solicited from its use.

Big helping hands

Institution - An organisation, establishment, foundation, society, or the like, devoted to the

promotion of a particular cause or programme, especially one of a public, educational or
charitable character.

Economic institutions:

Bank of Jamaica

Network of commercial organisations such as manufacturers, producers, wholesalers, retailers

and buyers who generate, distribute and purchase goods and services.

The term economic institutions refers to two things:

1. Specific agencies or foundations, both government and private, devoted to collecting or

studying economic data, or commissioned with the job of supplying a good or service that is
important to the economy of a country.

2. Well-established arrangements and structures that are part of the culture or society, for
example, competitive markets, the banking system, and so on.

Trade Union
A trade or labour union is an organisation of workers who have banded together to achieve
common goals in key areas such as wages, hours and working conditions. The trade union,
through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates
with employers. This might include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures,
rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies.

The immediate objectives and activities of trade unions vary, but might include:

 Provision of benefits to members: Early trade unions, like friendly societies, often provided
a range of benefits to insure members against unemployment, ill-health, old age and funeral
expenses.
 Collective bargaining: Trade unions that are able to operate openly and are recognised by
employers might negotiate with employers over wages and working conditions.
 Industrial action: Trade unions might enforce strikes or resistance to lockouts in
furtherance of particular goals.

Collective bargaining

If a union is formally recognised by an employer, it can negotiate with the employer over terms
and conditions.

Why join a union?

Some workers join a trade union because they believe that a union can:

 negotiate better pay.

 negotiate better working conditions, such as more holidays or improved health and safety.
 provide training for new skills.
 give general advice and support

Industrial action

If workplace disputes aren't resolved, they can lead to industrial action. Industrial action usually
happens when a dispute in the workplace can't be resolved through negotiation. There are three
main forms of industrial action:

 strike - where workers refuse to work for the employer

 action short of a strike - where workers take actions such as working to rule, go slows,
overtime bans or sit-ins.
 lockout - a work stoppage where the employer stops workers from working.

If you take industrial action:

 Your employer may stop paying you as you'll be in breach of contract.

 you could lose your job.
 you could lose any company benefits.
 if you're dismissed, you might not have the right to claim unfair dismissal.

Picketing and picket lines

Picketing is used as a way of increasing support for industrial action. Workers involved in
industrial action attend a workplace to increase support for their cause by communicating
information or persuading others not to work or not to carry out a part of their contracts of
employment. A picket line is the description given to those who gather outside or near the
entrance of the workplace. These include striking workers, workers locked out by their employer
and trade union representatives.

Examples of trade unions in Jamaica

 Jamaica Confederation of Trade Unions

 Bustamante Industrial Trade Union
 Trades Union Congress
 National Workers' Union
 Jamaica Association of Local Government Officers
 Jamaica Civil Service Association
 Jamaica Teachers' Association
 Union of Schools, Agriculture and Allied Workers
 Jamaica Workers' Union
 United Union of Jamaica
 Union of Technical, Administrative and Supervisory Personnel
 Jamaica Union of Public Officers and Public Employees
 Nurses Association of Jamaica
 University and Allied Workers' Union
 Caribbean Union of Teachers
 Industrial Trade Unions Action Council

Activities:

1. Why is the bank seen as an institution? Outline its characteristics and explain how it serves the
public as an institution.

2. Show how the characteristics of a group and a trade union might differ and in which ways they
might be the same.

The Bank of Jamaica, overseer of the foreign-exchange system, reported that the Canadian dollar sold as high as
$74.40 in spot trades last year.

Institutions in society

An institution is a formalised group established with a definite organisation, identified with a social
purpose and permanence, transcending individual lives and intentions, and with the making and
enforcing of rules. Types of institutions include educational, religious, recreational, family, health,
economic and political establishments. An institution may further be defined as:

 an organisation founded and united for a specific purpose.

 an establishment consisting of a building or complex of buildings where an organisation for
the promotion of some cause is situated.
 a custom that, for a long time, has been an important feature of a group or society, such
as the institution of marriage, saying grace before a meal and the institution of slavery.

Institutions can, therefore, be structures and mechanisms of social order and cooperation
governing the behaviour of individuals. It is, therefore, clearly obvious that institutions are
identified with a social purpose and permanence, transcending individual human lives and
intentions, and with the making and enforcing of rules governing cooperative human behaviour.
From the definitions above, the term institution is commonly applied to customs and behaviour
patterns important to a society, as well as to particular formal organisations of government and
public service.

Characteristics of institutions

 they satisfy basic and specific needs of a society

 they have an established structure of hierarchy
 new members are socialised on entry to the institution
 they develop their own unique rituals and practices
 they endure over generations
 they impose sanctions on members and also non-members through their body of rules,
which defines behaviour of its members and regulations for new and non-members.

Educational institution

An educational institution is dedicated to education: that is, the imparting and acquiring of
knowledge through teaching and learning, especially at a school or similar institution.

Institution, establishment - an organisation founded and united for a specific purpose

Preschool - an educational institution for children too young for elementary school.

School - an educational institution's faculty and students.

College - an institution of higher education created to educate and grant degrees, etc.

University - a large and diverse institution of higher learning created to educate for life and for a
profession, and to grant degrees in particular areas.

Functions of education

 helps to socialise the young into becoming good citizens

 prepares people for employment and to be generally productive citizens
 to ensure the all-round development of an individual
 to perpetuate or change cultural values
 to develop the latent ability of the individual
 to provide for social mobility
 to help in the reduction of social inequality through meritocracy.

Religious institutions

A religious institution, by definition, is one that is established not-for-profit and is for religious
purposes only. That is, the belief in a higher being: believing in and showing devotion or
reverence for a deity or deities.

Basically, it is an establishment, organisation or association instituted to advance or promote

religious purposes or beliefs. Places of worship, such as churches, mosques, temples and
synagogues, charities supported by religious organisations and religious societies founded by
members of a faith all come under the umbrella of religious institutions.

Functions of religion

 Religion may be seen as a belief system. This system may affect values, laws, customs,
rites and general behaviour patterns. Religion may affect the individual, group, community or
nation.
 to explain to the people in that society their primal origins, the nature of life, the function
and aims of life and reasons for living.
 to answer the question "why am I here?"
 to provide identity for individuals.
 as a control mechanism, a way of achieving order, of delegating roles and responsibilities.
The Ten Commandments given to Moses are a set of behavioural rules that would bring order and
harmony to the society that would allow the society to function in an organised and systematic
manner.
 to dictate a set of acceptable standards, and those who wish to remain in that society
must adhere to those standards.
 to promote social change and encourage social justice.
 to provide consolation, reconciliation and relief from anxiety and guilt. Activities: To what institutions do you belong? What is your
role in them? How do these institutions and your roles differ?

Revision of social groups

Section A

For each of the following questions there are four possible answers: Choose the letter that
corresponds with the best possible answer.

1. Behavioural patterns which deal with respect for others are known as:

a. customs

b. Law
c. Folkways

d. Mores

2. Which of the following terms refer to the accepted pattern of behaviour in a

particular situation?

a. Norms

[Link]

c. Functions

d. Values

3. A trade union is mainly concerned with?

a. Educating the public about their activities

[Link] loans for their members

c. Securing better housing facilities for workers

d. Obtaining better working conditions for members

4. Financial transactions, health, transportation, education and protection. Which of the

following groups provide all the services referred to?

a. Trade union, law, courts, bank

b. Family, church, courts

c. Banks, family, government

d. Government, church, trade union

5. An example of an informal group is?

a. Christmas shoppers in a shopping mall

b. Rastafarians in the Caribbean

c. The students at a secondary school

d. A steel band practising in their pan yard

6. Which one of the following has traditional authority?

i. The queen of the United Kingdom

ii. The Prime Minister of St Lucia

iii. The Pope of the Catholic Church

iv. The president of a trade union

a. iii only

b. i and ii only

c. i and iii only

d. iii and iv only

7. A group without a leader can end up in a state of:

a. Anarchy

b. Order

c. Excitement

d. Unity

8. An example of a formal secondary group is:

a. Family

b. Young men playing in the streets

c. Scouts

d. A study group

9. What is the name given to a group formed by individuals of the same age?

a. Peer

b. Gang

c. Youth club

d. Voluntary associations

10. A congregation is a formal group MAINLY because members:

a. Go to church regularly

b. Perform the same rites

c. Are selected by other members

d. Live in the same community

11. Norms can best be defined as:

a. Patterns of expected behaviour performed by members of society

b. Rules and regulations governing public servants

c. Standards of behaviour prescribed by the church

d. Patterns of behaviour which carry no sanctions by society

Section B

Question 1

a) Identify TWO formal groups to which young people usually belong.

b) Outline TWO characteristics which hold members of formal groups together.

c) Give THREE reasons formal groups tend to have a longer lifespan than informal groups.

d) Suggest TWO activities an environmental club may organise to attract new members.

Question 2

a) Give ONE example of EACH of the following:

i. Primary group

ii. Secondary group

b) Describe TWO ways in which the structure of a sports club differs from that of a gang.

c) Give THREE reasons a sports club may have difficulty in achieving its goals.

d) As a leader of your school's drug-free club suggest TWO activities which you think encourage
members to identify with the club's goals.

Question 3
a. Name the type of group to which the members of the football team belong.

b. Give THREE ways in which the group membership can be identified.

c. Describe TWO interests that the team shares.

d. Give THREE qualities that the captain of the football team should have.

e. Explain how the group responds to the needs of its members.

f. Describe THREE ways in which competition from other teams is likely to affect the members of
the football team.

Question 4

a. List THREE features of your school that make it a formal social group.

b. Identify ONE function carried out by EACH of the following:

i. Both the school and the family

ii. The school only

iii. The family only

c. Explain THREE ways in which a formal group, such as the school, church or youth club,
exercises control over its members.

d. You are the leader of a youth club in your community. Suggest THREE activities in which you can involve your group to help keep group
members together.

What is authority?
Authority is the power that people perceive as legitimate rather than coercive.

Types of authority

Traditional authority is legitimated by the sanctity of tradition. That is, the respect for long-
established cultural pattern. The ability and right to rule is passed down, often through heredity.
It does not change over time, does not facilitate social change, tends to be irrational and
inconsistent and perpetuates the status quo. This authority is compelling only because everyone
shares the same heritage and views.
Charismatic authority is found in a leader whose mission and vision inspire others. It is based
upon the perceived extraordinary characteristics of an individual, an exceptionally forceful and
magnetic personality. In other words, this authority is power legitimised through extraordinary
personal abilities that inspire devotion and obedience. Charismatic leaders have the personal skills
to turn an audience into followers and, in the process, they may make their own rules and
challenge the status quo.

Legal-rational authority is empowered by a formalistic belief in the content of the law.

Obedience is not given to a specific individual leader - whether traditional or charismatic - but to a
set of uniform principles. This is power legitimised by legally enacted rules and regulations.

Social control

Social control refers to social mechanisms that regulate individual and group behaviour, leading to
conformity and compliance to the rules of a given society or social group.

Social control is made possible through:

1. Internalisation of norms and values

2. The use of sanctions, which can be either positive (rewards) or negative (punishment).

Informal social control

The social values that are present in individuals are products of informal social control. It is
exercised by a society without explicitly stating these rules, and is expressed through customs,
norms and mores. Individuals are socialised, consciously or subconsciously. During informal
sanctions, ridicule or ostracism can cause a person to conform to norms. Through this form of
socialisation, the person will internalise these mores. Informal sanctions may include ridicule,
sarcasm, criticism and disapproval. In extreme cases, sanctions may include social discrimination
and exclusion. Informal controls reward or punish acceptable or unacceptable behaviour. Informal
controls are varied and differ from individual to individual, group to group and society to society.

Formal social control

Formal social control is expressed through law as statutes, rules and regulations against deviant
behaviour. It is conducted by government and organisations, using law-enforcement mechanisms
and other sanctions such as fines and imprisonment.

Commitment, loyalty and cooperation

Commitment: entrusting, upholding certain principles and standing firmly behind them.
Commitment ignites action. To commit is, therefore, to pledge yourself to certain purpose or line
of conduct. It also means practising your beliefs consistently. There are, therefore, two
fundamental conditions for commitment. The first is having a sound set of beliefs. There is an old
saying: 'Stand for something or you'll fall for anything'. The second is faithful adherence to those
beliefs with your behaviour. Possibly the best description of commitment is 'persistence with a
purpose'.

Loyalty: means devotion, dependence and being honest to one person or thing. It is, therefore,
faithfulness and or devotion to a cause or person. Loyalty helps in group cohesion.
Cooperation: is necessary in a group for various reasons. It is:

 about being an important member of a group

 about combining resources for a common purpose
 about having your voice heard
 about honesty, education and acceptance of others
 about sharing your knowledge with others once you have learned
 about voluntary association for mutual benefit; that is, working together and cooperating
to realise objectives
 about being an active participant in decision making rather than a passive recipient of the
decisions of higher-ups.

What works against group cohesion?

1. Lack of consensus

2. Poor leadership

3. Competition among members for positions and recognition

4. Lack of unity

5. Fear

6. Selfishness and ignorance

7. Prejudice and discrimination

8. Lack of financing

Activities

1. What are some of the characteristics that a group must possess in order to survive?

2. Give five other reasons why groups might break up.

3. Compare the three types of authority.

4. Which type of authority is used in your country? Is it effective?

5. State the difference between loyalty and commitment.

6. Give two examples each of the three different types of authority styles.

Leadership styles
Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction, implementing plans and
motivating people. Groups usually benefit from two kinds of leadership. Or Leadership is
influencing people - by providing purpose, direction and motivation - while operating to
accomplish the mission and improve the organisation.

Leadership roles

Instrumental leadership - leadership is emphasised by the completion of tasks. Expressive

leadership - leadership focuses on collective well-being. There are three major styles of
leadership: Authoritarian or autocratic participative or democratic and Laissez-faire or free reign.
Although good leaders use all three styles, with one of them normally dominant, bad leaders tend
to stick with one style.

Authoritarian (autocratic) - You must do this ...

This style is used when leaders tell their employees what they want done and how they want it
accomplished, without getting the advice of their followers. This leadership style focuses on
instrumental concerns, takes personal charge of decision making and demands strict compliance
from subordinates.

Participative (democratic) - Let's work together to solve this ...

This style involves the leader including others in the decision-making process. It is more
expressive and makes the point of drawing on the ideas of all members to develop creative
solutions to problems. However, the leader maintains the final decision- making authority. Using
this style is not a sign of weakness. Rather, it is a sign of strength that everyone will respect.

Laissez-faire (delegative/free reign to leave alone) You two take care of the problem while
I go ...

In this style, the leader allows the members to make the decisions. However, the leader is still
responsible for the decisions that are made. This is used when employees are able to analyse the
situation and determine what needs to be done and how to do it. This style typically is the least
effective in promoting group goals.

What do you think?

A good leader should use all three styles, depending on what forces are involved regarding the
followers, the leader and the situation. Some examples include:
 Using an authoritarian style on a new member who is just learning the job. The leader is
competent and a good coach. The employee is motivated to learn a new skill. The situation is a
new environment for the employee.
 Using a participative style with members of a team who know their job. The leader knows
the problem, but does not have all the information. The employees know their jobs and want to
become part of the team.
 Using a laissez-faire style with a worker who knows more about the job than you. You
cannot do everything! The employee needs to take ownership of her job. Also, the situation might
call for you to be at other places, doing other things.

Forces that influence the style to be used include:

 How much time is available?

 Are relationships based on respect and trust or on disrespect?
 Who has the information - you, your employees or both?
 How well your employees are trained and how well you know the task.
 Internal conflicts.
 Stress levels.
 Type of task. Is it structured, unstructured, complicated or simple?
 Laws or established procedures such as OSHA or training plans.

Good leaders should:

 use rewards, such as education and independence, to motivate members. While the
negative approach has a place in a leader's repertoire of tools, it must be used carefully due to its
high cost on the human spirit.
 not act domineering and superior with people. They believe the only way to get things
done is through penalties, such as loss of job, days off without pay and reprimanding members in
front of others.
 be concerned about the human needs of their members.
 build teamwork, help members with their problems and provide psychological support.
 Get results by consistently keeping people busy and urging them to produce.

Activities:

1. Explain the following: 'leaders are born not made.'

2. Which leadership styles do you think is most effective and give reasons for your answer?

3. Use diagrams to illustrate the differences between the various types of leadership styles.

Trade unions
A trade union or labour union is an organisation of workers who have banded together to achieve
common goals in key areas, such as wages, hours of work and working conditions. The trade
union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and
negotiates with employers. This may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint
procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety
and policies.

Concepts used in the trade union movement:

Collective bargaining is a method of determining wages, hours and other conditions of

employment through direct negotiations between the union and the employer. Normally, the result
of collective bargaining is a written contract which covers all the employees in the bargaining unit,
both union members and non-members.

industrial action involves trade unions enforcing strikes or resistance to lockouts in furtherance
of particular goals.

Adjudication is the process for settling grievances by a third party when they arise out of the
interpretation or application of a collective agreement or arbitral award of out-of-disciplinary
action resulting in financial loss or penalty.

Arbitration is the method of settling negotiating disputes through the intervention of a third
party whose decision is final and binding. Such a third party can be either a single arbitrator or a
board consisting of a chairman and one or more representatives.

Closed shop is a provision in a collective agreement whereby all employees in a bargaining unit
must be union members in good standing before being hired, and new employees hired, through
the union.

Conciliation and mediation attempts to resolve labour disputes by compromise or voluntary

agreement. Either party can request the assistance of a mediator, a conciliator or the
establishment of a conciliation board. The mediator, conciliator or conciliation board does not
bring in a binding award and the parties are free to accept or reject the recommendation.

Grievance is a written complaint against management by one or more employees or a union

concerning an alleged breach of the collective agreement or an alleged injustice. The last step of
the procedure is usually arbitration or adjudication.

Injunction is a court order restraining an employer or union from committing or engaging in

certain acts.

Lockout is a phase of a labour dispute in which management refuses work to employees or

closes its establishment in order to force settlement.

Picketing is patrolling near the employer's place of business by union members to publicise the
existence of a labour dispute, hurt the employer's productivity, persuade workers to join a strike
or join the union and discourage customers from buying or using the employer's goods or
services.

Shop steward is a union official who represents a specific group of members and the union in
union duties, grievance matters and other employment conditions. Stewards are usually part of
the workforce they represent.
Slowdown is a deliberate lessening of work effort, without an actual strike, in order to force
concessions from the employer. A variation of this is a work-to-rule strike, which is a concerted
slowdown in which workers simply obey all laws and rules applying to their work.

Strike is a cessation of work or a refusal to work or to continue work by employees in

combination or in accordance with a common understanding for the purpose of compelling an
employer to agree to terms or conditions of employment. It is usually the last stage of collective
bargaining when all other means have failed.

Working conditions are those pertaining to the workers' job environment, such as hours of
work, safety, paid holidays and vacations, rest periods, free clothing or uniforms and the
possibilities of advancement.

Excerpted from the Steward's Handbook

Activities

1. Identify seven trade unions to be found in Jamaica.

2. Why do workers need others to represent and bargain for them? Are trade unions really
necessary?

3. What is the difference between go slow and work to rule, adjudication and arbitration lockout and picketing?

Groups in society

Most of us spend much of every day as part of some kind of group - a group of social studies
students cooperating on some research; a group of students in the library; a group of people in
the library, including the librarian and other administrators; our family group; a group of people in
the bar; a group of friends travelling to school on the bus; the group of passengers on the bus.

A group is any number of people with similar norms, values and expectations who interact with
one another on a regular basis. The study of groups has become important because they help in
the transmission of culture. Groups fulfil special needs, such as belonging and identity, emotional
security, physical companionship, status and importance. Groups may be categorised by their
size, structure, membership criteria, purpose and formalisation.

[Link]

Characteristics of groups

1. Voluntary or involuntary membership

2. Common needs and interest

3. Common goals and objectives

4. Marks of identity, such as a uniform, badge, language, social class and so on

5. Established rules, laws, norms to which members should conform

6. Cooperation, in order to achieve objects

Primary groups

Primary groups generally tend to:

 Involve regular and intimate contact between members, including direct, face-to-face
interaction and is generally fairly small
 Involve cooperation
 Share some common goals
 Know who all the other members are
 Have a rough idea of what the roles of others in the group are.

Secondary groups

The larger, more impersonal group of people in the library would constitute a secondary group.
The term refers to a formal, impersonal group in which there is little social intimacy or mutual
understanding. Members of secondary groups are less personal or emotional than those of the
primary group. These groups are marked by secondary relationships in which communication is
formal. They tend to relate to others only in particular roles and for practical reasons.

Formal and informal groups

Formal groups are set up to carry out specific functions. They are created to achieve specific
objectives laid down as goals.

An informal group is one with people who are casually acquainted with each other for their own
personal fulfilment because they have some common characteristics and concerns, interests or
hobbies or friendship.

[Link]

Informal Groups

Peer groups

These are formed by people who are around the same age and social status who may have a very
close bond.

In-group or out-group

An in-group is a group or category to which people feel they belong.

An out-group is a group or category to which people feel they do not belong. Antagonism is
always expressed towards this group.

Voluntary group

A voluntary group is a collection of individuals who work together to undertake certain activities
for the benefit of the community. Voluntary groups generally exist because people perceive a
need and work together to bring about change or provide a service for the benefit of the
community.

Involuntary group

An involuntary group is a collection of individuals who work together because they have no
choice. They may be forced or threatened with penalty if they refuse to become a part of this
group. An example of an involuntary group is enlistment of all citizens in the army, upon reaching
a certain age.

Activities

1. Identify TWO formal groups to which young people usually belong.

2. Outline TWO characteristics which hold members of formal groups together.

3. Give THREE reasons formal groups tend to have a longer lifespan than informal groups.

4. Suggest TWO activities an environmental club may organise to attract new members.

5. Give TWO examples of each group mentioned above.

Revision of contemporary social issues

For each of the following multiple-choice items, four possible answers are given. Select the letter
(a), (b), (c) or (d) that corresponds with the best possible answer to each question.

1. Which of the following is NOT a curable sexually transmitted infection?

a. Chlamydia

b. Gonorrhea

c. Syphilis

d. Herpes

2. Which of the following are legal drugs in the Caribbean?

a. Alcohol and heroine

b. Tobacco and ecstasy

c. Alcohol and tobacco

d. Alcohol and marijuana

3. A legal separation can be ...

a. A dissolution of a marriage

b. A declaration by the court of a marriage being invalid

c. A desertion

d. A situation in which a husband and wife mutually agree to live apart

4. Teenage pregnancy may be caused by all of the following EXCEPT:

a. Peer pressure

b. Abstinence

c. Poor role models in society

d. Lack of religious and moral education

5. Street children are LEAST LIKELY to engage in ...

a. Prostitution

b. Vending

c. Begging for money and food

d. Using illegal drugs

6. A 'drug dilemma' exists because ...

a. Only illegal drugs are abused

b. Some persons abuse legal and illegal drugs

c. Persons always use drugs wisely

d. Persons are knowledgeable about all drugs

7. An individual who abuses tobacco may suffer from

a. Hallucinations

b. Loss of memory
c. Cancer of the throat and lungs

d. Malnutrition

8. Which of the following drugs, when abused, is a major cause of vehicular accidents?

a. Tobacco

b. Cocaine

c. Marijuana

d. Alcohol

9. Which of the following would LEAST likely cause someone to commit suicide?

a. Peer pressure

b. Depression

c. Death of a loved one

d. Prolonged and incurable illness

10. Which of the following best defines juvenile delinquency?

a. An individual who is rude to those in authority

b. A first offender arrested for a criminal offence

c. A disabled person who is held in custody

d. A young person engaged in negative activities such as gambling

11. A social problem ...

a. Hinders the government from providing resources for the country.

b. Prevents community members from working in their community

c. Is considered an undesirable condition within the society

d. Can lead to an epidemic

12. Which of the following always hinders a good family relationship?

a. Education of women

b. Religion

c. Alcoholism
d. Wealth

13. Child abuse will not affect a child's

A. Self-image

B. Physical development

C. Material well-being

D. Behaviour and manners.

14. Premarital sexual intercourse without the use of contraceptive among young people
results in all the following EXCEPT:

a. Unwanted pregnancy

b. Rushed marriage

c. Increased abortion

d. Stable relationships

15. Which of the following is not a ground for divorce in the Caribbean?

a. Cruel treatment of spouse

b. Legal separation for a number of years

c. Infidelity of a partner

d. A job which demands a spouse to be away from home

16. An example of emotional abuse is ...

a. Corporal punishment

b. Using indecent language

c. Withholding love and affection

d. Committing incest

17. Which of the following practices would MOST likely increase the risk of a person
contracting AIDS?

i. Having sexual intercourse with many partners

ii. Donating blood to a blood bank

iii. Sharing needles to use illegal drugs

iv. Touching someone who has the disease

a. i and iii only

b. i, ii and iii only

c. i, iii and iv only

d. i, ii, iii and iv

18. Which of the following is LEAST desired among family members?

a. Support

b. Competition

c. Commitment

d. Cooperation

Section B

1. Many people are of the opinion that a divorce can have a positive and a negative
effect on people's lives:

a. Define divorce and annulment.

b. Outline TWO actions of a spouse for which the courts may grant a divorce.

c. Explain one positive effect and one negative effect of divorce.

2. The increase in substance abuse reflects society's failure to care for its young people.

a. List TWO types of drugs or substances that some young people in the Caribbean abuse.

b. Explain THREE effects that drug abuse among young people may have on the society.

c. Suggest, with reference to the Caribbean, TWO measures that can be taken to stop the
increase in drug abuse.

Street children - they may have no choice

The term 'street children' refers to children who live on the streets. They are deprived of family
care and protection. According to the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF):

1 Children on the street are those engaged in some kind of economic activity, ranging from
begging to vending. Most go home at the end of the day and contribute their earnings to their
family. They may be attending school and retain a sense of belonging to a family. Because of the
economic fragility of the family, these children may eventually opt for a permanent life on the
streets.

2 Children of the street actually live on the street. Family ties may exist, but are tenuous and are
maintained only casually or occasionally.

Street children exist in many major cities, especially in developing countries, such as Jamaica,
and may be subjected to abuse, neglect and exploitation.

Why are they on the streets?

1. They have no choice - they have been abandoned, orphaned or thrown out of their homes.
Because of mistreatment, neglect or because their homes do not or cannot provide them with
basic necessities.

2. Many children work in the streets because their income is required by the family.

3. They have fled from institutions.

In a 1993 report, the World Health Organisation offered the following list of causes for street
children:

a. Family breakdown

b. Armed conflict

c. Poverty

d. Natural and man-made disasters

e. Famine

f. Physical and sexual abuse

g. Exploitation by adults

h. Urbanisation and overcrowding

i. Acculturation

j. Dislocation through migration.

The Jamaican scenario ([Link]/jamaica/ orphans_vulnerable_children)

1. HIV/AIDS, poverty, migration and violence are some of the factors contributing to the growing
number of street children in Jamaica.
2. In 2003, there were 5,125 children who had lost one or both parents to HIV/AIDS.

3. Poverty and neglect have led to a growing number of street and working children in Jamaica.
The population of children in institutional care in 2003 was more than 5,000.

4. High rates of migration, partly a response to social and economic conditions, have contributed
to weaker family and community support systems. Many children are left in the care of older
siblings or are left alone, under the informal supervision of family members or neighbours who do
not live with them. As a result, there is often no adult supervision or guidance for these children
and the only parental support is through cash remittances and packages of food and clothing sent
from overseas.

A helping hand

1. Young people have received remedial education, life-skills training and training in skills which
will enable them to earn an income.

2. Partners in these programmes are the National Initiative for Street Children in the capital city,
Kingston; the Western Society for the Upliftment of Children in Jamaica's Second City, Montego
Bay, and Children First in Spanish Town.

3. UNICEF has provided financial and technical support; the Centre for HIV/AIDS Research and
Educational Services at the University Hospital of the West Indies has received funding assistance
for a project which provides psychosocial care and support to children infected and affected by
HIV/AIDS.

4. UNICEF also supported the training of 150 child-development officers from the Child
Development Agency.

Alternative lifestyle

An alternative lifestyle is a lifestyle generally perceived to be outside the cultural norm. It is living
in a manner that does not conform to the normal, socially enforced stereotypes of a society. The
following may be examples which are considered by many to be examples of alternative lifestyles:

 Unusual lifestyle or community, such as communes, communal living.

 Avoidance of traditional path.
 Vegetarianism or veganism.
 Alternative medicine
 Alternative spirituality practices.
 Non-typical sexual lifestyle. Anything not consisting of a nuclear family with mother, father
and children is likely to be considered as practising an alternative lifestyle. Same- sex
relationships are definitely considered as such, so are polygamous groups.

Activities

Street children a growing trend in the Caribbean.

a. Define the term street children.

b. Outline TWO situations in the home which may be responsible for the number of street children
in urban areas of the Caribbean.
c. Give THREE reasons why it is important for Caribbean countries to reduce the number of street
children.

d. Suggest TWO ways in which a welfare organisation may cater to the needs of street children in
urban areas.

Sexually transmitted diseases

A sexually transmitted disease (STD) is caused by a pathogen, that is, virus, bacterium, parasite
or fungus, that spreads from person to person, primarily through sexual contact.

Important facts

 STDs are usually spread through sexual contact

 They are sometimes called sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
 STDs are often caused by bacteria or a virus
 Risk for contracting an STD can be reduced by practising safe sex.

Common STDs and their symptoms

Chlamydia

Although most people have no symptoms, those who do, may experience abnormal discharge
from the penis or vagina, pain in the testicles and burning with urinating. Long-term irritation
may cause lower abdominal pain, inflammation of the eyes and skin lesions. In women, it can
cause inflammation of the pelvic organs, pelvic inflammatory disease. Chlamydia can be
completely cured.

Genital herpes
Common signs of this STD include small red bumps, blisters or open sores on the penis, vagina or
areas close by. Fever, headaches, muscle aches, pain when urinating, itching, burning, swollen
glands in the genital area and pain in the legs, buttocks or genital area are also common. Women
also experience vaginal discharge. Symptoms may go away and then come back although some
people may have no symptoms. There is no cure.

Gonorrhoea

Pain or burning when urinating, yellowish and sometimes bloody discharge from the penis or
vagina are common, but many men have no symptoms. It can be completely cured.

Hepatitis B

Those who have contracted this STD experience mild fever, head and muscle aches, joint pains,
tiredness, loss of appetite, nausea and vomiting. Dark-coloured urine and pale bowel movements,
stomach pain and the skin and whites of eyes turning yellow may also occur. There are
medications available to treat long-lasting (chronic) HBV-infections, but there is no cure for
hepatitis B when it is first contracted.

Genital warts (Human Papillomavirus (HPV))

Genital warts usually first appear as small, hard, painless bumps on the penis, in the vaginal area
or around the anus. They can, sometimes, be hard to see, but if left untreated they can take on a
fleshy, cauliflower-like appearance. Some people have no apparent symptoms. HPV is linked with
a higher risk of cervical cancer in women.

Syphilis

In the first (primary) stage, about 10 days to six weeks after exposure, a painless sore (chancre)
or many sores may appear but they should heal on their own. If not treated, the infection spreads
to the next stage. The secondary stage involves a skin rash that usually does not itch and clears
on its own. Fever, swollen lymph glands, sore throat, patchy hair loss, headaches, weight loss,
muscle aches and tiredness may also be experienced.

In the latent (hidden) stage, symptoms disappear, but infection remains in body and can damage
the brain, nerves, eyes, heart, blood vessels, liver, bones and joints. The late stage can see an
inability to coordinate muscle movements, paralysis, numbness, gradual blindness, dementia and,
possibly, death.

While syphilis can be completely cured, it can be caught again, especially if both sex partners
aren't treated.

HIV

Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) interferes with your body's ability to
effectively fight off viruses, bacteria and fungi that cause disease, and it can lead to AIDS, a
chronic, life-threatening disease.
When first infected with HIV, you may have no symptoms at all. Some people develop a flu-like
illness, usually two to six weeks after being infected. Early HIV symptoms may include:

 Fever
 Headache
 Fatigue
 Swollen lymph glands
 Rashes

These early symptoms usually disappear within a week to a month and are often mistaken for
those of another viral infection. During this period, you are very infectious. More persistent or
severe symptoms of HIV infection may not appear for 10 years or more after the initial infection.

As the virus continues to multiply and destroy immune cells, you may develop mild infections or
chronic symptoms such as:

 Swollen lymph nodes - often one of the first signs of HIV infection
 Diarrhoea
 Weight loss
 Fever
 Cough and shortness of breath

Signs and symptoms of later stage HIV

 Persistent, unexplained fatigue

 Soaking night sweats
 Shaking chills or fever higher than 100° F (38° C) for several weeks
 Swelling of lymph nodes for more than three months
 Chronic diarrhoea
 Persistent headaches

There is no cure. Treatment includes taking medicines to stop the virus from replicating or making
copies of itself.

Prevention

The only sure way to avoid becoming infected with an STD is by practising monogamy with an
uninfected partner. It is important for partners to discuss their sexual and STD history before
having sex and to consider getting tested.

The following behaviours and conditions can increase the risk of STDs:

 Engaging in sexual activity when either partner has unhealed lesions

 Enema or rectal douching before rectal intercourse
 Rectal or vaginal irritation or infection
 Sexual activity that may damage the mucosal lining of the vagina or rectum
 Tampon use. Tampons can cause vaginal dryness and cellular abnormalities. Sanitary
napkins, either disposable or washable cotton pads, are recommended.
 Vaginal dryness
 Sexual activity at a young age. The younger a person starts having sex, the greater his or
her chances of becoming infected with an STD.
 Lots of sex partners. People who have sexual contact - not just intercourse but any form of
intimate activity - with many different partners are more at-risk than those who stay with the
same partner.
 Unprotected sex. Latex condoms are the only form of birth control that reduce your risk of
getting an STD. Spermicides, diaphragms and other birth-control methods may help prevent
pregnancy, but they don't protect a person against STDs.

Activities

'The increase in sexually transmitted diseases reflects society's failure to care for its people.'

1. List THREE types of sexually transmitted diseases that some individuals tend to have.

2. State THREE reasons individuals may end up with an STD.

3. Explain FOUR effects that any named STD may have on an individual.

4. Suggest, with reference to the Caribbean, THREE measures that can be taken to stop the
spread of STDs.

Drug abuse - problems and solutions

Definition

Drug abuse has a wide range of definitions, all relating either to the misuse or overuse of a
psychoactive or performance-enhancing drug for a non-therapeutic or non-medical reason.

A drug is a substance that modifies one or more of the body's functions when it is consumed.
Therefore, many common foods qualify as drugs. According to this definition, some of our most
cherished beverages such as tea, coffee and cola are drugs. However, some of the most
commonly abused drugs include alcohol, amphetamines, barbiturates, caffeine, cannabis, cocaine,
methaqualone, nicotine, opium alkaloids and minor tranquilisers.

Causes

People who suffer emotionally use drugs mostly to escape from their problems. They may be
trying to self-medicate themselves out of loneliness, low self-esteem, unhappy relationships or
stress. Drug abuse also commonly results from a combination of peer pressure, inadequate
coping skills and curiosity. There is also evidence of familial patterns of addiction. Most people
who are predisposed to drug abuse have few emotional resources against stress, an over-
dependence on others and a low tolerance for frustration. Taking the drug gives them pleasure by
relieving tension, abolishing loneliness, allowing them to achieve a temporarily peaceful or
euphoric state or simply relieving boredom. Drug dependence may follow experimentation with
drugs in response to peer pressure.

Consequences

Drug abuse is rife in many countries. Billions of dollars are spent internationally preventing drug
use, treating addicts and fighting drug-related crimes. Drug abuse causes multiple problems for
countries and communities. The medical and psychological effects are obvious. Addicts cannot
function as normal members of society. They neglect or abuse their families and eventually
require expensive treatment or hospitalisation. Drug abuse also has an effect on crime. Huge
police resources are needed to fight smuggling and dealing.

Drugs cause increased energy, rapid heart rate and elevated blood pressure, but they also
produce racing thoughts and make you feel overly stimulated. Continued use causes rapid
breathing, irritability, impulsiveness, aggression, nervousness, insomnia, weight loss, tolerance,
addiction and possible heart failure. Drugs also cause an impairment in cognitive functioning,
which negatively affects memory and impacts the ability to learn.

Source: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Short-term effects

 'Rush'
 Depressed respiration
 Clouded mental functioning
 Nausea and vomiting
 Suppression of pain
 Spontaneous abortion

Long-term effects:

 Infectious diseases (HIV/AIDS and hepatitis)

 Collapsed veins
 Bacterial infections and abscesses
 Infection of heart lining and valves
 Arthritis and other rheumatologic problems

Signs and symptoms of drug abuse

 Health and behaviour, continuing to use drugs, even though there are obvious health
problems that are affected or caused by drug use
 Irritability, anger, hostility, fatigue, agitation, anxiety, depression, psychosis, lack of
coordination, difficulty concentrating

Financial and legal issues

 Paying bills late, receiving telephone calls from collection agencies, inability to keep track
of money. Being arrested, doing things that are not normal, such as stealing to obtain drugs

Employment or school
 Continuing to use drugs even though the drug use jeopardises a job or education

Family and friends

 Feeling annoyed when other people comment on or criticise the use of drugs. Feeling
remorse or guilt after using drugs

Social life

 Focusing recreational activities around obtaining drugs, using drugs or recovering from
drug use

Solutions

1. Education is the first battle. Individuals need to be told at home and in schools about drugs.
People need to be aware of the effects so that they can avoid this problem.

2. The increase of police and powers that be to stop dealers and to enforce the law. However, the
main target should be the user.

3. Families and counsellors need to talk to children and people at risk.

Signs and symptoms of drug dependence

Cravings and relapse. Strong and overwhelming desire to use the drug of choice at a specific time
of day or several times a day. Feeling an overwhelming need for the drug in order to deal with
problems

Tolerance

 Using more of the drug than intended and using the drug more frequently in order to feel
the same effect

Withdrawal symptoms

 Agitation, insomnia, anxiety, depression, anger, cravings, fatigue, nausea, vomiting,

shaking, irritability, muscle pain
 Anti-anxiety medications: Sleeplessness, irritability, anxiety, feeling shaky, headache,
dizziness, loss of appetite and, in extreme cases, seizures

Effects on memory and motivation

 Impairments in learning, memory and cognitive functioning

 Losing interest in activities and hobbies that were once pleasurable

Risky behaviour

 Sharing needles
 Having unsafe sex
Commonly abused drugs

The drugs listed below are commonly abused and affect the brain and physiology in different
ways.

Stimulants

 Cocaine
 Methamphetamine
 Ecstasy
 Opioids
 Heroin
 Depressants
 Valium
 Cannabinoids
 Marijuana and Hashish
 Hallucinogens
 LSD and PCP
 inhalants
 Aerosols, Nitrous oxide

Drugs for increasing muscle mass

 Anabolic steroids

Activities

1. Identify TWO legal substances that some people in the Caribbean abuse.

2. Describe TWO factors that may cause young people to abuse drugs.

3. Suggest TWO activities that schools in your country may organise to educate young people on
the dangers of drug abuse.

4. Drugs, terrorism, AIDS - plagues of the jet age. Name any THREE illegal drugs used in your
country and state THREE negative effects these drugs have on people.

Explain how the drug problem can be related to crime and infectious diseases. Describe the
measures that your country can adopt to fight these 'plagues of the jet age'.

Domestic violence
Domestic violence is a major type of abuse prevalent in our world today. It involves injuring
someone, usually a spouse or partner, but it can also be a parent, child or another family
member. It is hard to know exactly how common domestic violence is, because people often don't
report it.

There is no typical victim. It happens among people of all ages. It affects everyone, those of all
levels of income and education. Victims of domestic abuse or domestic violence may be men or
women, although women are more commonly victimised. Except for the gender difference,
domestic abuse doesn't discriminate. To reinforce, it happens within all age ranges, ethnic
backgrounds, and financial levels.

Who is an abuser?

An abuser uses fear, guilt, shame and intimidation to wear down and gain complete power over
the other person. He or she may threaten, or hurt the victim or those around him or her. It may
be said that violence is a deliberate choice made by the abuser in order to take control over his
wife, partner or other family members.

 An abuser does not batter other individuals - the boss who does not give time off or the
gas station attendant who spills gas down the side of the car. He or she waits until there are no
witnesses and abuses the person he or she claims to love.
 If you ask an abused person if the individual can stop the abuse when the phone rings or
the police come to the door, he or she will say yes. Most often, when the police show up, the
person is looking calm, cool and collected.
 Abusers, very often escalate from pushing and shoving to hitting in places where the
bruises and marks will not show. If they were out of control or in a rage, they would not be able
to direct or limit where the kicks or punches land.
Abusers also use the following tactics to exert power over their partners or family members:
 Dominance - Abusive individuals need to feel in charge of the relationship. They will make
decisions for those preyed upon and tell them what to do and expect everyone to obey without
question. They may treat the weaker party like a servant, child or even a possession.
 Humiliation - An abuser will do everything to make the abused feel badly or defective in
some way. After all, if the abused believes he or she is worthless and that no one else will want
him or her, the person is less likely to leave. Insults, name-calling, shaming and public put-downs
are all weapons of abuse designed to erode self-esteem and power.
 Isolation - In order to increase dependence, an abusive partner will cut the victim off
from the outside world, preventing socialisation with family or friends, or even preventing the
victim from going to work or school. The abuser may insist on granting permission to do anything,
go anywhere or see anyone.

Source: Domestic Abuse Intervention Project, MN

 Threats - Abusers commonly use threats to keep their victims from leaving or to scare
them into dropping charges. An abused may threaten to hurt or kill children, other family
members or even pets or may also threaten to commit suicide or file false charges against the
abused to child services.
 Intimidation - An abuser may use a variety of intimation tactics to ensure submission,
including using threatening looks or gestures, smashing things, destroying property, hurting pets
or putting weapons on display.
 Denial and blame - Abusers are very good at making excuses for the inexcusable. They
will blame their abusive and violent behaviour on a bad childhood, a bad day and even on the
victims of their abuse. They may minimise the abuse, deny that it occurred or shift the
responsibility on to the victim, somehow making violence and abuse the abused's fault.
 Apologies and loving gestures in between the episodes of abuse can make it difficult to
leave. They may give the impression that the victim is the only person who can help them, that
things will be different this time and that they are truly sorry. However, the dangers of staying are
real.

Types of domestic violence and abuse

Emotional or psychological abuse

Emotional or psychological abuse can be verbal or non-verbal. Emotional abuse includes verbal
abuse, such as yelling, name-calling, blaming and shaming. Isolation, intimidation and controlling
behaviour also fall under emotional abuse.

Physical abuse

Physical abuse is the use of physical force against someone in a way that injures or endangers
that person. There's a broad range of behaviours that come under the heading of physical abuse,
including hitting, grabbing, choking, throwing things and assault with a weapon.

Sexual abuse

Any situation in which an individual is forced to participate in degrading sexual activity is sexual
abuse. Forced sex, even by a spouse or intimate partner with whom there has also been
consensual sex, is an act of aggression and violence.

Economic or financial abuse

Economic or financial abuse include:

 Controlling the finances.

 Withholding money or credit cards.
 Giving an allowance.
 Making others account for every penny spent.
 Stealing or taking money from the abused.
 Exploiting assets for personal gain.
 Withholding basic necessities (food, clothes, medications, shelter).
 Preventing the victim from working or choosing a career.
 Sabotaging a job (making the individual miss work, calling constantly).

Domestic violence warning signs

It's impossible to know with certainty what goes on behind closed doors, but there are some
telltale signs and symptoms of domestic violence and abuse.

 Frequent injuries, with the excuse of 'accidents'.

 Frequent and sudden absences from work or school
 Frequent, harassing phone calls from the partner
 Fear of the partner or references to the partner's anger
 Personality changes (for example an outgoing woman becomes withdrawn)
 Excessive fear of conflict
 Submissive behaviour, lack of assertiveness
 Isolation from friends and family
 Depression, crying and low self-esteem.

Reporting suspected domestic abuse is important. Victims or others aware of abuse should not be
afraid of getting involved and should always remember that the report is confidential, and
everything possible will be done to protect privacy. When making a report, it is not necessary to
give a name, and the claim will be investigated before anyone is taken into custody. Most
important, protect the victim from further harm by calling for help.

Source: Mid-Valley Women's Crisis Service.

Try to answer the following;

What are the main causes and consequences of domestic violence and how can it be
dealt with in our society?

Family problems come in all shapes and sizes

There is no such thing as the perfect family. Every family is unique, with its own combination of
strengths and weaknesses. Sometimes families get overwhelmed by what seems like an endless
list of challenges, when it comes to juggling work, school and individual family members' needs.

Many times family relationships are affected by a huge upheaval, such as a mental or physical
illness, the loss of a job or an addiction. Even joyful events such as a wedding, a job promotion or
a financial windfall can disrupt a family with unexpected consequences.

Possible areas of conflict

 Mental-health problems, such as depression

 Communication problems
 Domestic violence
 Addiction
 Divorce
 In-law challenges
 Infidelity
 Financial difficulties or excesses
 Sexual abuse
 Teen issues, such as the generation gap and peer pressure
 Favouring or disfavouring family members.

Family life can, therefore, be difficult at times. You can't choose your family, yet they're with you
for life, so it's important to find a way to work through your problems. Whether you're having a
hard time coping with your parents' divorce, you are having trouble adjusting to a step-parent or
family or, perhaps, you're just not getting on well with your brother, sister or parents, there are
things you can do to make the situation better.

Family problems can become seemly overwhelming. Every family, rich or poor, has problems once
in a while. But sometimes family conflict becomes too much. Often, this is because of trouble
understanding each other, changing expectations as you grow older or the lack of trust among
family members. It might also be because your parents see things differently from you, since
they are from a different generation.

It's easy to imagine other people having the perfect family, complete with pearly-white smiles,
shiny hair and straight-A school reports. The entire family eats meals together and chats happily
about their day, laughing at how wonderful their lives are. Many of us can only imagine this type
of family situation. Many times we cannot have this kind of family, however, not because we are
having bad family relationships, but because our financial positions call for separation.

Let's get back to the real world. Parents and their offspring are often screaming at each other,
children are getting excluded from school or behaving so badly that parents are scared to let
them leave the house. Every family suffers its own problems and pressures. No problem seems to
be unique to a specific race or country.

Questions

Before we continue, let us attempt these questions:

1. What advantages does being a member of a family bring? Are there also
disadvantages?

2. What problems might be involved in marriage to somebody of a different colour,

race, religion, social class, financial means or educational background?

3. What are the most common causes of disputes between husbands and wives?

[Link] can either side do to prevent such disputes or to resolve them when they have
occurred?

5. What effects can a happy or unhappy marriage have on children?

The role of the father and mother in the family

"Mothers today juggle more tasks, work longer hours and sleep less than their own mothers did.
Yet, the self-healing revolution has overlooked the most significant issue in the lives of some 20
million women: how to cope with the relentless, sometimes overwhelming, stresses of raising
young children in the 21st century.

"Although traditional attitudes towards the place of women in the family and in society die hard,
the role of women has changed in many societies, both developed and developing."

Question: State two things a father can do in the home, apart from being the
breadwinner providing money.

Answer: Fathers can help to prepare children for school in the mornings. They can also help with
the cleaning of the house and improving and maintaining it. Fathers can also help with the
shopping, washing and feeding of the children. They can attend games children are involved in
and also attend the parent-teacher association meetings.

Question: What are TWO traditional attitudes/ideas regarding the role of women?
Answer: Women traditionally looked after the children by doing most of the nurturing and caring
and also looking after the home and its environs. This was possible because they did not work
outside of the home.

Question: Give reasons women now work outside the home.

Answer: Many women work outside the home in industrialised societies, either because they
need the money, they want to become more independent or they want to take advantage of
educational opportunities that have now been given to them. Women may deliberately reject
traditional roles as expected or stated by their societies. Many families could not keep up with the
way of life expected of them, in terms of feeding, clothing and educating children, if women did
not provide financially. There are so many single-parent mothers who have no other alternative
but to care for their children. Women tied to the home can be very frustrated and waste their
talent.

Question: Give THREE changes that may take place in the family when women work
outside the home.

Answer: The family may be more prosperous, materially, but the husband may have to help with
more of the things the wife did before. The children may become delinquents if they are
neglected, and the husband and wife may find they are spending very little time together. They
will have to plan well and organise their lives around their work schedule and try to prevent
arguments.

For your activity, look at the following and use the above questions to help you to answer this
question:

Question: Describe ways in which traditional attitudes towards, and the functions of,
women in societies have changed recently. What other economic, social and cultural
changes are taking place and might take place in societies as a result of these changes?

Thinking of becoming a parent

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Preparation for parenthood is not just a matter of reading books and decorating the nursery.
Raising children is one of the most fulfilling jobs in the world. Yet, it is also one of the toughest,
and one for which one may feel the least prepared. There are areas that need to be discussed
with spouses and decisions to be made, even before the arrival of the baby.

Few experiences in life have as much impact on someone as becoming a parent. A new child
brings new worries, new challenges and new stresses.

Yet, it can also bring new feelings, new understandings and new joys.

So, what does it take to prepare for parenthood? It seems to be the job we are often the least
prepared to begin. Becoming a parent means lives are changing, and preparation must be made
for those changes. For example, an expectant mother must learn about and prepare for the
physical changes she will experience during pregnancy. Perhaps, it is even more important for
those becoming parents to think about and prepare for the mental and emotional changes or
challenges that occur when a child is born.

Anticipatory socialisation

People are least prepared because, when becoming a parent, there is little anticipatory
socialisation for the role of caregiver. The school curriculum pays scant regard or little attention to
subjects that may be relevant to successful family life, such as childcare and home maintenance.
Only limited learning takes place during the period of pregnancy. The transition may be quite
abrupt. Most of all, our society does not provide clear and helpful guidelines for successful
parenthood in all areas.

There is no set way for parents to produce happy and well-adjusted offspring, or even understand
what it means to be well-adjusted. Taking the time to understand the changes that occur in life,
with becoming a parent, and learning how to prepare for parenthood can ease the stresses that
come with being a parent.

As with any journey, parents' knowing where they'd like to end up and how to perform in their
new roles as parents will help to determine the route to take and the preparations needed to
succeed.

A good parent:

 Exercises patience and confidence. Children need to feel a parent's patience and personal
confidence.
 Learns about child development in order to approach parenting with positive and realistic
expectations.
 Develops a positive approach towards raising a child and looks for positive things to
appreciate each day. Parenting becomes difficult when the negatives are focused on.
 Recognises the importance of being married or focusing on having a mutually positive
relationship with a partner .A marital relationship often provides a key parental support system.
 Relies on the social support network that can help, such as, parents, relatives, friends.
 Learns whom they can look to for help and under-standing and advice.
 Seeks appropriate medical assistance and gets social support for dealing with challenges.
 Reads available material on preparing for parenthood or caring for a newborn.
 Makes sure they are physically, economically, emotionally and psychologically ready to
become a parent.

With new experiences come new expectations. There is bound to be differences in opinions
between spouses on parenting styles. First-time parents may find it hard to imagine how
dramatically and permanently a baby will turn life around. A range of emotions will be
experienced - excitement, apprehension, fear, doubt and even anxiety.

These emotions are normal, but taking steps to prepare psychologically and emotionally is
necessary. There are several ways to do this, including:

 Attending prenatal classes together as a couple.

- Joining a support group for parents-to-be. These sessions help couples promote positive family
and parent-child relationships.
 Talking to parents, close relatives, good friends or even a counsellor.
 Budgeting for the expenses which children bring and which challenge the family budget.
 Setting aside a portion of income for the baby's future.
 Clarifying what are essential and non-essential expenses.
 Living within means.
 Avoiding purchasing expensive things for the baby who will outgrow them before long.

Effects on marriage

Other than the spouse, there is now another individual who will need your attention and both
parents will need to adjust to this fact.

Activities:

1. Outline THREE ways in which the school may help young people to become
responsible parents.

2. Give THREE explanations to show why young people need proper guidance in
parenting.

3. As a social worker, suggest TWO strategies you would use to help young parents
develop appropriate parenting skills.

4. State TWO effects that good parenting practices may have on children.

5. Outline THREE types of skills parents need in bringing up their children.

6. Suggest TWO ways a community group may provide guidance for young, unwed
mothers.

7. Give THREE reasons to show why young, married couples may consider having a
small family.

Trends and changes in the family

There are many variations in the family, from culture to culture. Yet, the family, as a social
institution, is present in all cultures. Moreover, certain general principles concerning its
composition, kinship patterns and authority patterns are universal.

People still think of the family in very narrow terms - as a married couple, mother and father, and
their unmarried children living together. However, this is only one type of family, the nuclear
family. This type of family has served as the nucleus, or core, the ideal family upon which larger
family groups are built.

In the last few decades, the world has seen major changes in the face of the family. Since 1975,
the divorce rate has doubled, resulting in the increase of single-parent households, remarriages
and extended families. The many definitions of 'family' and family types clearly demonstrate the
changes that are occurring within the family.

Definition of a family

Most of the time when a person thinks of the definition of a family, the image of a mother, father
and children is what comes into the mind. That is actually the definition of a nuclear family, which
is parents and one or more children. However, there are more definitions that can be used to
define a family, such as a single-parent family which is one parent and a child or children.
Family units take a variety of forms, all of which involve individuals living under one roof. The
family form or structure do not indicate how healthy the family is or how they function. The family
form is merely the physical make-up of the family members in relationship to one another without
respect to roles and function.

A nuclear family consists of a mother, father and their biological or adoptive descendants, often
called the traditional family. The nuclear family was most popular in the 1950s and '60s. The
nuclear family can be a nurturing environment in which to raise children, as long as there is love,
time spent with children, emotional support, low stress and a stable economic environment. In
nuclear families, both adults are the biological or adoptive parents of their children.

Changes in family structure

One of the most striking changes in family structure over the last 20 years has been the increase
of single-parent families. In this family, there is only one parent in the household raising the
children. Due to high divorce rates and adults choosing not to marry, this seems to be the fastest-
growing family form. It is believed that more than half of all children will spend some of their lives
in a single-parent family, with most of these families being headed by women.

Children are most likely to live in a single-parent family for reasons other than the death of a
parent. Many children are born to unwed mothers, many being teenage mothers. One of the most
expensive things for a single parent is childcare, coupled with the fact that, too often, children
living in single-parent households have to contend with negative stereotypes and hurtful remarks
made by insensitive adults.

Regardless of whether the single-parent family exists as a result of divorce or death of the other
parent, or the parent choosing not to marry, the child is clearly not responsible for the
circumstances. However, it is often the child who pays the price.

On the other hand, single families may often have less tension compared to the tension in
families before divorce. With reduced tension, the single parent can focus more clearly on the
child's needs. Usually, parents and children are more willing to cooperate with one another to find
solutions to solve household problems in single-parent families.

An extended family comprises two or more adults from different generations of a family who
share a household. It consists of more than parents and children. It may be a family that includes
parents, children, cousins, aunts, uncles, grandparents, foster children. The extended family may
live together for many reasons; to help raise children, to provide support for an ill relative, or help
with financial problems. Children are sometimes raised by their grandparents when their biological
parents have died or can no longer take care of them. Many grandparents take some primary
responsibility for childcare, particularly when both parents work. Extended families can be found
all over the world in different communities and countries.

Blended family

Traditionally, a blended family is the family one acquires when a parent enters a new marriage,
whether the parent was widowed or divorced. For example, if one's mother dies and one's father
marries another woman, the new woman is one's stepmother.

Stepbrothers and stepsisters exist in a blended or complex stepfamily. In any case, any
subsequent children conceived through the new marriage are one's half-siblings instead of
stepsiblings, being related through one bloodline - that of the one biological parent.
The notion of the ideal family has evolved over the last century. However, today, we see the rise
in other types of families as mentioned previously, such as the extended and single-parent
families. In today's society, the mother is not seen as the primary caregiver tending to the needs
of everyone in the family. Increasingly, her spouse and the children participate in household
duties. We look on this as changing marital roles as there is now a cooperation and sharing in
areas which, traditionally, were seen as husband/father jobs and wife/mother jobs.

Other trends

It's not only the role of the women that have changed but there are other trends that have
changed in the family. The dawn of women's 'liberation' or a greater recognition of the rights of
women has led to more educational and job opportunities being available to them. There have
been more working wives and mothers and a greater independence of women, economic and
otherwise. There has also been an increase in single-parent families, mainly with the woman as
head.

With the traditionally held belief that children serve as 'insurance' and, as such, women should be
fruitful and multiply is now being challenged by slogans, such as, 'Two is better than too many',
smaller families have emerged in today's society. There has been a growing number of longer-
term common-law/consensual/ shack-up unions. Today's society is witnessing an increase in the
divorce rates.

The mass media is doing its share as it continues to influence family life and values.
Governmental and non-governmental agencies are increasingly performing the parental functions
in society today. Geriatric homes are booming as the number of individuals grow as family
members do not have the time to spend or take care of their loved ones. The financing is easier
as all the adults in the home work and cannot fit in care of the aged in their schedule.

Activities

'With us the family was everything. Now it is nothing.'

('An Indian Soliloquy' American Journal of Sociology, 1940 p. 44)

1. Give the meaning of the following concepts:

a) Nuclear family

b) Extended family

c) Blended family

d) Roles

2. State three reasons to show that the family has fewer functions in modern industrial
society compared with small-scale, pre-industrial societies.

3. How might the rising standards of living discourage the development of the extended
family?

4. What difficulties would face a married couple in our society who wish to reverse their
roles?
5. Suggest two connections between the reduction of the number of children and the
development of the nuclear family.

Concepts of the family

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

ALL FAMILIES 'look' differently and it's always been that way. As a caregiving unit, the family
might consist of a couple (mother and father) and children; a single parent and child;
grandparent and grandchildren; a sibling group, etc. Whatever the construct, the family is the
foundation of society.

It's where we come into the world, are nurtured and given the tools to go out into the world,
capable and healthy. Family lifestyle varies in societies and seldom do we find cultures that are
altogether similar. Practices and behaviours in our family will, therefore, be based on our culture.

Attempt the following questions; choose your answer from the list provided at the end of each
sub-topic:

Marriage practices

1. Marriage between more than two persons. ___________________________

2. A marriage restriction that requires a person to marry someone outside his or her immediate
family, clan, village or tribe. _______________________________

3. A legally sanctioned relationship, entered into most times because of 'love', usually involving
economic cooperation, as well as sexual activity and childbearing that people expect to endure.
_____________________________

4. For this type of marriage to occur, parents select marriage partners for their children.
_______________________

5. A marriage restriction that requires a person to marry someone within the tribe, race, social
class, religion, etc. _________________________________

(endogamy, polygamy, exogamy, marriage, arranged marriage)

Tracing descent in the family

6. The privileges and duties of descent are traced through the female
line.________________________________

7. The privileges and duties of descent are traced through the male line.
______________________________

8. The privileges and duties of descent are traced through both lines.

(bilineal, matrilineal, patrilineal)

Family types

9. A family in which there is one person, whether mother or father, who has sole responsibility for
his/her children is referred to as a ___________________________________

10. A social institution found in all societies that unite people into cooperative groups to oversee
the bearing and rearing of children.____________________________

11. The system by which members of a society trace kinship over generations.
_______________________

12 A type of family organisation in which several generations of blood relatives live

together.____________________________

13. A family unit that includes parents, step-parents and children.

____________________________________

14. A family unit composed of parents and their children.

___________________________________

(family, single parent, family tree, nuclear, extended, blended)

Where do you live?

15. A residential pattern in which a married couple lives with the husband's
family._____________________________

16. A residential pattern in which a married couple lives with the wife's family.
____________________________

17. No in-laws for me, I want to live with my husband alone; I want to be in charge of my house.
I am starting out in my own home.

(neolocal, matrilocal, patrilocal)

Who is in the 'man of the yard'?

18. A form of social organisation in which females have authority and dominance over the
household. __________________________________

19. A form of social organisation in which males have authority and dominance over the
household. ____________________________________

20. There is equal sharing of authority between mother and father over the
household._________________

(matriarchal, equalitarian, patriarchal)

Types of relationship

21. Marriage uniting one man and one woman. _______________________

22. Marriage uniting one female and two or more males. _________________.

23. Marriage uniting one male and two or more females. ________________

24. Marriage among more than two persons. ___________________________

(polygyny, polygamy, polyandry, monogamy)

Don't leave me

25. In marriage, a situation in which one spouse abandons the other.

___________________________________

26. The legal dissolution of an officially recognised marriage.

____________________________________

27. The court allows individuals to live apart while sorting out marital relationship.
_________________________

(separation, legal separation, divorce)

I look and behave like you

28. The transmission of genetic characteristics from parents to their

children.____________________________

29. The way of life of a people: the shared, learned behaviour of the members of a society.
____________________________________

30. The period of growth and change during which a child develops into an adult.
______________________________

31. One of two or more children having one or both parents in common.
____________________________________

(heredity, adolescence, sibling, culture)

Behave yourself

32. Sexual intercourse between very close relatives. ______________________

33. The stage at which a person is capable of producing children.

___________________________________

34 The crime of being married to two women at the same time.

___________________________________
35 The killing of the foetus. __________________________________

36 Lack of parental guidance may lead to such among youth.

________________________________

37. Declaration by a religious or church court that a marriage is

invalid._____________________________

(incest, bigamy, puberty, annulment, delinquency, abortion)

The family
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Family denotes a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity and co-residence.

A family may be viewed as a fundamental, social group in society. It typically consists of one or
two parents and their children, who share goals and values, have long-term commitments to one
another and usually reside in the same dwelling place - a household under one roof.

For your information:

From the perspective of children, the family is a family of orientation - it serves to locate children
socially and plays a major role in their socialisation.

From the point of view of the parent(s), the family is a family of procreation, the goal of which is
to produce, enculturate and socialise children.

Functions of the family

We need families in all societies because they do a special job. Many believe the primary function
of the family is to reproduce society, either biologically, socially or both.

What do you see as the basic functions of the family?

a. To ensure that new babies actually survive to become adult members of the society.

Babies are the most immature animals born. Many animals can help themselves survive within
hours or weeks of birth; they can run or hide. Human children are not socially mature till many
years later, because the rules for society are so complicated. They must be socialised and taught
various things in order to survive in society.

b. To regulate sexual activity.

It is usually expected that sexual relations between men and women take place inside some kind
of marriage relationship or pairing and that they are regulated by some social rules. Families exist
to control sexual behaviour, so that the new offspring are as healthy as is possible.

Can you think of a special rule about sex that most people believe in Jamaica?
c. To ensure that children are satisfactorily socialised into the norms and values of
society.

Children actually believe themselves to be the centre of everything that takes place around them
and have to be taught the rules of their society and their place within it. The process of learning
the rules about how to behave is called socialisation and it lasts for all of our lives.

In our society, the rules are so complicated that people are still considered children who have to
be protected till they are 18 years of age. There are people who are specially trained and fairly
well paid to do this job of training children, but the most important trainers are the family
members.

d. To provide economic support for other family members.

The family in a traditional society forms the primary economic unit. This economic role has
gradually diminished in modern times. This can take many forms in all societies. In hunting
societies, women forage for most of the food and men hunt to provide extra protein foods. In
farming societies, all the family members work to help produce food. Nowadays, both men and
women may work outside of the home to provide for the family's economic needs.

Think of ways in which people in families help one another in your home and in the community.

e. To satisfy our emotional needs for love and security.

People need to feel loved and wanted, particularly when they are very young. They can survive
without it, but for most people, family offers the strongest emotional bond.

It has been found by some psychologists who study human development that children find it
difficult to learn how to love other people if they have never been taught how to love by someone
who has loved them.

Think of ways in which you could show your family and people around you care for them.

f. To provide us with a sense of place and position in our society.

When people meet for the first time, they often ask each other questions about who they are and
where they come from. This gives people a sense of place and belonging to each other.

Who wants to become just like their mom or dad? Why? Why do you believe we all see
family/home as a place of refuge?

Political functions

On the other hand, family structures or its internal relationships may affect both state and
religious institutions. Many laws have been framed with the family in mind to keep it together
and, also, to protect its members.

Contemporary views of the family

Contemporary society generally views family as a haven from the world, supplying absolute
fulfillment. The family is considered to encourage intimacy, love and trust where individuals may
escape the competition of dehumanising forces in modern society from the rough and tumble
industrialised world, and as a place where warmth, tenderness and understanding can be
expected from a loving mother, and protection from the world can be expected from the father.
However, the idea of protection is declining as civil society faces less internal conflict combined
with increased civil rights and protection from the state.

Many individuals have expressed grave concern over a purported decay of the family and see this
as a sign of the crumbling of contemporary society. They feel that the family structures of the
past were superior to those today and believe that families were more stable and happier at a
time when they did not have to contend with problems such as illegitimate children and divorce.

The growth and development of the individual

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Individuals, during their lifetime, pass through several stages, with each possessing its own basic
characteristics, including ageing. This is a natural process that happens to us all and can be seen
in the physical changes that occur in an individual's lifespan.

Characteristics of ageing

We treat people differently because of their ages. We have different expectations of what they
ought to be able to do at different stages in life. Age has a social, as well as biological element, in
that we judge people according to how we expect them to behave, based on their ages.

What do you think about a woman, age 85, wearing a miniskirt and a blouse that reveals her
midriff? What would your reaction be if you saw her?

Age division

 Prenatal - the period prior to the birth of the baby. This is the time when the baby and
mother's health is monitored.
 Childhood - the period from birth to puberty (10 to 13)
 Adolescence - between puberty and adulthood (13 to 19)
 Adulthood - usually from about 20 years to old age
 Senescence - old age

As we progress through each stage, we are regarded in different ways and also look at ourselves
differently. The transition from one age to another is indicated in societies by social and physical
markers.

THINK ABOUT THIS

Identify these social and physical markers that go with the stages of development.

Childhood

Children are seen as precious. There has emerged a general acceptance that children are delicate
creatures in need of special protection and guidance. Human offspring tend to be one of the most
dependent of creatures for the first two years of life. They are not allowed to work, and to this we
can add many other things. We have, therefore, as a society, put together special laws to protect
them from abuse of all kinds.
These laws prevent such things as sexual relationships, especially with adults, full-time
employment and exposure to drugs. Children are controlled by their parents. However, routine
beatings by parents are now regarded as a crime. It is felt that there are differences in the ways
that children are treated, depending on things such as ethnic background, sex and social class.

Adolescence

This is the period of change from childhood to adulthood. Someone once defined this period as a
transition between childhood, when the individual is bossed around and regarded as having little
to contribute to discussions of matters of importance, and the period of adulthood, when we are
weighed down with domestic concerns, the mortgage and the rearing of children.

It is believed that the transition from childhood to adulthood has become one of the most
dramatic and important phases in a person's life. Adolescents are generally in full-time
educational institutions and their income is provided by their parents. The experiences of
adolescents keep changing with each generation; there has emerged different youth cultures.

One area that has caused this change is technology, which is changing at a rapid rate, affecting
social behaviour. Computer games, mobile phones and the Internet are all a normal part of an
adolescent's life. This means that the adolescent has developed their own codes of behaviour, as
the ideas and values of the older generation may not fit the new social and technological times -
the generation gap.

You need to stop and find the meaning of the generation gap.

At one stage there were no radios, television or computers, and recorded music was virtually
unknown. Today, life would be almost unimaginable without these 'necessities'.

Outline the physical characteristics associated with childhood and adolescence.

Adulthood

This is the period of maximum power and social prestige for the majority of persons. It is the time
of an individual's life when the earning power and disposable income are usually at their highest.
Adulthood is a social as well as a physical period of life.

Old age

It is believed that, for many, the most affluent and relaxed period of life is the first eight years
after retirement. There are increasing numbers of older persons in our society today, as
individuals are living longer - good health practices and medical facilities are credited for this. It
is, therefore, obvious that older people are more likely to be in good health and have better
incomes than in the past; the quality of life for older people is improving.

Give the advantages and disadvantages of adulthood and the old-age stage of
development.

Do you want to get old?

Studying social studies
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Welcome back to a new year of studying. Social Studies is the study of the society around us,
how this society operates and how it influences our daily lives. We view the family as the natural
context in which to bring up children and we see schools as the obvious place for them to learn.
As individuals, we want to understand our own position in society, rich or poor, isolated or
popular.

We must strive to understand society and the way it influences us. We live in a society.

Social role

A society may be viewed as people acting in a particular set of predictable patterns, known as
social roles, and who share a set of common ideas about the world - a culture.

A social role may be defined as a way of acting which is expected of a person in a particular
position in a society. Culture is a way of life that guides our thinking and acting. People within a
culture regard it as somehow natural, for example, the difference between individual's values.

Can you imagine a world where other people were totally unpredictable? You simply would not
know what people were going to do next? Clearly, chaos would follow,

as you would be unable to plan anything or rely on anyone. People do not just behave as they
wish; they conform to what is generally considered to be the correct behaviour for a particular
role. People's behaviour should be more or less predictable - how we react to various ordeals,
circumstances, ideas and events. This is because of socialisation, the process of learning how to
behave 'correctly' in a society.

Human beings tend to act the way they do through copying those around them. However, at
points in their lives, people may behave in ways which threaten to disrupt the smooth pattern in
society and, in such cases, it is necessary that they be brought back into conformity.

"No man is an island, no man stands alone ... "

Unique personality

The individual has a unique personality; each possesses an identity. How we respond and act in a
society is greatly related to our sense of who we actually are. What and who we are is the result,
as mentioned before, of a long, learning process which encompasses socialisation. This process
teaches us how to behave and also who we are and can be.

An individual's identity is, therefore, a mixture of personal experiences and the wider images that
the world offers and the individual's place in it. This is usually provided by our interaction at
school, the media and people who are deemed important to the individual.

The social studies syllabus encompasses the following: it identifies the individual as being very
important, unique and necessary for the survival of society; this individual does not always stand
by himself/herself, but needs to belong to a group, the first of which is the family. It looks at the
growth and development of individuals; the changes they go through and how they adapt to
these changes and new and necessary characteristics.
An individual usually begins life within a family - a group of individuals who are intimately related,
living under the same roof, supporting and maintaining each other socially, economically and
emotionally. Contemporary social problems faced by individuals are highlighted and individuals
are asked to find reasons for and solutions to these varied problems - such as drug abuse,
teenage pregnancy, AIDS, child abuse, among others.

As individuals, we belong to a society which has institutions that direct our lives, such as
educational, economic, and government institutions. Individuals need and possess resources,
both human and physical. As members of a society, we have to constantly be aware of our
population statistics - we must control the population. We must harness the things of nature in
order to survive.

Integration

Integration is a major part of the syllabus; the history of integration; the need for integration and
helping each other in the region; the various ways in which we integrate and factors that facilitate
this integration are all looked at.

As individuals, we are always given options and so we have three options to choose one - we will
look at communications, consumer affairs or tourism. Your teacher may decide which is best for
you to do.

Question:

 Is it necessary to study the society and what individuals make of it?

 Why do you think individuals are necessary for any society to survive?

Work and employment

Anyone who can walk to the welfare office can walk to work. - Al Capp

Concepts you should become familiar with:

Work

To use physical or mental effort to make or do something.

Work is service performed by an employee at the request and under the control of an employer
and, therefore, on the employer's time.

 Work is compensable - that is, something for which an employee is entitled to be paid.

Labour Force

The labour force is that part of the population which is employed and available for work.

All the people who work are members of the labour force.
Also included in the labour force are those persons who may not be working, but in fact are
looking for a job.

The labour force is, therefore, made up of the employed and the unemployed or potential
workers.

Some persons are excluded from the labour force; these are:

 Students who are attending school full-time

 Those individuals who are retired
 Those who might be severely handicapped or disabled, whether physically or mentally.

Unemployed

An unemployed person is someone who is willing to work but cannot find a job. If an individual is
not looking for a job, that individual is not unemployed.

Underemployed

An underemployed person is one who is qualified with a particular skill/ability and is unable to find
work, so the individual has to work in an area which has no bearing on his/her qualifications. For
example, a doctor works as a bartender, an accountant works on a construction site as a mixer.

Employer

An individual/institution which employs people to work.

Employee

An individual who works for a person or firm for pay.

Career

A career is any activity that is done to earn a living. For example, a person who teaches; that
individual's career is teaching. A person who sells jerk chicken; that person career would be
higglering.

Profession

A profession is an occupation in which one has to have specialised training, for example medicine,
engineering, law.

Industry

An industry is any branch of business, trade or manufacture which provides goods and services
for consumers. Occupations may be classified by the industry to which they belong.

Occupations

Categories of jobs that involve similar activities at different work locations.

Downsizing

The process by which companies reduce their workforce.

Industries are divided into three main groups:

Primary/extractive

The primary sector of an economy depends on the natural environment to produce economic
goods. This industry deals specifically with the extracting of raw materials.

Examples of extracting industries are;

a. Bauxite mining

b. Farming

c. Fishing

d. Quarrying

The types of jobs in this sector vary widely, farmer, miner, fisherman, timber worker, and rancher.

Secondary/manufacturing

This industry deals with the processing of raw materials into finished goods. Those in the
secondary sector are popularly known as blue-collar workers.

Examples

a. Baking: flour into bread and pastries

b. Assembling cars

c. Making books, handbags, bag juice etc.

Tertiary/service

This industry helps individuals or organisations to function efficiently by providing services.

Examples are:

a. Barber

b. Dentist

c. Chauffeur

d. Entertainers.

Today, you went to school/work, filled your car with gas, stopped by the bank and visited your
doctor. You spent most of your time and someone's money in the tertiary sector. Other service
industries include insurance, real estate, retail sales, and entertainment. People in this industry
are referred to as white-collar workers.

Service

A service is an act rendered by one person to another to satisfy human needs. Examples are:
gardening, hairdressing, nursing etc.

Reasons for seeking employment

a. Providing for self and family

b. Achieving a better status

c. Seeking independence

d. Helping others

e. Learning new skills

f. Developing the country

g. Do not want to remain idle

h. There is much satisfaction from being

employed and it helps in relieving stress.

Activity one

What else can you think of?

Why did you or will you seek employment?

Would you encourage others to seek employment?

Give reasons for your answer.

How does one prepare for the world of work?

a. Complete your education

b. Plan your career goals and work towards achieving it.

c. Research for job opportunities which you find yourself capable of doing or possess the
necessary skills for.

d. You may also look at the idea of self-employment.

Desirable attitudes and values for the work world

1. Good grooming

2. Good work attitude

3. Good articulation

4. Willingness to use initiative

5. Punctuality

6. Flexibility

7. Confidential and self-motivated

8. Honest and reliable.

Activity two

1. Complete the following table:

Primary Sector jobs Secondary sector jobs Tertiary sector jobs

2. Write two paragraphs on why you would like to be employed.

3. Make two lists, one containing 10 desirable qualities, attitudes and values for the job market
and the other consisting of six undesirable ones for the job market.

Internal migration
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

One very important form of internal migration involves the movement of people from the
countryside into the towns or urban areas.

It is believed that in the Caribbean, towns grow only partly from natural increase. Of much more
importance than natural increase, seems to be the movement of people from the countryside into
the towns.

What makes people want to leave their homes in the countryside?

1. There is a scarcity of jobs and towns appear to offer better job opportunities than can be found
in the countryside.

2. The rapid growth of the population in the Caribbean has meant that there is a surplus
workforce in the countryside.
3. Most young people consider agricultural jobs to be laborious, low paying, risky and menial.

4. Manufacturing and other industries tend to develop or are located in the urban areas.

5. People from the countryside are attracted to the towns by the better facilities which are
offered.

6. Some amenities are still not offered widely in many rural areas.

7. Modern hospitals and tertiary institutions are either minimal or absent in rural areas.

8. The towns also offer better opportunities for modern forms of entertainment such as cinemas
and clubs. Young people, in particular, tend to miss the opportunities for entertainment if they live
in the countryside.

Urban - Refers to town and cities.

Rural - Refers to the countryside.

Urbanisation - The process whereby the majority of the population gradually move from the
countryside to live in towns and cities.

Urban problems

The rapid growth of towns has led to serious problems.

Poverty and deprivation

These areas tend to have the highest concentration of poverty in the country. There are high
unemployment low income stemming from very low wages.

Housing

Houses are inadequate and in some areas these are old dilapidated buildings with poor
maintenance, which are vandalised. This has, in part, led to the growth of slums.

High unemployment

People moving to the city are not always successful in obtaining jobs. As a result of this, there is
high unemployment in the towns. This has resulted, in many instances, in extreme poverty, social
problems such as petty crime and prostitution.

Crime and violence Crime rates are the highest in the country. Residents feel vulnerable both in
their homes and when they go out at night. Levels of drug use may be high and the police are
finding it hard to maintain order.

Traffic problems

The number of vehicles on the roads has grown enormously. This has led in most cases to traffic
congestion at rush hours i.e. the time when traffic is at its heaviest.

Pollution
This means making something impure or unclean. A common cause is the emission of petrol
fumes from the exhaust system of vehicles. Another form of pollution is litter. Urban areas tend to
have a problem of keeping the streets clean. Garbage in many instances, is not collected on a
regular basics Litter on the streets is not only an eyesore but can also be a health hazard. These
is also noise pollution caused from sound systems.

Social problems of rural areas

Many rural areas are often seen as being a perfect place to live, but for many the reality is rather
different.

Lack of amenities

Local government cannot afford to provide social or leisure facilities. Rural health services are not
the best either.

Unemployment

Unemployment is high amongst people who live and seek work in the rural areas. The lack of jobs
is as a result of the decline in agriculture and the fact that most employment is still located in or
near urban areas.

Housing

The prices of houses are driven up beyond the reach of many individuals who receive low wages.

Wages

There are few job opportunities in the countryside and wages are extremely low.

Some strategies to cope with the increasing population in the city.

 Creating areas more attractive for settlement, thus reducing the population problem in the
city.
 Erecting of industrial sites and building industrial plants in rural areas.
 Providing infrastructure such as roads, electricity, water, sporting and health facilities.
 Developing low-cost housing to provide accommodation for the growing number of low
income residents in the city. The proliferation of city slums will be a thing of the past.

Activities

1. Define the term rural to urban migration.

2. Outline the conditions in the rural areas which force young people to migrate to the cities.

3. How does the movement of young people to the cities affect them negatively? How does it
affect them positively?

4. What problems are there in urban areas? Do all neighbourhoods in the urban areas have these
problems to the same extent?
5. Suggest reasons some groups are more likely to have better health and live longer than others.

6. Suggest reasons why there might be more elderly individuals living in the rural areas than
young people.

7. State some strategies which can be instituted by the government to cope with an increasing
population in the city.

Human migration
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Migration is the movement of people from one place to another. It may also be viewed as the
movement of people from one place in the world to another for the purpose of taking up
permanent or semi-permanent residence.

Main types of migration

Migration can be permanent, temporary, voluntary or forced. It can be international/external or

internal.

Internal migration

Moving to a new home within a state, country or continent.

External migration

Moving to a new home in a different state, country or continent.

Emigration

Leaving one country to move to another.

Immigration

Moving into a new country.

Population transfer

When a government forces a large group of people out of a region, usually based on ethnicity or
religion. This is also known as involuntary or forced migration.

Impelled migration (also called 'reluctant' or 'imposed' migration)

Individuals are not forced out of their country, but leave because of unfavourable situations such
as warfare, political problems or religious persecution.

Step migration

A series of shorter, less extreme migrations from a person's place of origin to final destination,
such as moving from a farm to a village, to a town, and finally, to a city.

Chain migration
This is a series of migrations within a family or defined group of people. A chain migration often
begins with one family member who sends money to bring other family members to the new
location. Chain migration results in migration fields (the clustering of people from a specific region
into certain neighbourhoods or small towns).

Return migration

The voluntary movements of immigrants back to their place of origin. This is also known as
circular migration.

Seasonal migration

The process of moving for a period of time in response to labour or climate conditions.

One of the most significant migration patterns has been rural to urban.

Migration, which is the movement of people from the countryside to cities, in search of
opportunities.

Who migrates?

Emigrant

A person who is leaving a country to reside in another.

Immigrant

This is a person who is entering a country from another to take up new residence.

Refugee

A person who is residing outside the country of his or her origin due to fear of persecution for
reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group or political opinion.

Internally displaced person (IDP)

A person who is forced to leave his or her home region because of unfavourable conditions, such
as political, social, environmental, but does not cross any boundaries.

Migration stream

A group migration from a particular country, region or city to a certain destination.

Why Do People Migrate?

People move for a variety of reasons. They consider the advantages and disadvantages of staying
versus moving, as well as factors such as distance, travel costs, travel time, modes of
transportation, terrain, and cultural barriers.

Push and pull factors

Migration can occur as result of push and pull factors.

Push factors or reasons for emigrating (leaving a place) are those which force a person to move.
These can include drought, famine, lack of jobs, overpopulation and civil war.

Pull factors or reasons for immigrating (moving into a place) are those which encourage a
person to move. These include a chance of a better job, better education, and a better standard
of living (a nicer climate, better food supply, freedom).

Some other types of push and pull factors may influence people in their movements, including:

1. Environmental (eg, climate, natural disasters)

2. Political (eg, war)

3. Economic (eg, work)

4. Cultural (eg, religious freedom, education)

Laws of migration

Geographer, eg, Ravenstein developed a series of migration 'laws' in the 1880s which form the
basis of modern migration theory. In simple language, these principles state:

 Most migrants only travel a short distance

 Migrants travelling long distances usually settle in urban areas
 Most migration occurs in steps
 Most migration is rural to urban
 Most migrants are adults
 Most international migrants are young males, while more internal migrants are female.

Population composition and distribution

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Population composition is defined as the distribution of certain traits, characteristics or attributes

of the population and how these affect the overall demographic structure of the country.

There are three main characteristics of population composition:

Demographic characteristics, such as age and sex, social characteristics such as religion, ethnicity
and race, and economic characteristics such as occupation.

Population distribution

Population distribution is the pattern of where people live or the geographical location of people in
a population. World population distribution is uneven. Places which are sparsely populated contain
few people. Places which are densely populated contain many people. Sparsely populated places
tend to be difficult places to live. These are usually places with hostile environments (eg
Antarctica). Places which are densely populated are habitable environments.
 The most important characteristics of a population - in addition to its size and the rate at which it
is expanding or contracting - are the ways in which its members are distributed according to age,
sex, ethnic or racial category, and residential status (urban or rural).

Population density

Population density is a measurement of the number of people in an area. It is an average number.

Population density is calculated by dividing the number of people by area. Population density is
usually shown as the number of people per square kilometre.

Density = total population of area/Area (sq km)

Factors affecting population density

There is a range of human and natural factors that affect population density. The tables below
illustrate this.

Physical Factors High Density Low Density

Relief
Low land which is flat e.g. Santa Cruz High land that is mountainous
(shape and height of
in St. Elizabeth Blue Mountain area.
land)
Areas rich in resources (e.g. coal, oil,
Areas with few resources tend
Resources wood, fishing, etc.) tend to densely
to be sparsely populated.
populated e.g. Pedro Plains
Areas with extreme climates of
Areas with temperate climates tend
hot and cold tend to be sparsely
Climate to be densely populated as there is
populated e.g. the Sahara
enough ram and heat to grow crops.
Desert.

Human Factors High Density Low Density

Countries with stable Governments Unstable countries tend to have
Political tend to have a high population lower population densities as
density. people migrate.
Groups of people want to live close Other groups of people prefer to
Social
to each other for security. be isolated.
Good job opportunities encourage
Limited job opportunities cause
high population densities,
Economic some areas to be sparsely
particularly in large cities in MEDCs
populated.
and LEDCs around the world.

In summary, population distribution is affected by climate, mineral resources, other resources,

which provide jobs, the topography or physical layout of the land, the wind direction and urban
influence. It has been noted that high mountains, rugged terrain and steep slopes prevent us
from cultivating the land and living on it. In Jamaica, flat lands are more easily settled and used
for agriculture. In the Caribbean, flat land is often found on the coast and this is where most of
our citizens live.

The coastal areas also facilitate the exportation and importation of goods. In Jamaica, Mandeville
has developed around bauxite deposits.
Population change also affects population composition and distribution. This becomes obvious as
the world's population is growing very rapidly. In 1820, the world's population reached one billion.
In 1990, it reached six billion.

This rapid growth in population has been called a population explosion.

The major reason for population changes, whether in an individual country or for the whole world,
is the change in birth and death rates. The birth rate is the number of live babies born in a year
for every 1,000 people in the total population. Death rates are the number of people dying per
1,000 people. When birth rates are higher than death rates the population of an area will
increase.

Over the last 150 years, improvements in health care and sanitation around the world have led to
a drop in the death rate. While birth rates have dropped in more economically developed
countries, they are still high in less economically developed countries. Therefore, the number of
people in the world has grown rapidly.

Life expectancy

Life expectancy is the average age a person can expect to live to in a particular area. Life
expectancy can be used as an indicator of the overall 'health' of a country. From this figure you
can determine many features of a country (eg standard of living). As a general rule, the higher
the life expectancy the more healthy (or developed) a country is.

Activities

1. State five factors that affect population distribution.

2. Why do some individuals keep migrating from one area to another.

3. Why is it important for a government to be aware of the population density of a country.

4. Give the meaning of the following words:

life expectancy, population density, population change, population explosion, population

distribution and population composition.

5. Suggest reasons it is important to study population composition and distribution.

Food for thought. How is the population distributed in your country?

How is the population composed in your country?

Give reason for your answers.

Measuring and representing the population

Maureen Campbell, Contributor
Population density is the number of people per unit of area. Commonly this may be calculated for
a county, city, country, another territory or the entire world.

The world population is approximately 6.6 billion humans, and Earth's area is 510 million square
kilometres (200 million square miles). Therefore, the worldwide human population density is:

6.6 billion / 510 million = 13 per km2 (33 per square mile), or 43 per km2 (112 per square mile)

This density rises with the population growth. It also includes all continental and island land area.
Since over half of the earth's land mass is desert and high mountains, hostile to human
habitation, only a fraction of the rest is arable and population clusters heavily around seaports
and fresh-water sources, this number by itself significantly understates the level of human
crowding.

The difference

Several of the highest-density territories in the world are very large city-states, micro-states,
micro-nations or dependencies. These territories share a relatively small area and an
exceptionally high urbanisation level, with an economically specialised city population drawing
also on rural resources outside the area, illustrating the difference between high population
density and overpopulation.

Cities with exceptionally high population densities are often considered to be overpopulated,
though the extent to which this is the case depends on factors like quality of housing and
infrastructure or access to resources.

The data collected in a census can be represented and analysed in different ways, the most
common means of analysis are the population pyramid and the demographic transition model
(DTM).

A population pyramid shows the population structure of a country. This information is captured for
a single point in time. It shows, at a glance, the relationship between the number of males and
females and their age profile. Over time, the shape will change to reflect the structural changes.

Generalised model

The DTM, on the other hand, is a generalised model of population change over time. This is based
on the pattern of changes in birth and death rates, as a country develops.

Both models can be used for comparing countries as well as reviewing past trends and projecting
future structures. Governments can use this kind of information to help plan economic and social
policies.

A population pyramid, also known as an age-sex pyramid, is a graphical illustration that shows
the distribution of various age groups in a population which normally forms the shape of a
pyramid. It typically consists of two back-to-back bar graphs, with population plotted on the X
axis and age on the Y axis, one showing the number of males and one showing females in a
particular population in five-year age groups (also called cohorts). Males are conventionally shown
on the left and females on the right, and they may be measured by raw number or as a
percentage of the total population.

Information to be found on the population pyramid

A great deal of information about the population broken down by age and sex can be read from a
population pyramid and this can shed light on the extent of development and other aspects of the
population.

The wide base of the pyramid indicates a large number of children and the steady upward
narrowing shows that more people die at each higher age band. The pyramid indicates a
population in which there is a high birth rate, a high death rate and a short life expectancy. This is
the typical pattern for less economically developed countries.

Specific age

The pyramid steps indicate what percentage of the population is in a specific age group and is
arranged in five-year intervals. The pyramid can be used to deduce whether it is an ageing or a
young population. If the pyramid has a very wide base and progresses to a narrow top, we might
say it has a young population. The Caribbean has a young population. This situation results in
more than half of the population being dependent on those who are working.

This example of a Caribbean population pyramid shows that both males and females have the
same percentage of individual living to old age. The broad base suggests that this is a young
population, which is significant of most Caribbean countries.

Activities

1. Using the pyramid above calculate the percentage of the population that falls below age 20.

2. Find out if there is a high dependency ratio in this country with such a population pyramid.

3. Copy EACH statement below and beside it write the word, from the list given that best fits each
statement.

Statements

1. A country's population divided by its area.

2. Counting all people in a country during a specific time.

3. Too many people in a country for its limited resources.

Useful words: overpopulation, density, census, under population

4. Explain the needs of a youth population and suggest THREE ways a government may provide
for the needs of a youthful population.

5. You are a member of a youth club in your community suggest TWO activities that may be
organised for retired persons in the community.
Demography
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Studying the population

 The study of population deals with

 The changing size of the population
 The changes in the age structure of the population
 The changing patterns of where people live (migration)
 The proportions of one sex compared to the other.

Definition

Demography is the study of population composition statistics such as size, age, distribution, sex
balance, birth and death rates, immigration, the labour force and other population trends

Demographic information

If a government wants to plan ahead for the welfare of the population, then it needs to know how
many people there are, where they live and how old they are. They can then make valid decisions
on such things as:

Employment

The greater the population of working age, the greater the need for employment, and so
commerce and industry must be encouraged to counteract the various areas of the growing
population.

Law enforcement
Crime rates are very closely linked to the number of people living in an area and the proportion of
young males in the population.

Welfare services

If there are more older people, for example, more money will be needed to be allocated to
pensions and to help those who are desperately in need. But the increase in older people may not
be all over the country, so the funds will be distributed according to how many older people there
are in a particular area.

Leisure

Leisure patterns are affected by the number of people and their ages, so the provision of leisure
facilities by local government and by private companies relies upon the information provided by
the government.

Housing

It is important to know the number of houses needed in different parts of the country and the size
of the houses needed.

Transport

The more houses and people, the more roads and public transport services the Government will
have to provide for the population.

Education

Knowing the numbers and ages of children allows the government to plan the number of school
places needed, whether they should be secondary or primary schools, and where to build them.

Health services

If there is an increase in older people, geriatric wards have to be built and nurses have to be
trained in looking after older people. If there are more babies being born, then greater
investment must take place in maternity services and more midwives need to be trained. Knowing
where the majority of people live allows the government to put more resources into hospitals in
those areas.

The size of a population is as a result of:

1. The number of births (the number of people born)

2. The number of deaths (the number of people who die)

3. The number of people entering or leaving the country.

The census

The main source of population information is the census, which is the national survey of every
household in Jamaica carried out every 10 years by the Government.
A census is, therefore, an official numbering of the people of a country or district. It may be
further defined as the total process of collecting, compiling and publishing demographic, economic
and social data pertaining to all persons in a country at a specified time.

A census can also be described as a form of national stock-taking. The census is a complete count
of the population and provides detailed data on the size of the population, age structure,
educational attainment, labour force and socio-economic characteristics.

Demographers will use a census to find out about the following:

Every effort is made to include everyone, and that is why the census is so important. It is the only
survey which provides a detailed picture of the entire population, and is unique because it covers
everyone at the same time and asks the same core questions everywhere, making it easy to
compare different parts of the country.

The information the census provides allows central and local government, health authorities and
many other organisations to target their resources more effectively and to plan housing,
education, health and transport services for years to come.

The census also identifies:

 Race distribution
 School enrolment in a particular area and the need for improvement
 Conditions of residence
 Educational level of the population and the facilities available and necessary
 Distribution of family income
 Dependency ratio
 Quality of housing and its availability
 Gender ratio of population
 Marital status
 The need and availability of welfare facilities
 Should we build more schools, factories or old age homes?
 Welfare needs of the population, the number employed and unemployed
 Population size and number of persons in the labour force.
 Male female ratio/age, sex ratio
 Marital status of adults
 Migration levels and who migrates
 Choice of religion.

Census information is confidential

The law requires that all information collected from the census must be kept confidential. All
enumerators, supervisors, other field staff, as well as employees of the census office, will be
required to take an oath of secrecy to not reveal any census information to anyone who is not a
sworn employee of the census organisation. This means they will not divulge any census
information, under any circumstances, even to members of their families.

Enumerators, supervisors and other persons working with the collected information are instructed
and cautioned not to leave completed questionnaires lying around unprotected.

Some households may hesitate to answer some of the questions asked. This is understandable
since they will be asked to provide information which they do not usually make available to
strangers.
Activities

1. Define the following terms:

 Census
 Birth rate
 Death rate
 Demography

2. State THREE kinds of information obtained from a population census.

3. Give five reasons we need to study the population of a country.

4. Study the following table which shows religious groups in the population of Country X for the
years 1980 and 1990.

(See tablew below)

a. Name the non-Christian groups in the population of Country X.

b. Make TWO statements about changes in membership of religious groups in the population of
Country X from 1980 to 1990.

c. What is meant by the population of a country?

d. State ONE way government can obtain information on the population of a country

Development and use of resources

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

A RESOURCE may be defined as anything natural or physical that is useful to man and helps to
maintain or improve his standard of living. This definition includes any part of the human and
physical aspects of the environment that can be used in the production of goods and services.

There are two main types of resources, human and physical. The human resources include
people, their skills, knowledge, values, attitudes and abilities. The physical resources include the
land, water, forests, climate, air, soils, seas, energy and minerals.

Physical resources, as can be deduced from the examples given above, are naturally occurring
substances that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified/natural form. A natural
resource's value rests in the amount of the material available and the demand for it. This is
determined by its usefulness.

Extraction and purification

A commodity is generally considered a natural resource when the primary activities associated
with it are extraction and purification as opposed to creation. Thus, mining, petroleum extraction,
fishing, hunting and forestry are good examples of natural resources. A country's natural resource
determines to a great extent its wealth and status in the world economic system.

Human resources are evident in every society. It is how we develop and use this resource that is
vital to our country. This is so as use is dependent on the quality of the people. Human resources
are responsible for the utilisation of our physical resources. Because human resource is so vital to
the continued existence of mankind, care must be taken in moulding and making our human
resource. Because of this, constant effort must be made to develop the inherent talents, skills and
abilities of our people, especially in the extraction or purification of our natural resources and
converting them into useful products.

The importance of our human resources cannot be overstated as it is needed in the utilisation of a
variety of skills. These skills are needed to produce a wide variety of goods and services that help
to maintain and improve the standard of living. A skilled population includes engineers, doctors,
nurses, teachers, lawyers, scientists, farmers, authors, sports personalities, musicians, and the
list goes on.

Human resources are shaped in society by our many institutions, such as the family, education,
government, religion - all these influence and shape the quality of our human resources and in
turn, the quality of our human resources contributes to the progress of all the institutions in
society.

The size, movement, composition, control and growth of a population are of utmost importance to
the development of a country. It therefore becomes of utmost necessity to study the population
so as to determine its characteristics, such as size, composition, structure and distribution, so
deciding its needs and utilising to the utmost the human resources.

Population refers to the total number of people/inhabitants living in a geographic area at a

particular time.

Demography is the statistical study of human populations, the structure and distribution of
populations and how populations change over time or space, due to births, deaths, migration and
ageing.

Two main demographic indicators

Because demography is interested in changes in human populations, demographers focus on

specific indicators of change. Two of the most important indicators are birth and death rates,
which are also referred to as fertility and mortality. Additionally, demographers are interested in
migration trends or the movement of people from one location to another.

Fertility and Fecundity

Fertility, in demography, refers to the ability of females to produce healthy offspring. Fecundity is
the potential reproductive capacity of a female. Some of the more common demographic
measures used in relation to fertility and/or fecundity include:

 Crude birth rate: the annual number of live births per thousand people
 General fertility rate: the annual number of live births per 1,000 women of childbearing
age.
 Age-specific fertility rate: the annual number of live births per 1,000 women in particular
age groups, for example, ages 15-19, 20-24 and so on.
 Total fertility rate: the number of live births per woman completing her reproductive life.
 Net reproduction rate: the number of daughters who would be born to a woman according
to current age-specific fertility and mortality rates.

Mortality

Mortality refers to the finite nature of humanity: people die. Mortality in demography is interested
in the number of deaths in a given time or place or the proportion of deaths in relation to a
population. Some of the more common demographic measures of mortality include:

 Crude death rate: the annual number of deaths per 1000 people.
 Infant mortality rate: the annual number of deaths of children less than one-year-old per
thousand live births.
 Life expectancy: the number of years which an individual at a given age can expect to live
at present mortality rates.
 Factors associated with greater longevity include:
 Wealth: money increases access to good health care, which improves health and increases
longevity.
 People live healthier lives when they engage in healthier behaviours (e.g., exercise)
 Larger social networks: having a large group of friends and close relationships with
relatives increases your social support, which positively influences health; less stress and many
happy moments.
 Job satisfaction: people in more powerful and more satisfying jobs tend to be healthier
than people in less satisfying jobs; again, less stress at the workplace.

Activities

1. Differentiate between natural and human resources.

2. Name three natural resources found in the Caribbean.

3. State the main use of each resource named above.

4. Define the following terms: population, demography fecundity, fertility, crude birth rate, crude
death rate, life expectancy, infant mortality, fertility and mortality.

Revision of government
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

SECTION A
Circle the correct response for each question:

1. What type of institution is a trade union?

a) government

b) economic

c) religious

d) recreational

2. All of the following are social institutions, except:

a) the family

b) religion

c) government

d) agriculture

3. The executive branch is concerned mainly with the making of:

a) laws

b) policy decisions

c) economic plans

d) the constitution

4. Parliament performs all of the following functions except:

a) making laws

b) debating bills

c) appointing judges

d) controling and criticising the executive

5. The house of representatives and the senate make up:

a) the government

b) the judiciary

c) Parliament

d) the Cabinet

6. Which of the following statements is correct?

A bi-cameral legislature is composed of:

a) the Cabinet and president

b) the senate and house of Representatives

c) Parliament and the judiciary

d) the executive and the judiciary

7. Which is the correct sequence from lower to higher courts?

i) Supreme court

ii) Magistrate's court

iii) Assize court

a) i, ii, iii

b) iii, ii, i

c) i, iii, ii

d) ii, iii, i

8. In law, rape is a crime considered to be committed against:

a) the state

b) the person

c) society

d) God

9. Murder is also called, in law:

a) treason

b) manslaughter

c) assault

d) homicide

10. Preliminary enquiries for murder, rape and manslaughter are held in:

a) Police courts

b) Magistrate's courts

c) Assize courts

d) Appeal courts

11. A body of laws and rules defining the relationships of the government to the people
is called:

a) a constitution

b) an institution
c) a corporation

d) a federation

12. One difference between a Republic and a constitutional monarchy within the
Commonwealth Caribbean is that in the republic:

a) there is more freedom

b) the prime minister has more power

c) a president replaces the monarch as head of state

d) the people elect their representatives

13. To be termed democratic, a government must:

i) hold free and fair elections

ii) neglect basic human rights

iii) have a written constitution

iv) be responsive to public opinion:

a) i, ii

b) i, iv

c) ii, iii

d) ii, iv

14. The Westminster system of government in the Caribbean is always characterised

by:

a) an executive branch composed of a Cabinet and prime minister

b) the merging of the roles of the head of state and head of government

c) the separation of powers between the opposition and the ruling party

d) regular elections based on a proportional representation

15. All of the following are constitutional monarchies except:

a) Trinidad and Tobago

b) Jamaica

c) Barbados
d) St Lucia

16. In a democratic state, freedom of the press is a fundamental human right but is
subject to the law against:

a) slander

b) libel

c) murder

d) rape

17. People protest by demonstrations in order to:

i) overthrow the government

ii) bring an undesirable situation to an end

iii) make the community and government aware of a problem

iv) assert their constitutional rights

a) i, ii

b) i, ii, iii, iv

c) ii, iii, iv

d) i, iii, iv

17 marks

Section B
Answer the following question

1. a) (i) Name ONE English speaking CARICOM member state in which the president is head of
the Government. (1 mark)

(ii) Name ONE English speaking CARICOM member state in which the prime minister is the head
of the government. (1 mark)

b) State TWO functions of a government. (4 marks)

c) Give THREE reasons why some citizens in your country may not support government policies.
(6 marks)

d) Suggest TWO ways that politicians in your country may encourage citizens to support
government policies. (6 marks)
Choosing a government
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Choosing a government is of great importance in any society. It is important that we adopt a

positive attitude towards politics and help in deciding who will govern the country. It is our
individual duty to become informed, to vote, that is, to exercise our franchise and to be involved
in politics. It is important to participate in elections because:

 It is your legal right.

 Every responsible citizen should participate in the decision-making process.
 Citizens should choose their political officials wisely, by voting for the candidate who is best
able to manage the country's affairs.

General elections are held every five years, and local government elections every three years in
Jamaica, this is so because the constitution stipulates that the life of Parliament should be five
years. However, the prime minister can decide to call an election any time during the five years.

 A number of persons are unable to vote for various reasons:

 They are insane.
 They are under 18 years and have not yet become a part of the adult suffrage gained in
Jamaica in 1944.
 They are aliens (not Jamaican).
 They are convicted and are serving a prison sentence.

Jamaica's system of government is known as a constitutional monarchy, based on representative

democracy; this means that the political leaders are chosen by the citizens in elections.
Democracy comes from an ancient Greek word meaning 'ruled by the people'. It would be
impossible for all the people to come together and make every decision about how they are
governed. So we elect a small number of people - our representatives - members of Parliament,
to make decisions for us.

At the local government level, we elect representatives known as councillors.

In Jamaica, once you are a Jamaican citizen and you are 18 and over, you are expected to vote in
elections. Before you can vote, you must be enumerated, that is, you must be a registered voted
and, therefore, a part of the electorate.

Polling day

Elections are held when they are called by the party in power. The leader/prime minister is
responsible for the setting of the dates for nomination and election dates. The government is
dissolved and gets ready for the election.

Polling stations are located at schools, church halls and any other such convenient and neutral
places. They are usually opened from 7:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. On arrival at a polling station,
electors usually find people from the various political parties waiting to give them advice (outdoor
agents). Inside, there are also other individuals, such as indoor agents, representing the various
parties involved in the election, a presiding officer and a poll clerk.

Each individual that expresses the wish to vote is asked by the elector his or her name and
address. The individual is given a ballot paper and given instructions about what is required of
him or her.
The elector/voter goes behind a screen or into a cubicle where, in private, the ballot paper is filled
in. This practice is called a secret ballot, as individuals are able to fill in their ballot paper as they
wish without anyone being able to tell who voted for any particular candidate. The ballot is folded,
given to the presiding officer who makes sure the individual dips his or her right index finger in
the ink provided, then places the ballot in the ballot box.

Political parties

To date, in Jamaica, members of Parliament belong to a political party. Political parties are groups
of people who share similar ideas about how we should be governed. Before elections, the various
parties pre-select the people they would like to see elected in each constituency or electorate.
Each party supports the candidates it has chosen by helping them to win votes. Large sums of
money are used to support candidates by running advertising campaigns, mainly television, radio
and in the newspapers, in an attempt to attract votes.

It is not necessary to be a member of a political party to become a candidate for election, as

individuals have put themselves forward as independent candidates. It has been made obvious in
Jamaica that without the help of a party, it is often difficult for independent candidates to win an
election.

Activity:

1. (a) (i) Define each of the following:

General elections

Electorate

Constituency

(ii) Outline three important procedures a voter performs in the polling station on election day.

(b) Explain three factors a political party may consider in selecting a candidate to contest a
general election.

(c) Suggest two strategies a candidate may use during an election campaign to gain popularity.

(d) State three responsibilities of the chief election officer/Election Commission in the preparation
for general elections in your country.

(e) In your country, the age at which a person may vote in national elections is 18 years. A
political party wishes to raise the voting age to 21 years. How would you respond? Give three
reasons for your answer.

The court system

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

4The Judiciary

The judiciary deals with criminal and civil cases brought before its various courts for decision. The
Judicial system follows British practice with some obvious variations.
The court system in Jamaica

The court system acts as a watchdog over the rule of law and individual rights.

The Court of Appeal

This court deals with decisions from both the Supreme Court and the Resident Magistrate's Court.
It consists of the president of the Court of Appeal and six judges of appeal. The chief justice is an
ex-officio member, but only sits on the invitation of the president in matters in which the full court
is sitting.

A judge of the Court of Appeal must be an attorney-at-law of at least 10 years standing. Judges
of the Court of Appeal are appointed by the governor general on the recommendation of the
Judicial Services Commission. The chief justice and the president of the Court of Appeal are
appointed by the governor general on the recommendation of the prime minister after
consultation with the leader of opposition.

The Supreme Court

The Supreme Court has unlimited jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters. It consists of the chief
justice, a senior puisne judge and at least 20 other puisne judges. Puisne judges must be
attorneys-at-law of at least 10 years standing. Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the
governor general on the recommendation of the Judicial Services Commission. They have
jurisdiction to hear applications regarding breaches of fundamental rights and freedoms as
provided for under the constitution. This court exercises important supervisory functions over
tribunals, like the Industrial Disputes Tribunal and the Resident Magistrate's Court in the hearing
of writs of habeas corpus and making of orders of certiorari, mandamus and prohibition. Two
divisions of the Supreme Court are the Revenue Court, established in 1971, and the Gun Court,
established in 1974. The Gun Court Act was later expanded to include the Western Regional Gun
Court that hears gun offences committed in the parishes of St James, Trelawny, Westmoreland
and Hanover. The third division of the Supreme Court is the Commercial Court which began
operations in February 2001.

The Circuit Court is the criminal jurisdiction of the Supreme Court that is convened in parishes for
the proper administration of justice. It is convenient for the parties involved, as it eliminates the
need to travel to Kingston for the prosecution of cases.

The Circuit Court held for the parishes of Kingston and St Andrew is called the Home Circuit
Court, while that which is convened in the other parishes are named after the respective Parish,
for example, the St Catherine Circuit Court or the St James Circuit Court.

The Resident Magistrate's Court

There is a Resident Magistrate's Court for every parish and it has jurisdiction within that parish
and one mile beyond its boundary line. This court presides over both civil and criminal matters.
The divisions of the Resident Magistrate's Court are the Family Court, the Juvenile Court, the
Traffic Court, Gun Court, Small Claims Court, the Drug Court and the Night Court. The resident
magistrate's court has limited jurisdiction in both civil and criminal matters; the amounts and the
extent of the jurisdiction of this court are provided for in the judicature (resident magistrate's)
Act. The Resident Magistrate must be an attorney-at-law of at least five years standing. Resident
Magistrates are appointed by the governor general and the Judicial Services Commission.

Civil matters tried at a Resident Magistrate's Court include recovery of possession, recovery of
rent, granting of probate and letters of administration. The Resident Magistrate's Court has no
power to hold a trial for certain criminal offences including murder, treason and rape; however, in
such cases, a preliminary examination or enquiry into the charge is held. In this enquiry, unlike a
trial where the objective is to determine whether the defendant is guilty or not guilty, the purpose
is to determine whether the evidence is sufficient for the accused to stand trial at the Supreme
Court. The jurisdiction of this court is defined by statute.

The Petty Session

The Petty Session Court is presided over by justices of the peace. The Justices of the Peace
Jurisdiction Act confers various powers on the justice of the peace, including the power to issue
warrants consequent on non-obedience to summons.

Source: [Link].

The constitution gives power to the Court of Appeal and the Parliament to refer cases to the
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom.

Activities

1. What is the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council?

2. Research for information on the CCJ - the Caribbean Court of Appeal.

3. Distinguish between criminal and civil cases.

4. Give five reasons why we need a court system in Jamaica.

5. Government ministers are members of Cabinet but are not members of the Judiciary.

a. Name the arm of government to which the Cabinet belongs.

b. State ONE function of the Cabinet and ONE function of the Judiciary.

c. List THREE types of courts found in the judicial system of your country.

d. Suggest, to a group of lawyers, TWO things they can do to improve the judicial system of your
country.
The legislature
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Parliament: The Jamaican legislature is referred to as a bicameral legislature made up of two

houses, the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House comprises 60 members elected
for five-year terms, while the Senate consists of 21 members appointed by the governor general
on advice of the prime minister and the leader of the opposition.

The Senate

The Senate is referred to as the Upper House. It is an appointed House in which the Government
has a permanent majority. In Jamaica, we have 21 senators, 13 of these members are appointed
by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister. The remaining eight senators
represent the opposition appointed on the advice of the leader of the opposition. The Senate
considers and revises bills passed by the House of Representative before it can be sent to the
governor general to become law.

The House of Representatives

The House of Representatives or Lower House is an elected House. This is considered to be the
most powerful House of the two, and the Government cannot exist if it is not supported by a
majority in the House. Each member of this House is elected to serve a constituency; this is a
defined geographical area which is responsible for electing one member of parliament. Jamaica is
divided into 60 such constituencies. Each member of the House of Representative is expected or
supposed to look after the interest of his or her constituency.

Functions of the Legislature

 To make rules that specify how the goals of the country will be achieved.
 It introduces new laws and statues
 Amends existing laws
 Appeals or remakes laws that are no longer applicable or relevant to society
 Approves the annual budget
 Discusses matters of urgent public concern
 Ratifies international treaties

The Law-Making Process

How does a bill become an act/law?

A bill is a draft act of Parliament.

When proposing a bill, the minister must consider:

1. What is best and desirable in the interest of the nation

2. What is in keeping with the policies of his/her government

 Citizens, non-governmental organisations or parliamentarians have a legislative proposal.

 Consultation among departments, and discussion and examination by the law officers, the
proposal is taken to the legislative committee and the Cabinet.
 If the proposal is accepted, the Bill is sent to the clerk of the Houses who is responsible for
having the Bill printed. Sufficient copies are printed for circulation to all members.
 The minister, at the first opportunity, introduces the Bill to the House of Representatives
(first reading).
 There are subsequent circulations while the Bill is before Parliament, the Bill is now
available for the public to discuss it and make suggestions for improvement.
 Bill is debated on fully. Criticisms are noted (second reading).
 After the second reading, a vote is taken as to whether the bill should go forward. If it is
accepted, a committee examines, discusses and amends it.
 The report of the committee to the House: a report to the House of Representative is done
which is mainly to review any amendments which might have been made.
 Finally, the Bill is read for the third time. Only verbal amendments are allowed at this
stage. Occasionally, if the measure is a controversial one, an amendment is proposed that the Bill
be read again, 'six months hence', which is a courteous way of delaying the Bill.
 After the measure is dealt with at the House of Representatives, it is sent to the Upper
House, that is the Senate, which is a reviewing chamber. Where the Bill passes through all the
stages mentioned in the House of Representatives, the whole process is repeated in the Senate.
 Once approved by both Houses, it is sent by the clerk of the Houses to the attorney
general who examines it and satisfies himself that it is not contrary to the Constitution. If he is
satisfied, he issues a certificate to this effect. It is then sent to the governor general or president
for signature.
 The governor general or president gives his assent and the Bill becomes law.
Activities

1. Copy the items (i) to (iii) listed in column A. Next to EACH item in column A, write the item
from column B that is related to it. You may use any item from column B more than once, once or
not at all.

Column A Column B
i) Legislature Chief justice
ii)Executive Leader of the opposition
iii) Judiciary The Cabinet

2. State ONE function of EACH of the following:

(i) Legislature

(ii) Executive

(iii) Judiciary

3. Give THREE reasons why it is necessary to debate a Bill in parliament before it becomes a law.

4. In your country, the age at which a person may vote in national elections is 18 years. A
political party wishes to raise the voting age to twenty-one years. How would you respond? Give
THREE reasons for your response.
The structure of government
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

The structure of a government is based on the form/type of government that exists in that
particular country. The structure of most Caribbean countries is laid down in a written constitution
that describes the relationship of the various arms of government to one another and determines
the functions that will be carried out by each arm.

Diagram of aspects of a constitutional monarchy

Head of State

The monarch's representative

In Jamaica: The Governor General

Legislature

Makes and repeals laws

Made up of Parliament
The senate and the House of Representatives

Executive

Sets policy
Cabinet members selected by the prime minister

Judiciary

Enforces and interprets the law

The court system with its judges and lawyers etc.

The Constitution
The constitution is further regarded as a contract between the people of a country and their
government. The Jamaican constitution was developed in 1962 in preparation for our
independence in the same year.

Included in our constitution are the following (list not exhausted):

1. the collection and expenditure of government revenue

2. the conditions for citizenship

3. the methods involved in choosing a government

4. the structure of the government

5. the powers and procedures of the various arms of government, that is, the legislature, the
executive and the judiciary

6. the role of the civil service

7. the rights and freedoms of its citizens

The Branches/Arms of Government

As you can see in the diagram above, Jamaica and most Caribbean countries have three branches
of government, the executive, legislature and the judiciary. Each branch possesses its own
functions and powers. Each branch is supposed to operate independently; this is known as the
principle of separation of power. This is not always possible, however, for example, the executive
is taken from the legislature.

The principle of separation of power

The aim of separation of power is to prevent abuse of power by government. Each branch is to
check on the other branches, for example:

1. The Public Accounts Committee of Parliament has the power to investigate questionable
expenditure by the executive.

2. The executive should not spend public funds without the approval of Parliament.

3. The judiciary can declare void acts of Parliament that seek to take away citizens' rights and
freedoms.

The Executive arm of government/The Cabinet

Functions: The general direction and control of government which involves:

1. The formulation of policies

2. Giving directives to make sure these policies are put into effect, it therefore manages the day-
to-day activities of the country

3. Maintaining the security and defence for citizens

 4. The approval of recommendations coming from various ministries

5. The decision on the size of the country's budget

Composition of cabinet

The Cabinet includes the prime minister and ministers with and without portfolio. The Ministers
are selected on the recommendation of the prime minister. These ministers may be chosen from
the House of Representatives and from the senate, but the number from the senate is at present
limited to three. The prime minister is the chairman of the Cabinet meetings.

(The structure of government in Jamaica in more details)

The Head of State

The Governor General
Legislature Executive Judiciary
Attorney General
Parliament Prime Minister and his Cabinet
(The Justice System)
Ministries/Civil Commissioner of Police
Senate & House of
Service Systems of Courts
Representatives
Agriculture Judges and Lawyers
Finance
Electorate Health
Transport
Education and Culture

It should also be noted that the prime minister is appointed by the Governor General, as are the
various ministers of the Cabinet. The prime minister and ministers come from the political party
which commands the majority in the country's parliament based on elections held every five
years. To be most effective, the cabinet must speak as one body as it is expected to exercise
COLLECTIVE RESPONSIBILITY.

This is so as any policy approved by the cabinet is expected to be defended in public by every
Cabinet member. Even if a member is in disagreement with a policy, he or she is not at liberty to
criticise it in public. The entire Cabinet is held responsible for any decision of Cabinet.

The idea of secrecy is therefore a part of the Cabinet. The word 'cabinet' comes from the word
which means 'a private room for consultations'.

Executive ?

Activities

Executive

a. i. Complete the above diagram, putting in the other branches of government.

ii. State the main function of each arm of government.

iii. Outline the necessity for ministers of government.

b. State what is meant by the 'constitution' of a country.

c. List FOUR regulations set out in the constitution of your country.

d. Give THREE possible results of a government's failure to observe the principles of the
constitution

e. Define clearly the term 'Parliament'.

f. Outline the composition of Parliament in any named Commonwealth Caribbean country.

g. Explain the differences between: Parliament and Cabinet.

h. Suggest reasons why every country needs some form of government.

Forms of government
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

A form of government is a term that refers to the set of political institutions by which a state is
organised in order to exert its powers over a political community.

Military government (1655-1661)

Jamaica was the first colony England acquired by conquest. This was in the year 1655. From this
time to 1661, the island was under military rule by Colonel Edward D'Oyley.

Early representative (1661-1866)

Replacing the Military Governor, Colonel D'Oyley, Lord Windsor in 1661 brought with him the
island's seal, a Mace and the King's proclamation promising all English subjects in the island the
same rights as those enjoyed in England.

The old representative system

When the House of Assembly met in Spanish Town on January 20, 1664, the tradition of
parliamentary government, patterned off the English model, began in Jamaica.

The Governor, appointed by the Crown or by the proprietor, or proprietors, the council, also
appointed by the Crown, and the Assembly or House of Representatives, elected by the people.

These three, corresponding to the King and the two Houses of Parliament, resembled the British
government.

The assembly, or Lower House of the Legislature, represented the people and was elected by
them. It had the chief legislative power; but its acts could be vetoed by the governor, or be set
aside by the Crown within a certain time after their passage.

However, the assembly held the key to the situation by its sole power of taxation.

The governor, representing the Crown, and the assembly, representing the people, were in
frequent conflict during the whole colonial period and the assembly usually won through its one
all-powerful weapon - withholding of supplies.

On many occasions, the assembly would refuse to grant the governor his salary until he had
approved certain laws it had passed, though often his act was in direct violation of his
instructions.

Not everyone could vote or had the franchise, as that was based on the ownership of property
and the payment of taxes.

In 1864, it is said that only 1,903 persons could vote out of a population of 450,000.

It was in this way that the colony was governed for 200 years.
During this time, there were serious attempts at altering the Jamaican constitution especially
because of the problems posed by the selfish assembly members.

Pure Crown Colony (1866-1884)

Following the Morant Bay struggles in 1865, the Jamaican legislature opted to abolish themselves
and Jamaica reverted to a pure Crown colony status for eight years - a situation where the entire
legislature was nominated by the Crown.

Directed from the colonial office in Britain, the governor became the ruling authority.

Thus, in 1866, the two chambers gave way to one - the Legislative Council - composed entirely of
nominated ex-officio members.

Partly representative Crown colony (1884-1944)

In 1884, the pure Crown Colony status was adjusted to a partly representative Crown colony
model. In addition to seven nominated members, there would be nine elected members to a
legislative council. The governor retained reserve powers. The number of elected members was
increased to 14 (one per parish) in 1894.

By the 1935 elections, there were 66,000 voters registered or seven per cent of the population.

Under this system of government, power was once again shared by the elected members and the
governor, and the conflicts, especially over finance, continued. There were also new and powerful
forces at work demanding adult suffrage.

Representative Crown colony (1944)

A system of British colonial administration under which Britain retained control over defence,
foreign affairs, internal security and various administrative and budget matters. Crown colonies
were governed internally by a British-appointed governor and a locally elected assembly.

In 1944, Jamaica made a significant constitutional advance. The right for all citizens, 21 and over,
to vote. This was termed Universal Adult Suffrage. This constitutional change came in the wake of
continued agitation both in and out of the legislature. With the holding of elections in 1944, the
House of Representatives was for the first time composed of members aligned to different political
parties.

Partial responsibility (1953)

Internal self-rule (1958)

In 1959, Parliament achieved complete control over the affairs of the island; the governor only
having power in so far as external affairs were concerned. The Chief Minister now became the
Premier. It was in that same year that the Jamaican Parliament appointed an auditor general,
responsible and removable only by the Parliament, to see that Government's finances were
managed as Parliament voted.

From 1958-1962 Jamaica was involved in an attempt to form a federation. Jamaicans voted in a
referendum to withdraw from this federation and strive for its independence.

Full responsibility (1962) - political independence.

Independence

In 1962, August 6, the Parliament of Jamaica was the sovereign legislative body as it had gained
its sovereignty from Britain.

The current system of government is based on the British Westminster model where there is a
House of Representatives made up of elected members and a Senate made up of selected
members.

The membership of the House of Representatives remained at 45, but the constitution provided
that the number may be increased to 60, as a new constitution was drawn up for full control over
internal and foreign affairs. The legislative council was renamed the Senate with the membership
remaining at 21/13 appointed by the Governor-General on the Prime Minister's recommendation
and eight on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition. Jamaica became a constitutional
monarchy. The monarchy is represented by a Governor General, who is Head of State.

Activities:

1. Use diagrams to represent the various types of government that existed in Jamaica.

2. Suggest reasons why Jamaica was granted Adult suffrage in 1944 and Independence in
1962.

3. In your opinion, has Jamaica gained from having gained independence from Britain? Are
we better off? Give reasons for your answer.

The functions/concept of government

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

The functions of government

The functions of government span a vast area of a citizen's life, both social and physical. First the
chief function of any government is to ensure the protection of life, liberty and property, together
with all other functions that are necessary to the civic organisation of society, functions which are
not optional.
There are other functions which are undertaken to make possible the advancing of the general
interests of society.

Other Functions

(1) The keeping of order and providing for the protection of persons and property from violence
and robbery.

(2) The fixing of the legal relations in society.

(3) Create employment opportunities.

(4) The determination of contract rights between individuals.

(5) The definition and punishment of crime.

(6) The administration of justice in civil causes.

(7) The determination of the political duties, privileges and relations of citizens.

(8) Dealings of the state with foreign powers: the preservation of the state from external danger
or encroachment and the advancement of its international interests.

(9) The regulation of trade and industry.

(10) The regulation of labor and public utilities.

(11) The maintenance of thoroughfares - including state management of railways and that great
group of undertakings which we embrace within the comprehensive term 'internal improvements'.

(12) Manage the finances of the country.

(13) Raise revenue through direct and indirect taxation.

(14) Sanitation, including the regulation of trades for sanitary purposes.

(15) Provision of social services, such as education, welfare and health care.

(16) Care of the poor and incapable.

The concept of government

Democracy

Democracy has been defined as a government by the people in which the supreme power is
vested in the people and exercised directly by them or by their elected agents under a free
electoral system. It may also be viewed as a political philosophy.

In the words of Abraham Lincoln, democracy is a government, "of the people, by the people, and
for the people".
Democracy is indeed a set of ideas and principles about freedom, but it also consists of a set of
practices and procedures. For this reason, it is possible to identify the time-tested fundamentals
of constitutional government, human rights and equality before the law that any society must
possess to be properly called democratic.

Democracy is practised in most Caribbean countries and has many characteristics:

 competitive elections
 freedom of speech
 freedom of the press
 separation of powers
 election of candidates

A characteristic of democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in
their interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgement as how best to do so.

Universal suffrage

This concept deals with the extension of the right to vote for all adults, without distinction as to
race, sex, belief, intelligence or economic or social status. Universal adult suffrage was introduced
into Jamaica in 1944. The age was then 21 to be able to vote, but this was changed and now,
individuals 18 and over may vote in an election once they have been enumerated.

Voting

In a democracy, voting takes place in an election. It is the way for an electorate to select among
candidates for office. In politics, voting is the method by which the electorate of a democracy
appoints representatives in its government.

A vote is an individual's act of voting, where he or she expresses support or preference for a
certain candidate, or a certain selection of candidates. A secret ballot, the standard way to protect
voters' political privacy, generally takes place at a polling station. The act of voting in most
countries is voluntary.

Why some people don't vote

 Don't know who is running, can't tell about candidates; nobody good is running
 Don't have time
 Not interested in voting; their vote wont make a difference
 Will not influence the election results
 Religious reasons, eg, Jehovah's witnesses
 Disgusted with politics, politics is dirty, politicians are corrupt
 Both parties are the same
 Politicians just work to get re-elected, it's all about money
 Politicians are liars
 Campaigning is too negative

Why Vote?

Maybe self-protection is the most basic reason. The government is your government. You pay
taxes almost every day, so shouldn't you have a say in how the money is spent?

Voting is one way to keep freedom alive

If you don't, someone else will. If you don't vote, you tell the politicians you don't care about the
issues facing your country.

Voting is a Right

The right to vote is a unique privilege.

It is up to us as responsible citizens to maintain and uphold these rights by voting.

Activities:

(1) Give Three reasons why people do not vote in an election.

(2) Suggest to citizens reasons why people should vote in elections in your country.

(3) Read over the functions of government. Make a note of the functions that are being
carried out by your government and the ones that are being neglected. Give reasons why you
think some functions are not being carried out.

The functions/concept of government

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

The functions of government

The functions of government span a vast area of a citizen's life, both social and physical. First the
chief function of any government is to ensure the protection of life, liberty and property, together
with all other functions that are necessary to the civic organisation of society, functions which are
not optional.

There are other functions which are undertaken to make possible the advancing of the general
interests of society.

Other Functions

(1) The keeping of order and providing for the protection of persons and property from violence
and robbery.

(2) The fixing of the legal relations in society.

(3) Create employment opportunities.

(4) The determination of contract rights between individuals.

(5) The definition and punishment of crime.

(6) The administration of justice in civil causes.

(7) The determination of the political duties, privileges and relations of citizens.

(8) Dealings of the state with foreign powers: the preservation of the state from external danger
or encroachment and the advancement of its international interests.

(9) The regulation of trade and industry.

(10) The regulation of labor and public utilities.

(11) The maintenance of thoroughfares - including state management of railways and that great
group of undertakings which we embrace within the comprehensive term 'internal improvements'.

(12) Manage the finances of the country.

(13) Raise revenue through direct and indirect taxation.

(14) Sanitation, including the regulation of trades for sanitary purposes.

(15) Provision of social services, such as education, welfare and health care.

(16) Care of the poor and incapable.

The concept of government

Democracy

Democracy has been defined as a government by the people in which the supreme power is
vested in the people and exercised directly by them or by their elected agents under a free
electoral system. It may also be viewed as a political philosophy.

In the words of Abraham Lincoln, democracy is a government, "of the people, by the people, and
for the people".

Democracy is indeed a set of ideas and principles about freedom, but it also consists of a set of
practices and procedures. For this reason, it is possible to identify the time-tested fundamentals
of constitutional government, human rights and equality before the law that any society must
possess to be properly called democratic.

Democracy is practised in most Caribbean countries and has many characteristics:

 competitive elections
 freedom of speech
 freedom of the press
 separation of powers
 election of candidates

A characteristic of democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in
their interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgement as how best to do so.

Universal suffrage

This concept deals with the extension of the right to vote for all adults, without distinction as to
race, sex, belief, intelligence or economic or social status. Universal adult suffrage was introduced
into Jamaica in 1944. The age was then 21 to be able to vote, but this was changed and now,
individuals 18 and over may vote in an election once they have been enumerated.

Voting

In a democracy, voting takes place in an election. It is the way for an electorate to select among
candidates for office. In politics, voting is the method by which the electorate of a democracy
appoints representatives in its government.

A vote is an individual's act of voting, where he or she expresses support or preference for a
certain candidate, or a certain selection of candidates. A secret ballot, the standard way to protect
voters' political privacy, generally takes place at a polling station. The act of voting in most
countries is voluntary.

Why some people don't vote

 Don't know who is running, can't tell about candidates; nobody good is running
 Don't have time
 Not interested in voting; their vote wont make a difference
 Will not influence the election results
 Religious reasons, eg, Jehovah's witnesses
 Disgusted with politics, politics is dirty, politicians are corrupt
 Both parties are the same
 Politicians just work to get re-elected, it's all about money
 Politicians are liars
 Campaigning is too negative

Why Vote?

Maybe self-protection is the most basic reason. The government is your government. You pay
taxes almost every day, so shouldn't you have a say in how the money is spent?

Voting is one way to keep freedom alive

If you don't, someone else will. If you don't vote, you tell the politicians you don't care about the
issues facing your country.

Voting is a Right

The right to vote is a unique privilege.

It is up to us as responsible citizens to maintain and uphold these rights by voting.

Maureen Campbell teaches at St. Hugh's High School.

Social institutions in society
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Each society has its own form of social institutions with its specific functions; some of these are:

Political

Every society has an organisational principle, with designated authority figures and clearly defined
roles and obligations necessary to prevent chaos and anarchy in a country.

There are written or oral laws. Some societies are tightly knit, while others are very loosely
organised. Some basic functions of the political instructions include:

1. The institutionalisation of norms (laws) to regulate behaviour.

2. The enforcement of laws. Formal groups have been placed in charge of this, such as the police
force.

3. The adjudication of conflict (court).

4. Provide for the welfare of members of society.

5. Protection of society from external threat and so, securing its sovereignty.

Religious

This entails beliefs about the world, universal order and good, spiritual beings and powers, as well
as rituals and ceremonies. For many people, religion is not separated into a separate sphere of
life but is part of the fabric of society, making conversion difficult, because of the religious identity
of the society. Concepts of loyalty, identity, faithfulness and personhood are in this category.
Political and religious institutions are often related. This may involve religious ceremonies of
cultural identity. Religion may also do the following:

1. Provide solutions for unexplained natural phenomenon.

2. Supply a means for controlling the natural world.

3. Tends to support the normative structure of the society.

4. Furnish a psychological diversion from unwanted life situations.

5. Sustain the existing class structure.

6. Serve as an instrument of socialisation.

7. May both promote and retard social change.

8. May both reduce and encourage conflict in groups.

Educational

Even in primitive societies, there are highly developed methods of conveying knowledge and
values. These methods will affect the reception of new ideas. The effective communicator learns
and uses the insider formats and channels. Some basic functions of education include:

1. Transmitting the culture to the new generation.

2. Preparation for occupational roles, the formation of a skilled labour force ready to work.

3. Evaluating and selecting competent individuals, based on meritocracy

4. Transmitting functional skills for surviving in society. The school offers secondary socialisation.

The Family

The family has already been dealt with, however, these are some of the responsibilities of the
family in society:

The family is responsible for the control and regulation of sexual behaviour, to provide new
members of society; this is made possible through procreation. Families also provide for the
economic and emotional maintenance of individuals and are the agency to provide for primary
socialisation of children.

Economic Institutions

This involves the production of goods and the organisation of labour, the provision of care and
similar factors, not just money, buying and selling. Every society has systems of provision.
Economic and political institutions are related.

1. Provide methods for the production of goods and services.

2. Provide methods for the distribution of goods and services.

3. Enable society's members to consume goods and services which are produced.

Goods: food, clothing, shelter, cars, etc

Services: The following occupations offer services: priests, doctors, nurses and teachers.

The economic aspect of society has consistently been changing over the centuries. People have
consistently been changing their occupations to suit the times. Members of the earliest human
societies were hunters and gatherers, living off the land. Production and consumption were all
aspects of family life; cottage industries were the order of the day and technology present then
was very simple. Industrialisation changed all this, as new sources of energy were tapped and
introduced; muscles were replaced with steam power. Workers moved out of the homes and into
factories. Factories were centralised and very impersonal. Mass production replaced subsistent
living. Families as workers were replaced by wage earners.

Economic activities resulted from the use of agricultural land, forestry, marine resources and the
formation of manufacturing and the extracting of resources from the land. Some resources are
imported as they may not exist within the country, such as the absence of oil in Jamaica. With the
growth in economics came the influx of equipment, such as computers.

A network to meet local and international needs was formed to distribute, transport, advertise,
communicate and market.

An economic institution may be owned by the public sector, the government, and private
enterprise, local or international investors. They include financial services such as banks, stock
market, trust companies, insurance companies, credit union and cooperatives.

Activities

1. Identify three institutions which would be most helpful in controlling drug abuse. Give one
reason why each of the institutions chosen would be helpful.

2. State three functions of an economic institution.

3. Explain three ways in which an institution may control its members.

Suggest two ways in which the government of your country may encourage industrial enterprises
in your community.
Social institutions in society
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Each society has its own form of social institutions with its specific functions; some of these are:

Political

Every society has an organisational principle, with designated authority figures and clearly defined
roles and obligations necessary to prevent chaos and anarchy in a country.

There are written or oral laws. Some societies are tightly knit, while others are very loosely
organised. Some basic functions of the political instructions include:

1. The institutionalisation of norms (laws) to regulate behaviour.

2. The enforcement of laws. Formal groups have been placed in charge of this, such as the police
force.

3. The adjudication of conflict (court).

4. Provide for the welfare of members of society.

5. Protection of society from external threat and so, securing its sovereignty.

Religious

This entails beliefs about the world, universal order and good, spiritual beings and powers, as well
as rituals and ceremonies. For many people, religion is not separated into a separate sphere of
life but is part of the fabric of society, making conversion difficult, because of the religious identity
of the society. Concepts of loyalty, identity, faithfulness and personhood are in this category.
Political and religious institutions are often related. This may involve religious ceremonies of
cultural identity. Religion may also do the following:

1. Provide solutions for unexplained natural phenomenon.

2. Supply a means for controlling the natural world.

3. Tends to support the normative structure of the society.

4. Furnish a psychological diversion from unwanted life situations.

5. Sustain the existing class structure.

6. Serve as an instrument of socialisation.

7. May both promote and retard social change.

8. May both reduce and encourage conflict in groups.

Educational

Even in primitive societies, there are highly developed methods of conveying knowledge and
values. These methods will affect the reception of new ideas. The effective communicator learns
and uses the insider formats and channels. Some basic functions of education include:

1. Transmitting the culture to the new generation.

2. Preparation for occupational roles, the formation of a skilled labour force ready to work.

3. Evaluating and selecting competent individuals, based on meritocracy

4. Transmitting functional skills for surviving in society. The school offers secondary socialisation.

The Family

The family has already been dealt with, however, these are some of the responsibilities of the
family in society:

The family is responsible for the control and regulation of sexual behaviour, to provide new
members of society; this is made possible through procreation. Families also provide for the
economic and emotional maintenance of individuals and are the agency to provide for primary
socialisation of children.

Economic Institutions

This involves the production of goods and the organisation of labour, the provision of care and
similar factors, not just money, buying and selling. Every society has systems of provision.
Economic and political institutions are related.

1. Provide methods for the production of goods and services.

2. Provide methods for the distribution of goods and services.

3. Enable society's members to consume goods and services which are produced.

Goods: food, clothing, shelter, cars, etc

Services: The following occupations offer services: priests, doctors, nurses and teachers.

The economic aspect of society has consistently been changing over the centuries. People have
consistently been changing their occupations to suit the times. Members of the earliest human
societies were hunters and gatherers, living off the land. Production and consumption were all
aspects of family life; cottage industries were the order of the day and technology present then
was very simple. Industrialisation changed all this, as new sources of energy were tapped and
introduced; muscles were replaced with steam power. Workers moved out of the homes and into
factories. Factories were centralised and very impersonal. Mass production replaced subsistent
living. Families as workers were replaced by wage earners.

Economic activities resulted from the use of agricultural land, forestry, marine resources and the
formation of manufacturing and the extracting of resources from the land. Some resources are
imported as they may not exist within the country, such as the absence of oil in Jamaica. With the
growth in economics came the influx of equipment, such as computers.

A network to meet local and international needs was formed to distribute, transport, advertise,
communicate and market.

An economic institution may be owned by the public sector, the government, and private
enterprise, local or international investors. They include financial services such as banks, stock
market, trust companies, insurance companies, credit union and cooperatives.

Activities

1. Identify three institutions which would be most helpful in controlling drug abuse. Give one
reason why each of the institutions chosen would be helpful.

2. State three functions of an economic institution.

3. Explain three ways in which an institution may control its members.

Suggest two ways in which the government of your country may encourage industrial enterprises
in your community.
An introduction to social institutions
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

A SOCIAL institution is a group of social positions, connected by social relations, shared beliefs,
norms or procedures performing a social role.

It can also be defined as any institution in a society that works to socialise the groups or people in
it towards a common goal.

Common examples include education, governments, families, economic systems, religions, sports,
health and any people or groups that you have social interaction with.

It is a major sphere of social life organised to meet some basic human needs.

Social institutions can take many forms, depending on the social context. For example, one of the
corresponding social organisation within the family is the extended family. In the business
context, a social organisation may be an enterprise, company, and/or a corporation. In the
educational context, it may be a school or university, while in the political context, it may be a
government or political party.

Commonly, experts officially recognise these five major social institutions that have been evident
in some way in every civilisation in history: government, religion, education, economy and the
family.

The productive/economic institutions are dependent on educational institutions to provide a

skilled labour force, educational institutions are dependent on the government for their funding,
and government institutions, in turn, rely on the productive/economic institutions to create wealth
to finance government spending. This situation is termed institutional interdependence.

Identifying social institutions

Institutions are structures and mechanisms of social order and cooperation governing the
behaviour of two or more individuals.

Institutions are identified with a social purpose and permanence, transcending individual human
lives and intentions, and are sustained because of the making and enforcing of rules governing
cooperative human behaviour. The term, institution, is also commonly applied to customs and
behaviour patterns important to a society, such as saying grace before a meal, baptism and
marriage, as well as to particular formal organisations of government and public service.

Aspects of institutions

Institutions are manifest in both objectively real, formal organisations, such as the Jamaican
Parliament, or the Seventh-day Adventist Church, and in informal social order and organisation,
reflecting human psychology, culture, habits and customs. Most important institutions, considered
abstractly, have both objective and subjective aspects: examples include money and marriage.

Economic: One good example in this area is the institution of money which encompasses many
formal organisations, including banks and government treasury departments and stock
exchanges, which may be termed 'institutions', that serve to guide people in their pursuit of
personal well-being.
Family: Marriage and family, as a set of institutions, also encompass formal and informal,
objective and subjective aspects.

Both governments and religious institutions make and enforce rules and laws regarding marriage
and family.

It also stipulates, creates and regulates various concepts of how people relate to one another, and
what their rights, obligations and duties may be as a consequence. Culture and custom permeate
marriage and family. Our social, economic and political institutions are vital to democracy and
fairness in society.

Together, they comprise an absolutely essential self-regulatory mechanism, advocacy vehicle and
safety net in our society.

Functions of social institutions

1. Institutions satisfy the basic needs of society and of individuals.

2. Institutions make obvious our social values.

3. Institutions establish permanent patterns of social behaviour.

4. Institutions support other institutions in society.

5. Institutions provide roles for individuals.

6. Institutions have a body of rules which defines how members relate with one another and
towards other institutions.

7. Institutions have a structure which is usually hierarchical.

8. Institutions tend to develop rituals and practices.

9. Institutions tend to endure for generations and impose sanctions on members and also on non-
members, if needed.

Activities

(i) State three characteristics of an institution.

State three functions of an institution.

Explain three ways in which an institution controls its members.

Suggest two ways in which a named institution may correct the behaviour of delinquent
youth in your community.
Group cohesion and interaction
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Group cohesion and interaction are very crucial to the endurance of groups in society. Individuals
are in various groups and groups have different demands on individuals. The role and behaviour
of individuals in groups differ with the type of group. Groups, therefore, need to have stability and
to ensure that certain fundamental conditions are put forward to enable continuity.

Group interaction and group cohesion overlap in various areas:

Group Group
interaction cohesion
Cooperation Leadership
Conflict Authority
Social exchange Control
Coercion Cooperation
Conformity Commitment/loyalty

Cooperation

Cooperation may be defined as interaction in which individuals or groups combine their efforts to
reach a goal. According to Sandy and Grayson, cooperation is the act of individuals, groups,
communities, institutions and nations combining all the resources at their disposal for a common
purpose. Some degree of cooperation is necessary to realise objectives. To be cooperative,
individuals will have to be loyal, unselfish and knowledgeable, and also practise fair competition.
Discrimination, prejudice, bitter rivalry, lack of financing, ignorance and fear contribute to non-
cooperation in society.

Conflict

This may be looked on as interaction aimed at defeating an opponent which is essential and may
become more important than achieving the goal and may bring great satisfaction. Conflict is a
very disruptive form of interaction. It is believed, however, that conflict may promote cooperation
and unity within opposite groups. Conflict may also be beneficial when it changes norms, beliefs
and values more sensitive to human needs.

Social exchange

Social exchange may be defined as a voluntary action performed in the expectation of getting a
reward in return. The key phrase is: What is in it for me? The relationship is one of exchange.
According to Aristotle, "All men, or most men, wish what is noble but choose what is profitable;
and while it is noble to render a service not with an eye to receiving one in return, it is profitable
to receive one. One ought, therefore, if one can, to return the equivalent of services received, and
to do so willingly".

Coercion

Coercion is the opposite of social exchange. It is an interactive situation in which individuals or

groups are forced to behave in a particular way. The central element in coercion is domination
which manifests itself in various forms, such as physical force, imprisonment, torture or death,
and subtle social pressure, such as ridicule, rejection and/or withdrawal of affection.

Conformity

Conformity may be defined as behaviour that matches group expectations. Conformity supports
uniformity, predictability and orderliness. Many individuals in groups uphold certain principles and
will stand behind them, no matter the cost, as they are said to be committed and displaying
loyalty.

Leadership

Leaders are essential in society. With-out leaders, there would be chaos as everyone pulls in their
direction as there would be no one to guide, direct, counsel or inspire members towards the goals
of the group. A good leader should be understanding, knowledgeable, be able to adapt to change,
respectful, honest and the list goes on. Leaders may adopt several styles to function effectively in
different situations.

Democratic or participative style

 Decision making is shared with the group

 Acts as a guide
 Always interacts with the members and asks and takes suggestions

Authoritarian or autocratic leadership style

 This person does not share the decision-making process, but makes all the decision and
expects others to follow without questioning.
 Believes that attaining the goal is all that is essential for the group and this must be
achieved at whatever cost.
 This person, therefore, will do what he/she sees as the thing to do to achieve this
objective.

Laissez-faire

 Group members are left on their own to achieve the goals of the group.
 Leader involvement is minimal.
 The leader, however, may have very little control over the group he/she is to lead.

Authority

Authority may be defined as power accepted as legitimate by those who are subjected to it. Power
is the ability to control the behaviour of others, even against their will.

Forms of authority

Max Weber identifies three forms of authority: charismatic, traditional and rational-legal.

Charismatic

This type of leadership mainly arises from an individual's personal characteristics. Charismatic
leaders, therefore, lead through the power or strength of their personalities or the feelings of
trust they inspire in a large number of people.

Traditional

This is a form of authority in which the legitimacy of a leader is rooted in custom. Traditionally,
kings and queens based their authority on the will of God and divine right to rule. This type of
leadership is usually inherited. An example is the monarchy in England.

Rational-legal

This type of authority rests in the hierarchical position of the person based on the offices that an
individual holds. Such authority is, therefore, assumed only when the individual occupies the
office. Individuals will lose their authority when they leave their formal position of power.

Social control
Social control has been defined as ways to encourage conformity to society's norms.

All societies have some ways to promote order, stability and predictability in its social life. Without
social control, there would be chaos and anarchy in a society. Things would be unpredictable. We
expect drivers to drive on the left in Jamaica, and we expect them to stop at the stop light. There
are two main types of social control internal and external.

Internal social control

Developed during the socialisation process, where social requirement is internalised.

Rules:Written or unwritten and prescribes how people should behave.

Norms:Rules defining appropriate and inappropriate behaviour.

Laws:A norm that is formally defined and enforced by officials.

Folkways:Norms that lack moral significance.

Mores:Norms that have moral dimensions and that should be followed by members of the
society.

External control

Social sanctions: Rewards or punishment that encourage conformity to social norms. Examples
are positive: rewards, allowances, promotions, and smiles of approval.

Negative: criticisms, ridicule, gossips, fines, and imprisonment.

Activities

 State briefly the forms of control used in your school.

 Identify three institutions that help in enforcing social control in your community.
 What are the differences between cooperation and social exchange?
 Give the term referred to in the following statements:
 Impersonal and goal oriented group, involves only a segment of one's life.
 Composed of people who are emotionally close, know one another well, and seek one
another's company.
 Type of interaction in which one person voluntarily does something for another, expecting a
reward in return.

Behaviour that goes according to group expectations. People who share a social characteristic.
Groups in society
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

A group is composed of at least two people who share one or more goals in common and share
similar ways of behaving.

 Group members are usually in contact with one another

 They tend to behave and think in similar ways.
 They have interests or goals in common and common symbols
 Groups range from the small and informal to the large and formal.
 Some groups have boundaries and are hard to become a part of or to remain a part of.
 Membership may be voluntary or involuntary
 They have clearly defined status and values

Society is comprised of many different types of groups and group relationships. It's within groups
that social interaction takes place. Groups, undoubtedly, play a vital role in a society's social
structure as much of our social interaction takes place within the confines of a group and is
influenced by their norms and sanctions.

Why join groups

 "No man is an island no man stands alone."

 The need for friendship and a sense of belonging
 To accomplish much desired goals
 To fulfil acquired social roles and assumed status
 Identity and security
Types of groups

 Primary groups
 Primary groups are generally small
 Have relatively long periods of interaction
 Intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation
 Aspects of emotional elements can be found in this type of relationship
 Members are usually cooperative and friendly and in continuous contact with each other.
 Play a pivotal role in the socialisa-tion process and the development of roles and social
status.
 Provides emotional support and encourages conformity through, obedience, respect or
through pressure.

NB. Examples of primary groups include street gangs, members of a family, peer
groups, that is, individuals who are of similar age coming together to form a group and
sporting teams, like a basketball team etc.

Secondary groups

 These are formal interpersonal groups in which little social intimacy or mutual
understanding is evident.
 These groups are usually large
 Short duration of interaction, little social intimacy.
 Relationships are usually superficial and based strictly on business.
 Members are more formal and impersonal
 This group involves only a segment of the member's life. Exists to accom-plish a specific
purpose.

In-groups and out-groups

In-groups are groups to which people feel they belong. It comprises everyone who is regarded as
'we' or 'us'. Members feel a sense of distinctiveness and superiority among themselves. They see
themselves as better than people in the out group.

Out-groups are groups to which people feel they do not belong. It comprises everyone who is
viewed as 'they' or 'them'.

Conflicts may arise between in-groups and out-groups. Examples are the feuding between schools
and individuals from distinctive neighbourhoods.

Reference groups

Groups that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their behaviour.
Reference groups set and enforce standards of conduct and beliefs, serving as a standard against
which people can measure themselves and others. We also shift our reference group as we take
on different positions during our lifetime. Reference groups may include our families, teachers,
classmates, professional football team. We may use a group as a point of reference without being
a part of this group. Reference groups may be positive or negative.

Formal groups
Formal groups are usually large secondary groups that are organised to achieve specific goals.
Formal secondary groups include business corporations, government agencies, schools, trade
unions and credit unions.

Secondary groups differ from primary groups such as a family in an important way: The
secondary group size makes social relations less personal and fosters formal, planned
atmospheres. Formal groups operate in a deliberate way, not to meet personal needs but to
accomplish complex jobs. They include, in most cases, membership requirements, code of
conduct, division of labour and appointment of leaders.

Informal groups

Do not have set rules to control membership and actual organisation. Activities may change to
suit the occasion and time. Examples are boys flying kites in the commons or boys playing
basketball after school.

Secondary groups fall under three main groups

1. A group which pays people for their efforts. Joining this group is a matter of choice but we join
in order to make a living, economic survival.

2. People may volunteer to join groups not for income but to pursue some goal they think is
morally worthwhile. These include community service groups.

3. Then, there is an involuntary membership to groups as people are forced to join groups
whether as punishment or government policy.

Activity

1. Define the term social group:

2. Differentiate between a formal and an informal group, giving examples of each.

3. State two characteristics which hold members of a formal group together.

4. Give three reasons formal groups tend to have a longer lifespan than informal groups.

5. Explain three ways in which adolescents in formal social groups may benefit from them.

6. Outline three factors that can cause members to be committed to the objectives of their group.

7. Suggest three ways in which the leader of a youth group may encourage members to
participate in group activities.
Human resource development
Yvonne Harvey, Contributor

The focus this week is on how to improve the human resources so that they will perform with
greater efficiency in the production process. Human resources refers to all physical and mental
abilities in production; that is, all labour and entrepreneurial skills. Human resource development
is the process of making the quality of labour and the entrepreneur better. This process has been
described as investment in human capital. The result of such investment is usually increased
productivity and lower costs of production. The factors that improve labour productivity are the
same ones that improve the human resources. The human resources can be developed in the
following ways:

1. Improvements in the levels of education

This will make training of the human resources easier. Also, with improved education, employees
can qualify for higher posts - promotions. With these facts in mind, some employers allow
workers time off to go and educate themselves or to upgrade their education. During this time,
they attend classes and sit exams. Some employers also pay all or a part of the cost of classes
and exam fees. Even in schools, the curricula have been changed to help students leaving school
to be more productive so that they enter the job market with skills in many areas.

2. More training and retraining

Workers who are properly trained will work faster and this will benefit the organisation and the
country as a whole. Among many countries, this aspect of human resource development is sadly
lacking. Many employers are themselves untrained and are therefore lax when it comes to the
training of workers. They often see it as a waste of time and money.

Retraining is training for a new or different job in one's workplace. People who have been
promoted or given a different job to do often need to be retrained. One can also retrain in
anticipation of a promotion or a new job. Retraining is also very important for persons who have
been in their particular jobs for many years. In order to keep vibrant and learn up-to-date ways
of doing things, and in order to improve efficiency, these persons need refresher courses.
Many CARICOM governments provide opportunities for training workers through various agencies
and institutions of learning, for example The HEART Trust/NTA and the Vocational Training
Development Institute in Jamaica. Farmers are also given advice and training by agricultural
extension officers in plant and animal husbandry.

In Jamaica, many community centres are used as training facilities to help individuals to learn
skills so that they can, in turn, help themselves. In Trinidad, The Management Development
Centre is performing a very effective role in training people to become good and efficient
managers.

3. Greater emphasis on the health of the worker

A healthy worker produces more than one who is not. Health provisions for workers might be
inadequate and this will adversely affect their performance. Workers who are not healthy cannot
be efficient. To this end, employers often contribute towards health schemes for their workers,
allow them sick leave or even have their own doctors and nurses at the workplace. Many places of
work have sick-bay facilities for their workers or they have access to first aid in the event of minor
illnesses.

4. Improved working conditions

If working conditions are poor, the human resources will be adversely affected. Working
conditions include ventilation, light, workspace, safe surroundings and so on. If conditions are
ideal, for example, more space or more efficient air conditioning, output will increase. Also, if
human resources are to develop, there must be adequate bathroom, restroom, canteen and
recreation facilities. With good ventilation, adequate lighting, enough space to work in and safe
surroundings, the worker will develop and work more efficiently.

5. Motivation

External motivation in particular can encourage the human resources to improve. For example, if
they are given incentives, such as bonuses, they will work harder. Such motivation can also
change negative attitudes towards work into positive ones. Positive attitudes might improve
punctuality and eliminate low absenteeism.

6. Adequate amount of and quality capital

Workers with poor-quality machinery and equipment will not work well. In addition, they must
have the right amount of capital to work with. Attention to these areas will improve the
productivity of the human resources.

7. Good management

The manager who is able to organise people and materials efficiently and display appropriate
leadership will find that production and productivity will rise. For developing countries to
experience growth and development, it is essential that the human resources be developed
sufficiently.

Your task this week will be to write an outline for the following question:

(a) (i) Define the terms resources and human resources. (4 marks)

(ii) Give FOUR examples of human resources. (4 marks)

(iii) What do you understand by human resource development? (2 marks)

(b) Discuss FOUR ways in which human resources are developed in your country.

(8 marks)

(c) What is the link between improving the human resource and improving the productivity of
labour and the entrepreneur? (2 marks)

Total Marks: 20

Labour supply and labour efficiency

Yvonne Harvey, Contributor

In last week's lesson, labour, as a factor of production, was defined. You may remember that it
was defined as man's physical and mental contribution to the creation of goods and services. The
reward for the use of labour in production is either a wage or salary.

Labour can be classified (grouped) in different ways and under different headings. I will now
classify labour under three main headings: skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled.

SKILLED LABOUR

Labour which requires lengthy education and or training, for example engineers, mechanics,
electricians, teachers, doctors, nurses, pharmacists and so on.

SEMI-SKILLED LABOUR

Labour which requires some amount of education and training, the period for which is usually
short and less intensive than that of skilled labour.

UNSKILLED LABOUR

Labour which involves little or no special education and training and usually involves working with
the hands, for example cleaners, street sellers, watchmen, drivers and so on.

Labour is important to all forms of production, even the automated form of production where
labour is required to operate machinery and supervise automated processes. Without labour, it
would be impossible to convert resources into goods and services that people want. Therefore,
production could not take place.

Since labour is so important, its supply needs to be adequate. Labour supply refers to the amount
of labour service available. There are many factors which influence the supply of labour. I will now
proceed to discuss some of these.

(1) The size of the population of the country - generally speaking, a country with a large
population will have a large labour supply.

(2) The structure of the population of the country - a large population alone cannot guarantee a
large labour supply if the population is made up of a high proportion of very young and or very
old people who are not available for work.
(3) School-leaving and retirement ages - policies of government may either increase or decrease
these ages. An increase in the school-leaving age will reduce the labour supply, while an increase
in the age of retirement will increase the labour supply.

(4) The extent to which women go out to work - this is dependent on factors such as economic
conditions, traditions and attitudes towards working mothers. The greater the extent to which
women work, the greater will be the labour supply.

(5) The birth rate of the country - If the birth rate of a country slows down, this will affect the
future supply of labour.

(6) The number of hours worked - the greater the number of hours worked, the greater will be
the labour supply. In developed countries, there is a trend towards a shorter working week; this
has the effect of reducing the supply of labour.

(7) The death rate of the country - if inadequate and inappropriate health services cause an
increase in the death rate, this will ultimately reduce the future labour supply.

(8) The effects of migration of people to foreign countries - as migration increases, the labour
supply of the home country falls. This was the case in the Caribbean in the mid 1950s to 1970s.
Now see if you can do some research and add to the list of factors, which influence the labour
supply of a country.

Labour efficiency

We will now move on to labour efficiency. Labour efficiency has to do with the quality of labour
and its ability to work at its best. As with the supply of labour, the efficiency is affected by a
number of factors. Some of these factors are noted below:

(i) the amount and quality of education and training of the labour

(ii) the efficiency of factors of production and technology used by the labour

(iii) health and well-being of the labour force

(iv) the extent to which job security and upward mobility can be assured

(v) working conditions under which labour exists

(vi) monetary and other benefits given to labour

(vii) attitude of workers towards work

Again, your research will reveal factors that have not been listed above. You can add these to the
list.

It will be useful for you to examine types of labour that exist in your own community, giving
examples of each. Consider the main factors affecting the supply and efficiency of the labour in
your community.

In preparation for next week's lesson, you may wish to do some reading on human resource
development and mobility of labour. Bye for now.
The value of teamwork
Yvonne Harvey, Contributor

Hello there, students! Today, we will look at the value of teamwork in an organisation. At the end
of the lesson you should be able to evaluate the role of teamwork in the success of an
organisation. This topic will involve definition, advantages and disadvantages.

Definition and explanation

Teamwork refers to a technique where people in an organisation come together as a group to pool
ideas and to cooperate in order to accomplish certain tasks.

It is often referred to as 'group integration' or 'cooperation'. Teamwork is important if an

organisation is to run efficiently. Managers should, therefore, encourage teamwork among
workers.

Teams can either be formal or informal.

Formal and informal groups

Formal groups, or teams, are those that are usually created for a special purpose, for example, a
board of directors, or a department within a firm. It has a formal structure, a specific objective
and an appointed leader.

Informal groups or teams usually come together voluntarily and their purpose is not defined
specifically. There are no set rules, although there may be an objective, such as to raise funds for
charities. These groups do not directly achieve the objectives of the business.

They are normally formed to achieve objectives that formal groups cannot. The leader is most
often chosen by the members of the group. An example of an informal team is a music group.

Teamwork is often adopted when a major project is to be completed. Most teams in a business
are formal. Management selects the relevant persons and assigns the tasks. Persons in the team
can be selected or grouped according to the following:

Age

This is where all persons of the same age group would be put together.

Common interests

The objectives of each member of the group should be the same and in a business, the goals
should ideally coincide with the goals of the business.

Skills or talents
The manager may find it useful to have all the persons in a group with the same ability or
aptitude.

Sex

Here, the team may consist of all females or all males.

Common goals

These goals should be in line with the goals of the organisation.

Background, upbringing or race

Where persons exhibit similar social factors, a group can be easily formed.

Where no special factor is used to place persons in a group, the group members are said to be
randomly chosen.

Advantages of teamwork

1. The organisation may benefit from the expertise of specialists who may be a part of a group.

2. The morale of the group members will improve and ultimately this will result in increased
production and profits.

3. Managerial work load is made easier, if not reduced.

4. Team members get a chance to air their views. This often allows for an increase of creative
ideas that will benefit the organisation.

5. Team spirit is promoted; therefore, employee turnover will be less.

6. Output increases and in the end so do profits.

7. There is continuity in the carrying out of projects. For e.g., if a member leaves the team, the
project can be continued by the other team members.

Disadvantages of teamwork

1. It takes a lot of time to make decisions and complete tasks.

2. Disagreements often hold up the production process.

3. Team problems can lead to failure and eventually, loss of earnings.

4. The bulk of the work often falls on a few enthusiastic members of the team. Lazy members,
who contribute little or nothing, end up earning the praise or other reward given to the entire
team.

5. The negative attitude of some team members can filter down through the entire team.

6. It may be difficult to find common meeting times. This may affect the efficiency of the team.
Okay friends. That's it for this week. Next week, I will outline the format of the principles of
business exam, and give you some tips.

The communication process

Yvonne Harvey, Contributor

Hi friends. Let's begin with our lesson. We shall consider the communication process and
strategies for effective communication within an organisation. I am sure you will agree with me
that people working in businesses spend a major portion of each day speaking, listening, writing
and reading. They are involved in the communication process. It has been estimated that
executives spend as much as two-thirds of each workday communicating.

Communication has been defined in many ways. According to Karlene Robinson and Sybile Hamil,
in CXC Principles of Business, "Communication is the means by which we create, transmit and
interpret ideas, facts, data, feelings and opinions."

Communication can also be seen as conveying information or giving instructions. Simply put,
communication is the process of making contact between two points, or interaction in any form.

Communication may be external (the firm or business organisation communicating with the
outside world) or it may be internal (involving persons within the firm or business organisation
communicating with each other).

Elements of communication

The communication process or cycle involves:

1. The transmitter (sender) who creates the message, for example, a supervisor.

2. A message (including body language or any form of non-verbal communication).

3. The medium of transmission (the channel through which the message is sent, for example,
internal memorandum).

4. The receiver (the recipient of the message).

5. Feedback (response to the message, for example, signing the memorandum to indicate that
the message is understood).

Methods of internal communication

The main methods are oral, written and visual. Oral communication refers to word-of-mouth
communication between two, or among several parties. This includes direct speech, interviews,
meetings, conferences, speeches and the use of public-address systems, the telephone, intercoms
and walkie-talkies.

For very complicated instruction, oral communication should not be used alone. However, it is
useful where persuasion or cooperation is involved, since it maintains vital person-to-person
contact. Most internal communication takes place orally.

Written communication is the printed form and includes agendas, annual reports, bulletins,
letters, memorandums, minutes of meetings, manuals, suggestion boxes, magazines, journals,
newsletters, emails and faxes.

Visual communication is similar in intent and effect, to written communication, except that it is
more abbreviated. Examples of visual communication include pictures, diagrams, symbols,
closed-circuit televisions, films and film strips, charts, computers, posters and graphs.

Strategies for effective communication

Effective communication in a business is the lifeblood of its existence. Internal communication is
important because it:

 develops employer-employee understanding

 communicates instruction and intelligence
 furthers employee interests
 lessens the shock of technological change
 helps to create a good public image
 gives employees opportunities for communication.

Good communication achieves efficiency.

Without it there may be a breakdown or delay in production. This may increase the production
cost.

So, what can be done to increase effective communication?

1. Ensure that the communication is two-way. This means that the sender should allow the
receiver to respond to what was received.

2. Make an effort to eliminate all distractions; anything that interferes with the message, e.g.
noise and interruptions.

3. Choose an appropriate method or channel.

4. Ensure that all five communication elements are present.

5. Be specific by avoiding vague or general words, or words with several meanings. For example:
Sales increased a little. This is a vague statement. It is more effective to say: Sales increased by
10 per cent.

6. Avoid distortions. This refers to people consciously or unconsciously changing the message.

7. Plan the message by thinking through the idea before saying or writing it.

8. Keep the receiver in mind by treating him or her with courtesy and respect.

9. Keep the communication as short as possible. This can be done by omitting unnecessary detail.

Now, as usual, I must give you an assignment:

(a) Define the term communication. (2 marks)

(b) Outline two reasons effective communication flow is important to an organisation. (4 marks)

(c) List three methods of internal communication and explain one. (5 marks)

(d) Give one example of a form of communication you would recommend to be used in a large
factory for the following:

- to announce the date and venue of the annual sports day

- to announce a bomb scare

- to inform employees of the terms and conditions of their employment.

(3 marks)

(e) Discuss three strategies that can be considered for effective communication.

(6 marks)

Total marks: 20

Management information systems

Yvonne Harvey, Contributor

Greetings! I hope that none of you was adversely affected by Tropical Storm Gustav. If you were,
I hope that you have been able to pick up the pieces, put things together again and move on.

Today, we are looking at the concept of management information systems (MIS) in organisations
and the benefits and challenges in using these systems.

At this point, it would be good for us to examine the terms, data and information. Data refers to
raw facts, while information refers to processed data. For example, 2, 4, 6 and 8 may be
considered as data or raw facts and, as such, have very little, if any, meaning. However, if we
process these figures by, say, averaging them, we will arrive at 5. The average has much more
meaning and is, therefore, more useful to us.

In the past, managers spent days, even months, waiting for data to be processed into information
in order to make important decisions. This has changed in recent times because of the availability
of information systems.
MIS refers to any computer-based system that provides timely and accurate information for
managers to use in the decision making and management of an organisation.

Benefits of MIS

1. Time, money and labour are saved. Since the computer is used, the time spent in overall
decision making to the actual project completion is normally reduced. It is often said that time is
money, so, if time is saved, money is also saved.

Additionally, labour costs are saved because routine tasks which would, in the past, be done
manually are now done by the computer. Less labour is, therefore, employed, reducing wages to
labour.

2. Improvement in production and marketing techniques and profit margins. MIS provides
information that will ultimately lead to qualitative and quantitative improvements in production,
as well as provide informa-tion which will allow for improvements in marketing techniques, such
as advertising and sales promotions. Production and marketing improvements will, most likely,
transfer into increased profits margins.

3. Increased competitiveness. MIS enables managers to access information on their competitors.

They can study their competitor's techniques with the aim of doing better than they do.

4. Less likelihood of errors being made. The reason is that it is a computer-based system which
tends to be accurate.

5. It allows for decisions to be made at all levels in the business. Decisions can be made by top,
level and lower-level managers. It is also useful for other employees in the organisation.

6. Communication within the organisation is improved. This is so since the information is, most of
the time, clear and accurate - two elements of good communication.

7. Managers are assisted in carrying out their management functions, for example, planning,
controlling and directing. It also improves the efficiency of the functional managers within the
organisation.

Challenges of MIS

1. The cost of setting up and maintaining MIS. Since the system involves the purchasing of costly
computers, the maintaining of these computers and the cost of security systems, the capital
outlay is very high and could initially be a hindrance to its use in organisations.

2. The high cost of training. Managers must be trained to use the systems. Therefore, the overall
cost of human resource development increases.

3. Human error. Human error can affect the efficiency of the system. This means that human
error can result in problems which can cause time to be lost and, even-tually, cause profits to fall.

4. Often, too much information is supplied. Too much information can be just as harmful as too
little.

5. Sometimes, information is not timely. This means that it is not always on hand when it is
needed and information that is provided too late cannot be utilised effectively.
Homework

Now you can work on this essay-type question.

(a) What is a management information system? (2 marks)

(b) List two groups in an organisation that benefit from MIS. (2 marks)

(c) Explain four reasons why MIS is valuable in an organisation. (8 marks)

(d) Discuss four challenges of a MIS. (8 marks)

Total 20 marks

Leadership
Yvonne Harvey, Contributor

The success of management is very much dependent on the ability to lead. Good day to you all.
Our lesson today will focus on leadership styles and their impact. At the end of the lesson, you
should be able to outline the essential characteristics of a good leader and differentiate among
the various leadership styles.

The leader may be described as an individual who selects certain strategies which are aimed at
getting the work done, so that the goals of the organisation may be met. Leadership is referred to
as the motivating of people towards the goals of an organisation. It is carried out in various ways.

The way in which a person leads is known as his/her leadership style. Different types of leaders
practise different styles. Some leaders use a combination of styles. However, before looking at the
various styles of leadership, we will consider some of the qualities of a good leader. Traditionally,
it was believed that a good leader should possess certain characteristics or traits. Some of these
are listed below:

intelligence confidence
good judgement understanding
initiative aggressiveness
dependability flexibility
honesty foresight
courage

I am sure you can think of other desirable qualities. As you think of them, add them to the list
above. Keep in mind, however, that no one person will possess all the qualities, but a good leader
will exhibit most of them.
There are four known and accepted styles of leadership. Let us look at each of them in terms of
description and the effects of each type:

1. The autocratic/authoritarian style

The persons who use this style are strict leaders who, as the sole decision-makers, have full
control in the decision-making process. Thus, those who will be affected by a decision are not
involved in the decision-making and their opinions are not taken into consideration.

Such a leader sees himself as an expert, an authority on all matters, and expects persons to carry
out the required tasks.

Subordinates usually do as these leaders say because of fear that they will be punished in some
way. Examples of punishment vary from demotion to suspension or dismissal.

Effects

a) Work is most often completed, just as the leader specified.

b) Employee input, initiative and innovation are stifled, therefore, bad interpersonal relationships
develop.

c) Employees are not motivated to do their jobs well. This may ultimately result in rapid turnover
in the organisation.

2. The laissez-faire/free reign style

Laissez-faire is French for 'let them do it'. Workers are made aware of what they have to do, but
the leader stands back and allows them to plan their work and take their own decisions, as far as
possible. Managers give little or no direction to workers.

Thus, there is minimum supervision and workers are expected to use their own initiative in
achieving certain objectives.

This style is normally practised in creative productions and services, such as the graphic
departments of advertising agencies.

Effects

a) Production benefits from a variety of ideas.

b) Employers often become lazy and inefficient if left too much on their own.

3. The democratic/participative style

Workers prefer this style as it strikes the middle ground. The leader does not dominate and those
most likely to be affected by a decision are consulted before the decision is made. Note that the
leader reserves the right not to accept a majority vote. This leader ensures that everybody
receives fair treatment.

Effects
a) Workers become interested and are encouraged to take part in decisions.

b) Workers are comfortable in their working environment because of the interchange of ideas and
variety of opinions, therefore, efficiency of results.

c) It tends to slow down the decision-making process and is thus seen as inefficient in this
respect.

4. The charismatic style

This leader is one who is able to lead simply by reason of his/her outstanding skills, personality or
character. Such a leader is said to lead from the front by inspiring others through skill, personality
or character.

Effects

a) Efficiency can be achieved.

b) Pleasant personalities or characters may 'mask' inefficiency.

What is the best style? Who is the best leader?

There is no one style that can be worked in all situations. Our conclusion, therefore, is that the
best leader is one who is flexible, one who can adapt to changing circumstances, that is, to
change the styles as the circumstances dictate. In emergencies, the autocratic method is most
effective. Where a high degree of expertise is needed, the free reign style might be best. It is
generally assumed, however, that the democratic style is best to yield long-term efficiency and
productivity. Whatever the style, under a good leader, people will work willingly and well and
ultimately, profits will rise.

Now for your homework:

a) i) Who is a leader?

ii) Define the term 'leadership style'.

b) i) State four qualities that a good leader should possess.

ii) Give three positive effects of good leadership.

c) Distinguish between democratic and authoritarian leadership.

d) List one advantage of each style mentioned in (c) above.

e) Name and describe one other leadership style besides the ones mentioned in (c) above.
Economic systems - Part 1
Yvonne Harvey, Contributor

Yes, it's our time again. I hope that you are all in good health and ready to digest this lesson. The
learning objective is that students should be able to differentiate among the different economic
systems. In looking at each economic system, we will see how each goes about answering the
three basic economic questions, what to produce, how to produce and for whom to produce.
Before we go into all of that, however, we need to define the term economic system and consider
some of the common goals of governments in these systems.

What is an economic system?

The term describes the ways in which a country allocates or distributes its scarce resources
amongst alternative and competing wants. In other words, it is the fixed plan or programme used
by a nation to utilise its resources.

Despite the characteristic differences in the various types of economic systems, their
governments are concerned with the same issues. Some of these issues include:

The allocation of scarce resources amongst alternative uses

The distribution of national income amongst the country's inhabitants

The control of inflation

Economic growth

The syllabus requires that we consider four economic systems:

The free-market economy, the planned economy, the mixed economy and the traditional or
subsistence economy.

This lesson will discuss the free market economy and the planned economy and next week, we
will do the mixed and traditional economies.

The free-market economy (laissez-faire or capitalist economy)

Private individuals and firms own the majority of the productive resources and property, hence,
they are the ones that allocate or distribute what they own.

 The question of what to produce is decided on in response to consumer demand and the
price for which they can sell their goods and services.
 The question of how to produce bears in mind the motive of the producers. Their aim is to
maximise profits. Therefore, in producing, they choose methods that will minimise costs whilst
maximising profits.
 The goods and services produced are for those who demand them and are willing and able
to pay the price being asked for them. Price is mainly determined by the market forces of demand
and supply. In this system, there is freedom of choice. Private individuals and businesses are free
to obtain economic resources and to produce and sell in a market of its choice. Consumers are
also free to purchase, with their limited income, those goods and services they feel will satisfy
their wants.
 Another feature of this type of economic system is that most of the social services, such as
hospitals, schools, roads and public transport, are produced in a haphazard manner. There being
little or no government enterprises means that in the free-market economy, governments provide
mainly defence and security and ensure that the laws of the country are upheld and that the
rights of the people are not infringed on.
Examples of this type of system are the United States of America and Hong Kong.

The planned economy (command, state planned or collectivist economy)

 The state or government owns the scarce productive resources. Therefore, the state or the
government allocates these resources.
 The state or the government produces the basic goods and services that will satisfy the
needs of people and that will result in the maximisation of social welfare, rather than in the
maximisation of profits.
 The government, through its planning committee, decides on how to combine the various
factors of production to produce in the most efficient way, at low costs, so they can sell at prices
affordable to consumers.
 The goods and services produced are for the country at large, not just for those who can
afford to pay for them. A wide cross-section of persons benefit from goods and services produced
in government-owned operations.
 The state or the government sets prices and determines the levels of wages in firms and
industries; they also dictate production targets and the distribution of incomes and wealth.
 Freedom of choice is limited to the consumer deciding how to spend their money. They are
free to buy whatever goods and services are offered for sale.
 Examples of countries which practice this type of economic system are Cuba and China.

Your homework this week is to research and write the advantages and disadvantages of the two
economic systems we have considered. You may also wish to do some reading on the other two
systems we will discuss next week. See you next week.
The elements of a mixed economy - the public and private sectors
Yvonne Harvey, Contributor

Hello Everyone. I hope you all did the research on privatisation I gave you to do last week.

Our task today is to look at the dominant feature of a mixed economic system which is the
existence of two definite sectors - the private and the public.

This lesson will outline the characteristics of the private and public sectors. It will also highlight
the differences in motivation and orientation of the two sectors.

We will begin by considering the term, 'sector of an economy'.

The sector of an economy refers to a section, division or part of an economy. In the mixed
economy, the private sector involves areas of economic activity in which economic decisions are
made primarily by individual households and businesses and the public sector is where areas of
economic decisions are made primarily by the government.

Now let us move on to the comparison of the two sectors.

Private sector versus the Public sector

 The private sector consists of private individuals, private businesses and the market place.
The public sector, on the other hand, consists of state or government-owned enterprises.
 The private sector raises its funds through personal and family savings or inheritances,
borrowing from banks and other financial institutions, selling shares and through private loans.
On the other hand, the public sector raises its funds by selling government bonds and treasury
bills, revenue collected from taxes, grants from overseas and loans from home and abroad.
 In allocating or distributing the scarce resources that it owns, the private sector is
motivated by the opportunity to maximise profits. The public sector, though, allocates the scarce
resources it owns and seeks to maximise social welfare.
 The private sector allocates resources to the production of luxury-type goods and services,
for example, furniture and cars. The public sector, however, allocates resources to the production
of goods and services that are considered to be necessary to the general well-being of society, for
example, utilities such as water.
 The prices of public-sector goods and services tend to be lower and, therefore, more
affordable than private- sector goods and services.
 Business operations of the private sector rarely operate at a loss. Public- sector businesses
tend to operate at a loss for prolonged periods of time.
 In terms of employment, they both employ a significant number of persons. However, as
the public sector privatises more businesses and a greater number of individuals become self-
employed, we can conclude that the private sector is a larger employer of labour than the public
sector.
 The private sector functions with little or no government intervention, while the public
sector intervenes in the private sector to regulate it when necessary.
 The types of businesses that fall under each sector also differ:
PRIVATE SECTOR PUBLIC SECTOR
The sole trader Local authorities
Partnerships State corporations
Companies - private and public
limited companies
nationalised industries
Government
Co-operatives
departments

Those of you who have

been following the lessons since the start of this academic year will realise that we have already
covered the above businesses in detail.

Please bear in mind that although there are major differences between the two sectors, they do
not conflict nor do they compete with each other. Rather, they complement each other and
purchase goods and services from each other in order to operate efficiently.

In addition, the two sectors often give advice to each other in order to carry out their interests.

Now it's question time. Prepare an outline to the following question:

(a) Explain the term, 'sector of an economy'. (2 marks)

(b) Discuss FOUR differences between the private sector and the public sector.
(8 marks)

(c) Outline TWO ways in which the TWO sectors complement each other.
(4 marks)

(d) Name THREE public sector businesses and THREE private sector businesses.
(6 marks)

Total marks: 20

This concludes our lesson for today.

Next week, we will begin to differentiate among the different economic systems. You may wish to
read up on this area. So take care, until next week.

Communication
Hyacinth Tugman, Contributor

Hi students, today we are going to communicate. This is a two-way process between the sender
and the receiver. In an office, a message may be sent in order to:

 Give or receive information

 praise and encourage
 Reprimand
 Reinforce ideas
 Evaluate
 Enquire
 Boost morale
 Assign duties
Whatever the purpose of the communication, the sender formulates the message, then selects
the method of communicating and the appropriate channel to use.

The four main methods of communication in business are oral, electronic, written and visual.

1. Oral Communication

The most common form of communication is oral and it includes conversations, interviews,
meetings and telephone calls.

Conversations:

 Provide workers and employers with information

 Clarify ideas
 Offer suggestions
 Get immediate reaction to a message.

Interviews - which are more formal and organised - are used to:

 Recruit workers
 Discover much information about a matter by asking appropriate questions
 Evaluate performance, select candidates for promotion and get information.

Meetings:

 A formal meeting follows a set procedure in which the topics to be discussed are set out in
an agenda
 An informal meeting is often unstructured and brief
 They are held in order to examine important matters to obtain ideas on issues with a view
to reaching decisions on which action can be taken.

Telephone calls are:

 Used for both internal and external communication

 Used for transmitting information immediately, especially when an instant response is
required

2. Electronic Communication

This involves the ability to exchange information through the use of computer equipment and
software and includes:

Electronic mail (e-mail) is an organised channel of communication to access information

presented graphically and incorporate documents, audio and picture images sent to computers
anywhere in the world.

Facsimile (fax) is a formal channel of communication for sending written messages to anyone in
the world with compatible equipment using telephone and a facsimile machine.

Teleconferencing is a formal channel of communication which allows people at distant locations

to talk to and hear one another on a specific topic or issue through telephone.

3. Written Communication
is more formal than oral communication and provides the sender of the message with a written
record. Such communication include letters, memoranda, reports, notices and agendas.

Letters:

 Provide a permanent record of communication between organisations and between

individuals.
 Are, perhaps, the most common form of external communication.
 Are used for a variety of purposes, including making enquiries, advertising, lodging
complaints, replying to complaints and confirming information.

Memoranda: Much less formal than a letter, these are used to communicate information within
sections or departments of an organisation. They are essential in:

 Sending suggestions to superiors

 Clarifying decisions taken
 Requesting assistance
 Confirming conversations
 Providing instructions
 Seeking information or advice.

Reports, in business, provide formal communication. They may be used to provide a brief
witness of an incident, or compile information after thorough investigation. At times, it is
necessary to submit factual information on a problem in the office. A report of this nature is
considered to be an occasional report.

Notices are less formal and are used internally. For example, the Human Resource Department
may place a notice on a board to inform the staff of vacant positions.

Agendas serve as a guide indicating the matters to be considered at a meeting and the order in
which they are to be discussed.

4. Visual Communication

I am sure that many of you are familiar with this kind of communication, but how many of you
realise that when you look at computer graphics or a chart, communication is taking place?

Visual communication helps to make oral or written communication more effective and includes
charts, signals, graphs, video films, computer graphics and transparencies.

Charts provide a visual channel of communication using lines or diagrams for illustrations.

Signals create a visual channel of communication using arrows, flickering lights, coloured lights,
bells or sirens.

This is all for today but, before I go, your assignment is to write short notes on those visual
communication that I did not get a chance to complete.

Have a blessed week.

Communication (continued)
Hyacinth Tugman, Contributor

In my last lesson, I looked at the methods of communication. Today I will look at factors to be
considered when selecting a medium of communication, as well as special features of the
telephone and types of communication format.

Media of communication

One of the objectives in communication is for students to be able to select the most appropriate
medium for sending specific information. Hence, I will now look at the factors to be considered
when selecting a medium of communication.

Urgency: If the message is urgent, the communicator has to decide which method will produce
the desired result. The following media are used for urgent communication:

 electronic mail
 telephone
 facsimile transmission (fax machine)
 television

Cost: A long-distance telephone call is usually more costly than a letter. The employee who has to
communicate with persons in different countries should be familiar with the different rates for
these services offered.

Confidentiality: In business, it is not wise to deal with matters of a confidential nature on the
telephone, since the conversation may be overheard. A letter will best serve this need and the
word CONFIDENTIAL should be marked on both the letter and the envelope.

Selecting the appropriate medium/media

In selecting the appropriate media, it is necessary to consider more than one factor. Very often,
the choice is between speech and the written word.

It should be noted that the medium of speech is fast and it facilitates an immediate response but,
on the other hand, there is no record of the communication.

Features of the telephone

Call waiting - This feature will give a special tone when you are on the telephone with another
caller. You can either finish the call you are on or place that caller on hold while you answer the
second call.

Call forwarding - The call-forwarding feature will allow you to key in a code that will
automatically forward all incoming calls to another number.

Speed calling - This feature allows you to store frequently used numbers in a telephone's
memory. After these frequently used telephone numbers are stored, you can dial any of them by
keying in a number code instead of entering the entire number.

Conference calls - A conference call is unique in that several persons are able to talk to each
other, over the phone, at the same time.

Direct outward dialling - This feature transfers outgoing calls without the assistance of the
operator.

Business letters and memorandum - Letters are sent to persons outside the organisation. A
memorandum or memo is for internal use. For both documents, organisations follow a standard
format.

Letters

1. Letter heading. Most organisations use headed paper for correspondence. The heading
usually includes:

(i) Name of organisation

(ii) Mailing address

(iii) Names of directors and chairman

(iv) Telephone number(s)

(v) Fax number

(vi) Email address

(vii) Company's logo or house symbol

(viii) Legal status, for example whether it is a private or public company.

2. Reference. Some organisations have the words 'Your Ref' and 'Our Ref' preprinted on their
headed stationery. Others leave the typist to insert them. The reference number is often the
number of the file relating to the individual or company concerned.

3. Date. All documents should bear the current date; normally typed in order of day, month and
year.

4. Name and address of addressee. This is the name and address of the person to whom the
letter is sent.

5. Salutation. The writer's greetings

6. Subject heading. This tells the reader what the letter is about.

7. Body of the letter. The information the writer wishes to impart is set out in this, the main
part of the letter.

8. Complimentary close. This is the closing remark in a letter. A letter starting with a formal
Dear Sir, should end with Yours faithfully or Dear Mrs Gayle should end with Yours sincerely.

9. Signatory. The name of the writer is often typed under the signature space and his position in
the organisation is typed below.

10. Enclosure. This indicates that one or more items are being sent with the letter.

Memoranda

Staff who wish to communicate with other members of staff in the same organisation write a
memorandum. The heading and framework of an internal memo are usually much simpler than
the external correspondence. Addresses are not usually needed on memos - the name and the
department or position is enough to identify the sender. There are no salutations and
complimentary close. Memos are just initialed, rather than signed in full.

The body of a memo, like that of a letter, may vary in length, from a few lines to several pages.

An internal memorandum
 MEMORANDUM

To All members of staff

From Maintenance manager
Date 28 October 2008
Subject Closing of car park

Please note that the car park will be closed for renovation on October 31, 2008.

Substance abuse
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Substance abuse refers to the use of any legal or illegal substance when that use is causing
damage to the user's physical and/or mental health and causes the person legal, social, financial
or other problems, including endangering their lives or the lives of others.

Abuse refers to the use of a given substance which has an unwanted impact on the user. It is not
the amount of the substance used that constitutes abuse. Rather, it is the effect that substance
has on the individual and that person's life that determines whether the substance is being
abused.

Substance abuse may lead to addiction or substance

dependence.

Why people take drugs

People abuse substances for a variety of reasons:

To feel good
Most abused substances produce intense feelings of
pleasure. For example, with stimulants such as cocaine,
the 'high' is followed by feelings of power, self-confidence
Austin Burrell (left), principal of Penwood High
and increased energy. In opiates, such as heroin, feelings School, shakes the hand of a member of his
of relaxation and satisfaction follow. school's newly formed cadet corps, as his
counterparts salute during a training session at
the school, recently. The cadet corps came into
To feel better being to instil discipline among troubled
Some people who suffer from social anxiety, stress-related students. -Anthony Minott/Freelance
Photographer
disorders and depression begin abusing drugs or other substances in an attempt to lessen feelings
of distress.

To do better
The increasing pressure that some individuals feel to chemically enhance or improve their athletic
or cognitive performance can similarly play a role in initial experimentation and continued
substance abuse.

Curiosity and 'because others are doing it'

Adolescents are very vulnerable because of the strong influence of peer pressure.

Types of Drugs abused

Tobacco: A legal drug: People use tobacco for pleasure, to improve performance and vigilance,
to relieve depression, curbing hunger and weight control. The primary addicting substance in
cigarettes is nicotine. Hazards include heart disease, lung cancer and emphysema, peptic ulcer
disease and stroke. Withdrawal symptoms of smoking include anxiety, hunger, sleep disturbances
and depression.

Alcohol: A legal drug, alcohol depresses the brain. Alcohol lessens your inhibitions, slurs speech
and decreases muscle control and coordination and may lead to alcoholism. Withdrawal from
alcohol can cause anxiety, irregular heartbeat, tremor, seizures and hallucinations. Alcohol is the
most common cause of liver failure. The drug can cause heart enlargement and cancer of the
oesophagus, pancreas and stomach.

Marijuana: (also known as grass, pot, weed and herb). Marijuana, which comes from the plant
Cannabis sativa, is the most commonly used illegal drug in Jamaica. The drug is usually smoked,
but it can also be eaten or made into a tea. Its smoke irritates your lungs more and contains
more cancer-causing chemicals than tobacco smoke. Common effects of marijuana use include
pleasure, relaxation and impaired coordination and memory.

Cocaine: (also known as crack, coke, snow and rock). Cocaine can be smoked, injected, snorted
or swallowed. The intensity and duration of the drug's effects depend on how you take it. Desired
effects include pleasure and increased alertness. Short-term effects include paranoia, constriction
of blood vessels, leading to heart damage or stroke, irregular heartbeat and death. Cocaine has
been associated with damage to the heart, the brain, the lung and the kidneys.

Heroin: (also known as smack, horse). Effects of heroin intoxication include drowsiness, pleasure
and slowed breathing. Withdrawal can be intense and can include vomiting, abdominal cramps,
diarrhoea, confusion, aches and sweating. Overdose may result in death from decreased
breathing. Heroin is usually injected, often with dirty needles. The use of the drug can trigger
other health complications, including destruction of your heart valves, HIV/AIDS, infections and
tetanus.

Methamphetamines: (also known as meth, crank, ice, speed, crystal). Methamphetamine is a

powerful stimulant that increases alertness, decreases appetite and gives a sensation of pleasure.
The drug can be injected, snorted, smoked or eaten. It shares many of the same toxic effects as
cocaine - heart attacks, dangerously high blood pressure and strokes. Withdrawal often causes
depression, abdominal cramps and increased appetite. Other long-term effects include paranoia,
hallucinations, weight loss, destruction of teeth and heart damage.
Ecstasy: (also called MDMA, Adam and STP). This is a stimulant and hallucinogen used to
improve mood and to maintain energy, often for all-night dance parties. Long-term use may
cause damage to the brain's ability to regulate sleep, pain, memory and emotions.

LSD: (also called acid, microdot and mushrooms). LSD and hallucinogenic mushrooms can cause
hallucinations, numbness, nausea and increased heart rate. Long-term effects include unwanted
'flashbacks' and psychosis (hallucinations, delusions, paranoia and mood disturbances).

PCP: (also known as angel dust, hog and love boat). PCP is a powerful anaesthetic used in
veterinary medicine. The anaesthetic effects are so strong that you can break your arm but not
feel any pain.

Activities

1. Identify three drugs that are often abused by adolescents.

2. State four reasons young people may abuse drugs.

3. Outline three consequences that drug use among young people may have on society.

4. As a guidance counsellor, outline measures that may be used to reduce the incidence of drug
abuse.

Research the various types of drugs, causes of use, effects and possible treatments.
Keep our children safe
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Teenage pregnancy may be defined as an

under-aged girl becoming pregnant, that is, before reaching legal adulthood.

Some causes of teenage pregnancy

1. Pregnancy may occur because of a lack of knowledge or

access to methods of preventing pregnancy, as they may be too
embarrassed or frightened to seek such information.

2. Rape is one factor that affects teenage pregnancy. Sexual

intercourse with a teenager is not treated as consensual. In
Jamaica, it is illegal for an adult to have sex with individuals
under age 16.

3. Poverty is believed in instances to be associated with Working in pairs can be quite beneficial.
increased rates of teenage pregnancy. Here, these students of Ascot High School
design a skirt on a piece of newsprint
during a clothing and textile session. -
4. Teenage girls with older partners are more likely to become Anthony Minott/Freelance Photographer
pregnant than those with partners closer in age, and are also
more likely to have the baby rather than get an abortion.

5. Women exposed to abuse, domestic violence and family strife in childhood are more likely than
those without such experiences to have a teenage pregnancy.

6. A survey reported that under-aged females had sexual intercourse in response to their
boyfriend's desire for it.

7. Many teenage pregnancies result from the failure to use contraceptives. Many individuals claim
it is embarrassing to buy birth control.

8. Teenage pregnancy may also be attributed to a breakdown of communication between parents

and children and also to inadequate parental supervision.

9. Sexual content in pictures on television, on the internet and in music may help to influence
teenagers to engage in sexual activity.
10. A girl might also become pregnant in an attempt to retain or win back a boyfriend. A young
man may equate not having a child with his girlfriend to her not loving him.

Controlling teenage pregnancy

 Government, health and education institutions should work together to preventing teenage
pregnancy through better sex education and improving contraceptive and advice services for
young people.
 Support for teenage mothers, including helping them return to the education system,
advising and supporting, working with young fathers.

Impact on the mother/child

Being a young mother can affect one's education. Teen mothers are more likely to drop out of
school. Failure to complete high school reduces career opportunities for many young women.
Teenagers, as a group, have significantly higher complication rates both during pregnancy and
delivery. Teenage mothers have a higher risk of postnatal depression than older women. Babies
born to teenage girls are at higher risk of being born prematurely and of having a low birth
weight.

Children born to teenage mothers face an increased risk of physical neglect and abuse and poor
school performance. Teenagers may also experience alienation from their peers and family.

Teenage fathers

In most Caribbean countries, teenage mothers are not married to the fathers of their children.
Teenage parents are frequently in a romantic relationship at the time of birth but many
adolescent fathers do not stay with the mother, and this often disrupts their relationship with the
child.

Child Abuse

Child abuse may be defined as harm to, or the neglect of a child by another person. Child abuse
can be physical, emotional, verbal, sexual or through neglect.

These are the signs of each type of abuse:

Physical Abuse

 Unexplained injuries such as welts, bruises or burns.

 Broken bones in a child too young to walk or climb.
 Disagreement between the child's and the parent's explanation of the injury.
 Obvious neglect of the child (e.g. dirty and undernourished).

Emotional - Verbal Abuse

 Aggressive or withdrawn behaviour

 Shying away from physical contact with parents or adults
 Afraid to go home

Sexual Abuse

Child tells you he/she was sexually mistreated, child has physical signs such as:
 Difficulty in walking or sitting
 Stained or bloody underwear
 Genital or rectal pain, itching swelling, redness or discharge
 Bruises or other injuries in the genital or rectal area
 Child has behavioural and emotional signs such as:
 Excessive crying or sadness
 Talking about or acting out sexual acts beyond normal sex play for age

Some characteristics of families in which abuse may be more likely:

 Families who are isolated and have no friends, relatives, other support systems
 Parents who tell you they were abused as children
 Families who are often in crisis have money problems, move often
 Parents who abuse drugs or alcohol
 Parents who are very critical of their child
 Parents who are very rigid in disciplining their child
 Parents who feel they have a difficult child
 Parents who are under a lot of stress

If you suspect child abuse of any kind, you should:

 Gently encourage the child to give you enough information to evaluate whether abuse may
have occurred
 If the child reveals the abuse, reassure him/her that you believe him/her, and that he/she
is not bad
 Immediately report the suspected abuse to the proper local authorities. In Jamaica,
reporting suspected abuse is required by law.

Activities

1. Why is teenage pregnancy considered a social problem in our society?

2. Identify two types of child abuse in the Caribbean.

3. State four social conditions in some homes which may bring about abuse of the child.

4. Explain three reasons why it is often difficult to take corrective action in cases of child abuse.

5. As an officer of the Child Welfare Department, suggest three realistic measures which may be
instituted to protect children from abuse.
Social problems in society
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

A social problem is a condition that at least some people in a community view as being
undesirable.

Everyone would agree about some social problems, such as murders, drunk driving traffic deaths.
Daily, our newspapers are filled with stories about undesirable social conditions. Examples include
crime, violence, suicide, divorce, drug abuse, child abuse, poverty, discrimination, prejudice,
pollution, abortion, gay marriage and other environmental problems.

Suicide

Suicide is the act of intentionally terminating one's own life.

Some reasons for committing suicide are:

 Suffering (e.g. physical or emotional agony that is not correctable)

 Stress (e.g. grief after the death of a loved one)
 Crime (e.g. escaping judicial punishment and the dehumanisation and boredom of
incarceration; self-punishment due to guilt)
 Mental illness (e.g. depression or post traumatic stress disorder)
 Catastrophic injury (e.g. paralysis, disfigurement, loss of limb)
 Adverse environment (e.g. sexual abuse, domestic abuse, poverty, homelessness, bullying,
social isolation, discrimination)
 Financial loss (e.g. loss of job/assets, debts)
 Unresolved or unresolvable sexual issues, aftermath of a breakup, acquiring an incurable
sexually transmitted infection (HIV, herpes)
 To avoid shame or dishonour
 Depression, a very common phenomena
 Loneliness, especially when prolonged

Suicide methods

Drowning, the use of firearms, many suicides involve the use of firearms. Asphyxiation
methods (including hanging) and toxification (poisoning and overdose) are fairly common
ways of committing suicide. Suicide may also occur by jumping from a building or bridge, or
stepping in front of a train, slitting one's wrist or throat, electrocution, intentional car
collision and intentional starvation.

Murder-suicide

The motivation for the murder in murder-suicide can be perceived by the perpetrator as an act of
care for loved ones in the context of severe depression. The severely depressed person may see
the world as a terrible place and can feel that they are helping those they care about by removing
them from it.

Suicide note

A written message left by someone who attempts, or indeed dies, by suicide is known as a suicide
note. The practice is fairly common. Motivations for leaving a note range from seeking closure
with loved ones, to exacting revenge against others by blaming them for the decision. It may also
contain a few sentences apologising to those they may have left. Most suicide notes are hand-
written.

Impact of suicide

As with any death, family and friends of a suicide victim feel grief associated with loss. These
suicide survivors are often overwhelmed with psychological trauma as well, depending on many
factors associated with the event. This trauma can leave survivors feeling guilty, angry,
remorseful, helpless, and confused. It can be especially difficult for survivors because many of
their questions as to why the victim felt the need to take his or her life are left unanswered.
Moreover, survivors often feel they have failed or that they should have intervened in some way.

What are the signs and symptoms of suicide?

Warning signs that an individual is imminently planning to kill themselves may include the person
making a will, getting his or her affairs in order, suddenly visiting friends or family members,
buying instruments of suicide, like a gun, hose, rope or medications, a sudden and significant
decline or improvement in mood, or writing a suicide note. If they communicate their plan to
anyone, it is likely to be someone with whom they are personally close, like a friend or family
member.

Individuals who take their lives tend to suffer from severe anxiety, symptoms of which may
include moderate alcohol abuse, insomnia, severe agitation, loss of interest in activities they used
to enjoy, hopelessness, and persistent thoughts about the possibility of something bad happening.

What is divorce?

Divorce, also known as 'dissolution of marriage', occurs when a marriage is legally terminated.
Divorce law governs the sometimes complicated process of divorce, helping to determine how
property and assets are divided, as well as who will have custody of any children the couple may
have.

Annulment

Annulments are primarily concerned with absolving marriages built on deception and or
misrepresentation. If a spouse lies about age or fails to disclose known inability to have children,
an annulment may be granted.

Separation

This occurs when a couple chooses to live apart without getting divorced. There are several types
of separation:

Trial separation - when a couple is unsure as to whether or not they want to permanently
separate, they may choose to undergo a trial separation. During this time, they live apart, but
their assets and debts are still considered mutual.

Permanent separation - in a permanent separation, the couple has already made a decision not
to get back together. They are actively choosing to live apart. Therefore, any material gains and
losses are the individual's, rather than the couple's, responsibility.
Legal separation - when a couple decides to separate permanently, they may choose to become
legally separated. This means that a court decides how property and possession are divided and
makes decisions about child custody, child support and alimony.

What are the different types of divorce?

There are two main types of divorce: fault and no fault.

Fault divorce

One partner may be shown to be at fault. Such fault occurs when abuse is an issue, guilty of
adultery or abandonment.

No-fault Divorce

A no-fault divorce is much less complicated than a fault divorce. In a no fault divorce, there is no
need for evidence or proof of wrongdoing. Instead, any legally recognised reason for divorce is
acceptable. Generally, 'irreconcilable differences', or the mere inability to get along, is considered
a valid reason for no-fault divorce.

Other common reasons that cause people to think about or want a divorce:

 The couple has conflicting personal beliefs

 The couple's marital satisfaction decreases
 Desertion
 Cruel treatment
 Bigamy
 Imprisonment
 Spousal indignities
 Institutionalisation
 Irretrievable breakdown of some kind

Activities:

1. "The rate of divorce for 1000 marriages rose from 40.8 in 1980 to 114.5 in 1984."

N. Abdullah,(ed), Trinidad and Tobago 1985: A demographic Analysis, CARICOM

Secretariat

a. Define the term 'divorce'.

b. Name the institution that deals with matters of divorce.

c. State THREE legally acceptable grounds for divorce.

d. Suggest TWO possible reasons for the steep increase in the divorce rate during the four-year
period.

e. Explain TWO effects of divorce on EACH of the following: i. Parents ii. Children

f. Assume the role of a marriage counsellor and prepare a brief talk to a parents' group on THREE
family practices which would help to lessen divorce rates.
g. Explain the difference between legal separation and divorce.

h. Why do individuals commit suicide?

i. Explain the effects of suicide on remaining family members.

j. Can suicide be prevented? Give reasons for your answer.

Preparation for parenthood

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Preparation for parenthood is not merely a matter of

reading books and decorating the nursery. It is for
expectant parents to prepare themselves for the real-life
experience of being a mother or father.

Students can study even when they aren't in the

comfort of school. - Anthony Minott/Freelance
Photographer
Raising children is one of the most fulfilling jobs in the world. Yet, it is also one of the toughest
jobs - one for which you may feel the least prepared.

The family has been described as 'the cornerstone of society'; indeed, the 'hand that rocks the
cradle, rules the world'.

In order to be ideal parents, a lot of preparation is necessary. Parenthood is a very serious

undertaking with many responsibilities. It has serious implications for the child and society.

Therefore, individuals should not become parents until they have given very careful thought to
these responsibilities and implications.

Factors which may assist in the preparation for responsible parenthood are:

a. A family plan
b. Guidance on parenting
c. Adequate financial resources
d. Physical maturity
e. Emotional and psychological readiness
f. Family life education
g. Developing characteristics of a good parent.

Some of the main aims, therefore, of preparing for parenthood are:

1. To promote confidence in the ability to parent and care for the child the best way possible

2. To promote realistic expectations of childbirth and parenting

3. To promote physical and mental health

4. To enable effective communication and fostering the ability to make informed choices

5. To create an environment where friendships can be made and support networks put in place

Roles and expectations as parents

With new experiences come new expectations. Being open about things can lead to a better
understanding between you and your spouse.

 Discuss and agree on the kind of parents you would like to be.
 What are your expectations about raising your child?
 In what ways would you like your spouse to be involved with the baby?
 How do you plan to share the parenting and work responsibilities as a couple?

Psychological, emotional

As first-time parents, you may find it hard to imagine how dramatically and permanently your
baby will turn your life around. You will experience a range of emotions - excitement,
apprehension, fear, doubts and even anxiety. Take steps to prepare yourself psychologically and
emotionally.

 Attend prenatal classes together as a couple.

 Talk to your parents, close relatives, a good friend or even a counsellor if you have
conflicting or negative emotions.

Financial Preparation

Children bring added expenses to the family budget and make the access of resources so much
more challenging.

 Budget a certain amount of your income for the day-to-day caring of your child, especially
if you are employed/working.

 Start setting aside a portion of your income for your baby's future.

 Save ahead - to make up for lost income - especially if a working mother plans to stay
home on no-pay leave beyond the paid two-month maternity leave period or for unforeseen
emergencies such as illness.

 It is very important to live within your means.

 Avoid buying branded and expensive things for your baby. The baby will outgrow them
before you realise it.

Physical preparation

This aspect of your pregnancy may be the most exciting for you. Once pregnancy is confirmed,
get regular check-ups by a doctor to ensure that the pregnancy is carefully monitored.

Social preparation

 Keep in touch

Extend an open invitation to your relatives and close friends to keep in touch so that you won't
feel cut off from your normal social contacts.

 Effects on marriage

Other than your spouse, there is now another individual needing your attention. Both you and
your spouse will need to adjust to this fact. Don't be preoccupied with the baby to the point of
excluding each other.

 Prepare older children

Involve your older children in the preparation for the baby's arrival. Be sure to frequently assure
them that both of you don't love them less because of the new baby.

Some basic characteristics of a 'good parent' (taken from the Internet) are:

1. A good parent takes care of themselves, as well as their children

2. A good parent accepts that they make mistakes and learn from them.

3. A good parent must apologise when they are wrong.

4. A good parent is not a child's only or main friend.

5. A good parent loves their child for who they are, not who they will be or who they want them
to be.

6. A good parent allows their children to be responsible for their behaviour.

Also:

1. A good parent prays for his/her children.

2. A good parent is gracious. They witness graciousness in the way mom or dad relates to their
friends. These children see graciousness in the way their parents relate to each other. Good
parents understand that kids first learn about the grace of God not in theological explanations,
but in the lives of their mom and dad.

3.A good parent builds an atmosphere of encouragement. A good parent communicates that she
believes in her children. Regardless of their age, children need parents who are encouragers. 4.A
good parent creates an atmosphere of joy and laughter at home. 'Home' should be a place where
we look forward to being at the end of the day. A good parent works to create a home that is a
place of warmth, acceptance and laughter. 5.A good parent realises that one of the best gifts
he/she can offer his children is him/herself. Too many parents try to buy their way to their
children's hearts. Children need parents who are fully engaged in their lives.

Activities

1. "Development faces us with difficulties and sets new conditions on parenthood".

a. Name at least THREE various tasks that "parenthood" demands.

b. Describe THREE problems which confront a woman who is wife, mother and who works.

c. Suggest THREE possible solutions to the difficulties in parenthood brought on by development

in society.

d. Why is parenting a requirement of both male and females in our society today.

2. As a counsellor, give reasons why you believe parents must prepare for parenthood, how they
may prepare for parenthood, and outline FIVE characteristics of a good parent.
Changing roles and responsibilities in the family
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

In the socialisation of our children, to respect equality, we need to educate them so they
understand the concepts and practices which promote equality and respect between men and
women.

The entry of an increasing number of women into the labour force has caused a number of
changes in the Caribbean family. It has influenced the relationships in the family largely because
of the way men and women feel about themselves and the stereotype of gender roles.

Father's traditional roles

1. Father is the head and leader of a family.

2. A father has important roles and responsibilities such as:

 Providing a place to live

 Earning a living, the main breadwinner
 Protecting the family , males are socialised to be leaders
 Making all decisions
 Teaching and disciplining a child and deciding their future, especially the sons
 Providing love

Mother's traditional roles

1. Mother helps manage household matters; her place is restricted to the home.

2. Mother is educated in the fine and performing arts, as well as home economics

3. Socialised to be subservient and exercise gentility and grace

4. Her roles and responsibilities include:

 Reproduction
 Looking after the children
 Keeping the house clean
 Preparing food
 Providing love
 Keeping the children safe.

There is room for change. Although men and women are sharing roles in the home, the distinction
between women's work and men's work in the home still remains to a great extent, intact. This
has created conflict in the family as women sometimes find it difficult to cope with their jobs and
their family roles. Some working wives are still being regarded by their husbands as the ones who
are mainly responsible for doing the housework and raising the children.

This has resulted in

a. Identity crisis
b. Marginalisation of the male
c. Role conflict
d. Development of greater self-esteem and confidence/independence of women

The most dramatic shifts in the gender order concerns women. Young professional women are
winning many of the new jobs in the services and knowledge industries, earning more money,
increasing their share income and strengthening their hold on the professions. In the field of
education, female achievement has been outstripping that of young males for at least a decade.
An increasing number of young women are exhibiting characteristics previously consi-dered
typically male, such as a willingness to take risks, a desire for adventure in sport, foreign travel
and a much greater interest in sexuality.

The rise in the participation of women in the workplace and in education, as well as women's new
social freedoms are often related to the decline of the male breadwinner and male privilege. The
conclusion often touted is that of male marginalisation. The suggestion is that men are unable to
fulfil their role because women are too ambitious.

This conclusion is based on the age-old conception of the role of the male 'breadwinner' as being
essential to the full realisation of male identity. Having a job and earning a good income are
essential mechanisms through which men gain power and prestige, as well as attract women. The
role of the breadwinner is an important source of authority for men within the context of
patriarchy. A decline in this role, through unemployment for example, has manifested in the loss
of self-esteem.

Changing
What is changing in our society?

a. Increase educational opportunities for women

b. Greater recognition of the rights of women

c. Status of women in society

d. Equality of the sexes in paid labour, choice of employment and occupation status

e. Greater choice of employment for women

f. Expansion of family life programmes, family planning education and economic sustainability

g. The availability of technology which enables women to leave the home and work, washing
machine, dryers, microwave, reheatable dishes, etc.

What then is the problem?

People tend to argue nowadays that males and females are equal but each has different roles to
play; the man is responsible for his family and the woman is responsible for household matters.
One cannot help but wonder why the role of a woman in her family is still limited to childcare and
housekeeping and why the tasks of childcare and housekeeping are still seen as 'women only'
tasks. Men are capable of sharing these roles with women and, in fact, some do. This type of sex-
role stereotyping confines human potential, limits options for men and women, and sends out
messages which often contradict daily life experiences and also:

 Perpetuates dominant and subordinate relationships in our society

 Reinforces power structures in which males are more important than females and

 Lays the foundation for gender expectations based on male domination and female
subordination. Families, teachers and peers reinforce such notions until even young women come
to believe that their unequal status is justified and young men believe they are superior. This is
further perpetuated by cultural practices and religious interpretations.

Power relationship

The unequal power relationship between women and men, created and maintained by gender
stereotypes, is seen as the basic underlying cause of violence against women.

According to a UNICEF document:

"It has been well established that the primary cause of gender-based violence is the unequal
power relationship between men and women, based on stereotypes of the male as privileged and
powerful and the female as inferior and submissive. Such stereotypes have been taught the world
over to boys and girls from early childhood. All too many men, prompted by their sense of what is
'masculine', use violence and intimidation to keep women and girls 'in their place' - a submissive
one."

The reality
Arising from the many efforts and contributions by different organisations and individuals over the
years, gender equality and the roles of women are now part of mainstream discussions
worldwide. Declarations have been made, conventions have been ratified, specific policies
regarding women have been established and various promises have been made. All these efforts
are important, but at the best of times they seem to be limited to the public sphere. In the
private sphere, that is, in the family, the practices we all claim to be eliminating (gender bias,
male domination, female subordination), to a very large extent, still prevail.

Activities

"Women have had to find ways to combine their several roles of homemaker, mother and income
earner throughout their life cycle." Barbados' Minister of Employment, labour Relations and
Community Development, Daily Nation, 1987-09-29.

a. Identify THREE traditional roles other than those listed above, performed by the woman in the
home.

b. State THREE problems women may encounter when they become income earners.

Explain THREE factors that have encouraged women to seek jobs outside the home.
Colonial legacy
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Knowing the history of the Caribbean region goes a long way

toward understanding its people. Each island has a unique
cultural identity shaped by the European colonialists the African
heritage of slaves and the enduring legacies of the native Indian
tribes.

The Amerindians
Teachers are always proud when their
Diet: Based on root crops manioc/yucca, sweet potato with students do well. This teacher at
Bridgeport High School is no different as
protein from sea parrots, iguanas, dogs, some maize. she shows this boy art work done by one
of her students recently. - Anthony
Agriculture: Manioc has very high starch content, grows all Minott/Freelance Photographer

year round; resistant to drought, to insects and to hurricanes;

easily stored. Intercropped with beans, squash, and little
demand on soil; baked into cassava bread.

Crafts: Cotton cloth and hammocks; woodworking; large canoes; hammered gold nuggets into
jewellery; wood and thatch huts.

Social/political structure: Caciques/aristocrats/commoners/slaves; distinctions seem more

honourific than material; no real economic elite. No marked specialisation of labour. No army,
officials, priesthood, towns. Caciques had religious and judicial functions.

Vocabulary: Canoa, hamaca, tabaco, cacique, boh'o, guaj'ro, batey in Spanish and other
languages.

Family life: This was practised although men seemed more important. Marriage was essential
and children were a must. Each age group had his or her role to play in the growth of these
important plants. Children were mainly in charge of keeping birds from taking the crop.

Fishing and hunting were also important, and the islanders had a number of ways to hunt and
fish.
Leisure and Entertainment

A passion for song and dance is just one part of Ta'no culture, while sports and even smoking
were popular pastimes as well. Interestingly, sport was so popular that we know much of how it
was played, and smoking tobacco was, of course, something the Ta'no did daily.

The Ta'nos also gave us their words 'tabaco' and 'cohiba', though the tabaco was the pipe from
which they smoked the cohiba tobacco, a tightly rolled bunch of tobacco leaves.

Religion

They also celebrated using festivals. In the afterlife, the Ta'nos believed in a place known as
coyaba, where they could live without droughts, hurricanes or sicknesses and the people spent
their time feasting and dancing.

The African legacy from slavery

It was brought across the Atlantic centuries ago with the monstrous evil of slavery and has been
fiercely protected ever since - preserved in songs and stories, dance, family life, rituals and
speech patterns, food and folk medicine.

Languages

Creole languages are nearly two hundred years old. In the Caribbean, they came about during the
first slavery era. The Creole found in the region is a 'patois' language that is a varied combination
of African and European syntax and lexicon or words. It evolved out of necessity, as slaves had to
communicate with the European plantation owners.

Culture and Customs

Old African culture and customs influenced much of the religious worship, artistic expression,
rhythmic dancing, singing and even ways of thinking in the Caribbean. Reggae music and jerk
cooking are also African-inspired gifts to the world from the Caribbean.

Music and Dance

Music has been central to Caribbean culture since the days of slavery, when it was a mode of
mental survival and a form of recreation. It is characterised by a natural, easy rhythm and
multiple ethnic influences, particularly the African drum beat. Dancing everywhere in the
Caribbean is an energetic melding of lower-carriage movement, shuffle-stepping and swaying
hips.

Family Life on the Plantation (African and European)

1. Slaves were not allowed to marry, which has been brought over to us today in the form of the
common law or the consensual union. Relationships between male and female slaves were
unofficial and the male slaves were not obligated to look after their children. This problem seems
to have also persisted in our present day society where men are shirking their child maintenance
duties.

2. Whites, owners and overseers of plantations were very promiscuous. In most cases, wives did
not accompany whites to the islands, so they had to make do with the females on the plantation.
It is said that they chose the most beautiful slave women to be their mistresses. When she
became too old, she was easily replaced. The union produced coloured children. Mulattos, as they
were called, usually took their social inheritance from their mother in most cases. In present day,
we still have many promiscuous males imitating the actions of the whites during slavery.

3. Europeans had legal religious marriages. This was typical of the upper class and Europeans in
particular. At these weddings there would be much merrymaking and eating. Today, many
individuals in the lower class refuse to marry if they cannot afford a big occasion marked by much
eating and celebrating.

4. The older slave women were left to care for the babies as they were unable to do hard work.
Nowadays, grandmothers and mothers are still shouldering the responsibility of nurturing and
socialising children as the fathers go out to work.

Activities

1. Discuss the following: "Caribbean family structure has its origin in the experiences of
colonialism, mainly in slavery and plantation life."

2. In what way have the Amerindian and African experiences in the Caribbean influenced our
lives?

3. Outline, using the following headings, our Indian and Chinese legacy in the Caribbean: cultural
patterns and customs, ceremonies, religion, family life, art and craft, language, music and dance.
Patterns of family structure
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

The family is the core of human social life. According to Bill

Buford "The family is the essential presence - the thing that
never leaves you, even if you have to leave it."

The family we are born into is called the family of orientation.

The family of orientation provides children with a name, an
identity, and a heritage. It is this family, therefore, that gives
the child an ascribed status and locates them in the wider
world. The family of procreation is established upon marriage.
Marriage is a legal union based on mutual rights of obligation.
Marriage signifies that it is legal for a couple to have off-
spring and to give the child/children a family name. The A student at Vaz Preparatory enjoying a
family of procreation becomes the family of orientation for the game in the computer lab. - Contributed
children created from the marriage.

In all societies, the family has been the most important of all social institutions. It produces a new
generation, socialises the young, provides care and affection, regulates sexual behaviour,
transmits one's social status and, most of all, provides economic support.

Families determine who becomes its head, this is done to determine descent and who inherits the
family property.

Descent and Inheritance practices in families

The state of being related to others is called kinship. The principle of descent assigns people to
kinship groups according to their relationship to an individual's mother or father.

 Patrilineal arrangement: descent and inheritance are passed on by father to son or

male descendants.

 Matrilineal arrangement: descent and inheritance is passed on by mother to her

daughter or female descendants.

 Bilateral arrangement: descent and inheritance is passed on equally through both

parents.

Who wields authority in the home?

 Patriarchy: This is a situation where the oldest male in the household has authority over
the rest of the family members.

 Matriarchy: This is a situation where the oldest female in the household has authority
over the rest of the family members.
 Equalitarian: This is a situation where control, authority is split evenly between husband
and wife. This does not mean that each decision is shared in the family. Wives may hold authority
in some spheres, husbands in others.

Where do newly-weds live?

 Patrilocal pattern: This is an arrangement in which newly-weds live with the husband's
parents.

 Matrilocal pattern: This is an arrangement in which newly weds live with the wife's
parents.

 Neolocal pattern: married couples establish a residence of their own away from relatives.

What forms do marriages take?

 Monogamy: This form of marriage is believed to be the most widely practised in our world
today, a marriage consisting of one man and one woman. This is practised in the Caribbean and
most countries in the western hemisphere. If one should marry for a second time without
dissolving the first marriage legally or if one spouse is dead then the individual is committing
bigamy. Bigamy is punishable by the laws of the country. Serial monogamy may be practised
where an individual may have several spouses in his or her lifetime but only one spouse at a time.

 Polygamy: This type of marriage permits bigamy, as it involves the marriage of a male or
female to more than one-person at a time. It takes two forms - polygyny and polyandry.

 Polygyny: this is the marriage of one man to more than one woman at the same time.

 Polyandry: this is the marriage of one woman to more than one man at the same time.

Choosing a Mate

 Exogamy: This type of mate selection refers to norms requiring individuals to marry
someone outside their kind or group. One of the most important norms regulating this mate
selection is the incest taboos, which forbid marriage between close relatives. Incest is almost
universally prohibited.

 Endogamy: this type of mate selection involves norms that require individuals to marry
within their own kind or group.

1. Homogamy: the tendency where people marry those who have social characteristics similar to
their own. This results in the rather free exercise of personal choice.

2. Heterogamy: Marriage between people with differing social characteristics.

ACTIVITIES

1. Discuss the following statement in relation to marriages you have seen at work.

"Success in marriage is not so much finding the right person as it is being the right person." -
Anonymous

2. Give reasons for or against the following:

 Individuals should marry whomever they wish.
 Arranged marriage is a very good practice.
 The law against the practice of bigamy should be revoked.
 Polygyny may be practised but polyandry should be abolished.
 Living with in-laws does have its advantages.

My family role
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

A role is the actions and activities assigned to or required or expected of a person or group; "the
function of parents"; "the father must do his part"; "play his role"
Status is the relative position or standing of things or especially persons in a society.

Role of Family members

The role of family members is different in Caribbean families. The father's principal role is
economic provider and protector of the family. He is also involved in the discipline of the children.
In general, he may not actively be involved in day-to-day childcare, especially for young infants.
This should not be construed as not caring for children; he tends to feel that women are better
with children at this stage. However, since the twentieth century we have seen some men
becoming more involved in their children's lives, spending more time playing and talking with
them.

The mother's principal role is to take care of the children and be the primary nurturer in the
family. She is also the primary caretaker of the home.

Children are required to be obedient, respectful, and submissive to their parents. Girls are
expected to help with domestic chores around the house, whereas boys are expected to do
activities outside the house, such as taking care of the yard and running errands.

The principal role of children is to bring honour to their families by their achievements, good
behaviour, and contribution to the family's well-being. As such, characteristics such as obedience,
conformity, generational interdependence, obligation, and shame are highly valued. Children are
seen as parents' pride and the products of their hard work.

Children

1. Brother, sister, son, daughter,

2. Assist parents with chores around the home

3. Runs errands for parents

4. Student

Father

1. Husband, brother, son

2. To earn an income to satisfy the economic needs of the family

3. To love and cherish his spouse

4. To help in the socialising of the children and to provide them with food, shelter, clothing and
emotional support.

5. Traditionally the disciplinarian and the breadwinner.

6. Provides security, he is the rock of the family

Mother

Wife, sister, daughter

1. To love and cherish her spouse.

2. Traditionally the care giver and is also responsible for the nurturing of her children.

3. To socialise the children and to provide them with food, shelter, clothing and emotional support.

4. To earn an income to satisfy the economic needs of the family.

Grandparents

1. Settling disputes among family members

2. Assists parents in rearing children.

3. Babysitting to allow parents to work or attend functions or other events.

Transmission of culture

It is through the family that we gain an identity and continuity with the past: a name, physical
characteristics, a "place' in the community, and a reference point against which we are measured
or can measure others. There are 'good' families offering support and comfort and 'bad' families
where the weak, are usually or may be abused by the strong. Whatever its quality, the family and
its function is influenced by the choices and experiences of its members throughout their life
course.

Functions of the family

1. Social status: parents confer their own social identity (ascribed) in terms of race and ethnicity
at birth, these can never be changed. Parents also confer their religion, and social class on their
children.

2. Socialisation: family members are taught the roles and values of their society. This process
by which we learn and are taught the acceptable patterns of behaviour and the culture of a
society is known as socialisation. The family is believed to be the first and most influential setting
for the process of socialisation.

3. Education: it is the family that is responsible for providing the basis for much of the education
a child receives. This responsibility should continue throughout the period that the child attends
school.

4. Economic assistance: Every family needs the basic necessities of life such as food, clothing,
and shelter. Some family members provide the income to obtain these basic necessities. However,
in many countries the state, government or other non-governmental organisations are bearing
this burden as families are shirking their responsibility. This tends to put a strain on the
government and the other organisations and, at times, leads to increase in taxes to raise revenue
to meet the ever-increasing demand.

5. Emotional support: A family is seen as essential for material and emotional security. A family
should provide love, care and attention for each member, it should be a haven when all else fails.
As human beings we need to know there is someone to comfort us and cheer us on when we hurt
or we are sad, to share our joy and accomplishments. As social beings we need to know there is
someone who cares about us and loves us. This all starts in the family.
6. Cultural transmission: A family usually takes pleasure in telling the young about the families
past and instils in them the need to keep the family proud, not to disgrace the family. The family
is also responsible for passing on the traditions, way of life, customs and beliefs from one
generation to another.

7. Procreation/reproduction: The social institution of the family is the basis on which sexual
reproduction; procreation takes place. Thus the family is responsible for the survival of the human
species.

Activities

1. Which of the functions discussed do you think is most important in today's Caribbean society?

2. In one type of Caribbean family, the father is head and the mother socialises the children.

a. State two responsibilities of the father as head of the type of Caribbean family described
above.

b. State one way in which th mother socialises the children.

c. Give three reasons many Caribbea families may function differently from the family described
in the statement above.

Families - the foundation of society

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Families are the foundation of society. It's where we come

into the world, are nurtured and given the tools to go out
into the world, capable and healthy individuals.

A family is a group of people who are intimately related,

living under the same roof, linked through descent from a
common ancestor, through marriage or adoption. Within a
family, there is usually a conjugal pair or the consanguine
family or blood relatives.

Types of family unions

Art class at the Seaforth high school produces
beauty as is seen on this wall. - Photo by Oliver
Three types of family unions have been identified in the Wright
Caribbean and will be discussed.

Heterosexual marriages of one man and one woman, established in accordance with existing legal
systems, have full legal sanction. This is therefore looked on as a formal registered marriage with
the government.

Also implicit in this definition is the sharing of the same household by the partners and their
children, if any.

The selection of a spouse is made by individual choice, but in more traditional communities, the
approval of parents and close relatives is sought.

Why do people get married?

1. To signify a life-long commitment.

2. Security for children.

3. To make a public commitment.

4. For legal status or for financial security.

5. Because of religious beliefs.

People get married in the hope of improving their life. No one marries to sacrifice for the other
person. People marry because somehow, they believe it makes life better for them.

The second type of union, termed 'common law' is similar to the first, except that it has no legal
sanction; that is, it is not established in accordance with prevailing marriage laws. This common
law or consensual union is an informal co-habiting arrangement.

These heterosexual couples may eventually marry, having spent an interval of time living
together. Some, however, choose never to marry. Traditionally, among African Jamaicans, there
has been a link between socio-economic status and type of marriage, with the consensual union
associated with the rural and urban poor and the legal union associated with economically stable,
land holding peasants and the middle and upper classes. A consensual union also often occurs
among young people.

The third type, 'visiting relationship', indicates that there is a regular sexual relationship between
the partners, as well as a wide variety of contacts essential to the maintenance of the functioning
family; but the partners do not share the same household, nor has their union been established in
accordance with the marriage laws of the country. In Jamaica, the first two categories can be
readily identified in the context of a census, but the third is generally not documented.
Relationships often start as a visiting union, change to a common-law union and culminate in a
marital union.

Types/Forms of Families

Families are crucial in the development of human competence and character. Recent research tells
us that the family's influence is even greater than we have imagined. Families play a major role in
how well children do in school, how well they perform on the job as adults and how well they
contribute to society in general. Families have the first and foremost influence on our
development. Family units take a variety of forms, all of which involve individuals living under one
roof.

There are various basic types/forms of families in the world:

Nuclear family - Parents and one or more children. In these families, both adults are the biological
or adoptive parents of children.

Single-parent family - In this family, there is only one parent in the home. Due to high divorce
rates and adults choosing not to marry, this seems to be the fastest growing family form: one
parent (most often the mother, because in divorces, they usually receive custody) and a child or
children.

Extended family - A family that includes three or more generations. Normally, that would include
grandparents, their sons or daughters and their children, as opposed to a nuclear family, which is
only a married couple and their offspring.

Blended family - A nuclear family in which one or both of the parents have had a previous
marriage. These families are generally created by divorce and remarriage, rather than by the
death of the mother or father. In step families, biologically unrelated children often live in the
same household.

Adoptive family - May be nuclear, single-parent or blended. The child is not blood related to the
parent but has been adopted legally.

Foster family - Can be nuclear, single-parent or blended. One or more of the children are not birth
children. The child may stay with the family for an extended period through special government
agencies.

The family form is merely the physical makeup of the family members in relationship to one
another without respect to roles and function.

Activities

1. Outline TWO ways, other than size, in which features of an extended family and a nuclear
family are different. (4 marks)

2. Give ONE example of a non-legal union between consenting adults that is found in the
Caribbean. (1 mark)

3. State ONE way that a man and a woman may enter a legal union in your country. (1 mark)

4. Give THREE reasons why it is considered important for a young couple to enter into a legal
marital relationship. (6 marks)

5. As a social worker, suggest TWO methods parents may use to sensitise young adults in the
family to the importance of legal marital relationship.
The individual in society
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

An individual is unique, a single person considered apart from a

society or community, but who lives and strives in a community and
society in order to survive.

Individuals are affected by the roles society places upon them, the
rights of the individual often take precedence over society. An
individual is seen as free and independent. he thinks and acts
independently, while living within his family, community and in
This student becomes the centre of
society. However, in practice, the individual and society are closely attention while she answers a
intertwined and interdependent. question during class at the Seaforth
High School, in St. Thomas. - Photo
by Oliver Wright
The more society recognises the individual fulfillment of the
individual and fully engages in supporting it, the more the
individual supports the growth and development of that society. The collectivity recognises the
complete freedom of every individual in most societies.

The individual in our world is left to fend for himself. If he develops the skills and has the
necessary drive, he can succeed for himself in the wider world. Individualism is a term used to
describe a moral, political or social outlook that stress human independence and the importance
of the individual's self-reliance and liberty. Society and individuals promote the exercise of
individual goals and dreams.
The Growth and Development Stages of the individual

Growth and development are ongoing processes that begin at conception and continue through
the remainder of our lives. There is a broad spectrum of physical and psychological changes that
are part of the maturation and life of the individual.

Growth is a physical change that can be weighed and measured. Growth and development are
two complimentary processes that together make up the individual.

The stages are: Prenatal

Infancy
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Senescence

Prenatal:

Occurring or existing before birth. It is the development and growth of a single celled zygote
formed by the combination of a sperm and an egg into a baby. Prenatal care is the regulated
health care women should receive during pregnancy from an obstetrician or midwife.

Infancy:

This is the period that follows the prenatal stage. At this stage, the child is helpless and parents
and guardians must feed, clothe, cleanse and play with the child. It includes the first two years of
life. During this time growth, coordination and mental development occur. Most infants learn to
walk, manipulate objects and can form basic words.

Childhood:

The broad term usually applied to the phase of development in humans between infancy and
adulthood, that is, from infancy to puberty (age 10 or 13).This stage is characteristic of
continuous and rapid growth. A child learns to walk, talk, is weaned, goes to school and learns to
cooperate with peers, parents and other associates. The child also develops a sense of right and
wrong, good and bad, values and morality.

Adolescence:

This is the period of psychological, physical and social transition between childhood and
adulthood. This transition involves biological, social and psychological changes. This time is
identified with systematic changes in the body.

Physical maturation resulting from puberty may lead to a high interest in sexual activities,
sometimes leading to teenage pregnancy. According to one individual, it is the time when an
individual is most misunderstood, as many individuals consider this stage to be an intense and
often stressful developmental stage, characterised by specific types of behaviour. It is during this
time that the generation gap reveals itself. A certain degree of conflict about the appropriate
degree of parental control of adolescent life is almost inevitable.

The generation gap refers to the divergent views held by children and their parents in matters
concerning their daily life. Examples are the type of music they listen to, the places they go, the
friends they keep, the clothes they wear, the movies they watch, attendance at church, and the
list goes on.

This period, therefore, portrays adolescents as rebellious, distracted, and thoughtless and daring;
the period of troublesome transition are from ages 12 to 19.

Characteristics of this stage:

 Change in body image

 Need for identity
 Pubic hair grows
 Body odour, skin changes and acne
 Height growth

Male: Testicular changes

Body and facial hair
Body shape

Female: Breasts develop

Pelvic shapes, fat distribution
Body and facial hair
Menstruation and fertility

Peers play an important role in the adolescent's life. Peers provide the opportunity to explore
different identities, social ideas and the nature of relationships. Adolescents who rely on the peer
group rather than on the family for their main support are particularly vulnerable to peer pressure
to engage in problem behaviour, such as smoking, drinking or the use of drugs.

Adulthood:

An adult is a mature individual organism (human being) that is no longer a minor and is now
either a man or a woman. This stage in the human life span is where full physical and intellectual
maturity has been attained. Adulthood is commonly thought of as beginning at age 20 or 21
years; middle age commences at about 40 years and is followed by old age at about age 60.

There are some qualities that should symbolise adulthood: self-control, stability, independence,
responsibility, experience and objectivity. This may not always be true of all adults.

Senescence:

The term comes from the Latin word 'SENEX' meaning 'old man' or 'old age'. This stage may be
characterised by the deterioration of bodily functions that accompanies ageing or the state of
being old, the process of growing old; ageing.
Tips for successful essay writing
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

It has become of great concern that students, particularly

those sitting exams, have great difficulties in formulating
essays which flow logically and flawlessly.

Arguments are not being fully developed or supported.

The improper use of grammar also detracts from the
quality of the written work.

It is with this in mind that this study/essay writing aid was

done, which should assist you in producing essays of a Tenth-grade students of the Green Island High
higher standard. School Kristina Hemmings (left) and Shema-beth
Walker search for books. - File

Quite often, we come upon essay questions which require

us to provide information of a particular sort on a specific
topic. However, a misinterpretation of the requirements of the question may cost you most of
your marks or even a passing grade in the subject. Here are some examples of essay terms and
their meanings.

DEFINE - Give the subject's meaning (according to someone or something).

Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject's meaning.

EXPLAIN WHY/HOW - Give reasons why or examples of how something happened.

ILLUSTRATE - Give examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject.

SUMMARISE - Briefly cover the important ideas you have learnt about the subject.

TRACE - Outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current
form.
RESEARCH - Gather information from outside sources about the subject, often with the
implication or understanding that you will analyse what you have found.

COMPARE - Show how two or more things are similar (and sometimes different)

APPLY - Use details to demonstrate how an idea, theory or concept works in a particular
situation.

CAUSE - Show how one event or series of events made something else happen.

RELATE - Show or describe the connection between things.

Supporting your opinion

The following essay terms seek to defend ideas about the subject. These words do not only
request your opinion on a subject, but also expect your opinion to be supported by concrete
evidence:

PROVE, JUSTIFY - Give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth.

ACCOUNT FOR - Provide possible explanations of how or why something happened.

SUPPORT - Give reasons or evidence for something you believe.

ANALYSE - Examine closely the components/parts of something to figure out how it works, what
it might mean or why it is important.

ARGUE - Take a side and defend it with proof against the other side.

TO WHAT EXTENT - State how much you agree/disagree with the view put forward, providing
proof in the process. This term also suggests that there are usually other factors or extenuating
circumstances which can explain the situation in question.

EVALUATE, RESPOND, ASSESS - State an opinion of the subject as good, bad or some
combination of the two, with examples and reasons.

DISCUSS - Leave no stone unturned (explore all angles) of a suggested idea, draw on supportive
evidence.

Linking Words

ssays will flow more smoothly if paragraphs are connected using linking words.

For adding things on: AGAIN, ALSO IN ADDITION, AS WELL AS, MOREOVER,
FURTHERMORE, STILL, NEXT, WHAT IS MORE, AND

To give examples: FOR EXAMPLE, FOR INSTANCE, ONE EXAMPLE IS, TO ILLUSTRATE,
NAMELY, AS AN ILLUSTRATION, IN THIS CASE

To contrast: HOWEVER, BUT, ALTHOUGH, DESPITE, NEVERTHELESS, ON THE CONTRARY,

YET, EVEN SO, EVEN THOUGH, ON THE OTHER HAND
To repeat: AS I HAVE SAID, AS HAS BEEN SAID, AS HAS BEEN NOTED, MOREOVER,
FURTHERMORE

To show argument: THEREFORE, THUS, BECAUSE, EVIDENTLY, ALTHOUGH, MEANWHILE,

IN CONCLUSION, HOWEVER, AS A RESULT, MOREOVER, AT THIS POINT, CONSEQUENTLY,
SINCE, HENCE

To emphasis: INDEED, IN FACT, CERTAINLY, ESPECIALLY, PARTICULARLY,

UNQUESTIONABLY, WITHOUT A DOUBT, DEFINITELY

To put things in sequence: FIRST, FIRSTLY, SECOND, SECONDLY (etc.), THEN, AFTER
THAT, FOLLOWING, AGAIN, AND, AND SO FORTH, AND SO ON, SUBSEQUENTLY, LATER ,
FINALLY, THEREAFTER, TO CONCLUDE, LASTLY

To sum up or conclude: FINALLY, AS A CONCLUSION, TO CONCLUDE, ALL IN ALL, IN

OTHER WORDS, IN SHORT, IN BRIEF, TO SUM UP AS I HAVE SAID, AS HAS BEEN STATED,
ON THE WHOLE, IN GENERAL, IN A NUTSHELL

Using 'this' or 'it': When you use 'this' or 'it' to sum up what was in the last paragraph
don't leave the reader to work out what 'this' or 'it' was. Spell it out briefly. This makes the
link clearer.

While these tips are intended to help improve your writing skills, the best solution to a
writing dilemma is to develop the habit and love for READING! The more you read is the
more comfortable you become with words.
The importance of social studies
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Social Studies may be described as a broad study of the various fields which involve past and
current human behaviour and interactions. The social studies syllabus does not focus in depth on
any one topic, social studies provides a broad overview of topics usually discussed by individuals
focusing on human society, past and present. Examples of subjects typically covered in social
studies include: history, economics, geography, government, culture, psychology, sociology and
other social science. Social studies may be seen as a discipline-based, interdisciplinary, as well as
an integrative subject.

All of these disciplines should contribute to students' deep understanding of the world around
them.

Areas of the syllabus:

Geography: The land; how people change the land. Study of the Earth's surface; people's
responses to topography and climate, and soil and vegetation.

Economics: The use of money; the production, distribution and consumption of goods and
services and their management

Philosophy: Beliefs about the meaning of life; beliefs about right and wrong.

Language: Communication between people; the study of the kind of knowledge they think is
important.

Political science: The governing of people; laws.

Sociology: The study of groups, families, and social classes - rich and poor; the study of the
social world and the behaviour of humans in a variety of situations.

History: The study of the rapid or slow growth and change of society over time, focused on
human activity and leading up to the present day.

Psychology: The science that deals with mental processes and behaviour.

Skills students are meant to learn in social studies include:

1. Good citizenship
2. Critical thinking
3. Problem solving
4. Tolerance of the ideas and beliefs of others
5. Conservation in its various forms.
The goal, therefore, of social studies is to educate students to become caring, well informed
citizens; realising and connecting the social studies to one's sense of freedom and everyday
lifestyle; examining the 'code of behaviour' within one's diverse society such as society's morals,
values, rule/law.

Such values include:

 awareness of stereotypes
 bias and point of view
 awareness of multiple cultures
 tolerance of cultural differences
 protecting individual's right to difference.

Social studies contributes to developing responsible citizens in a culturally diverse, democratic

society within an interdependent world. Social studies serves to equip learners to make sound
judgements and take appropriate actions that will contribute to sustainable development of
human society and the physical environment.

Social studies involves the study of relationships among people, and between people and the
environment. Social studies recognises the challenges and benefits of living in a diverse cultural
and ideological society.

Why Is Social Studies Important?

The social studies curriculum builds the following capacities in students: disciplinary knowledge;
inquiry, interpersonal, and critical thinking skills; respect for the underlying values of a diverse
democratic society; interest in public affairs and competencies of self-government. Each capacity
contributes uniquely to an individual becoming a responsible citizen.

The social studies curriculum should cultivate inquiry, interpersonal, and critical thinking skills.
These skills students should apply to effectively participate in public life. Aided by appropriate
technologies, students gather, interpret and analyse information to be informed individuals.

The social studies curriculum should promote respect for the underlying values of a diverse
democratic society. As a result, students comprehend the ideals of democracy and strive to live
their lives in accordance with them. Commitment to democratic values motivates citizens to
safeguard their rights, to fulfil their responsibilities as citizens, and to honour the dignity of all
people.

The social studies curriculum stimulates interest in public affairs and strengthens competencies of
self-government though citizen participation experiences. Students are encouraged to inform
themselves about public affairs and to become active participants in civic life rather than passive
bystanders. They are urged to uphold the rule of law in their personal and social lives and to
challenge wrongdoing. Efforts to understand multiple perspectives about local, national and
international issues are supported by the curriculum, to appreciate the value of Earth and its
resources, understand its significance for the survival of people and be willing to conserve it.
The Syllabus

The syllabus content is organised into three major sections as follows:

Section A:Individual Interaction

1. Individual and Family

2. Individual and Society

Section B: Development and Use of Resources

Section C: Options

1. Communication
2. Consumer Affairs
3. Tourism
Caribbean integration
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Factors promoting integration in the Caribbean

1. Common goals
2. Common resources though limited
3. Common political ideology
4. Common history: colonialism, descendants of migrants, slavery
5. Common economic status, developing countries
6. common problems, local and international
7. Common climate, soil, landforms
8. Common culture, language
9. Strategic locations: all Caribbean countries are surrounded by the Caribbean Sea.
10. The challenges of globalisation and trade liberalisation.

Factors hindering regional integration:

1. Competition between countries, e.g., for the location of new industries and the production of
similar products.

2. Differences in resource distribution

3. Differences in stages of development

4. Conflict between territorial and regional demands and loyalties.

5. Influence of multi-national and metropolitan agencies.

The federal experiment

Federation means the amal-gamation or coming together of a number of entities to form one
cohesive group with the same aims and destiny.

The origin of a West Indian federation

The earliest Federal experiment took place in Barbados in 1626, where the Leeward Islands were
integrated under one governor, the Earl of Carlisle. From 1833 to 1855, the Windward Islands and
Barbados were united under one government, of which Trinidad was a part for two years. In the
1930s, the idea of West Indian territories integrating as a Caribbean community under one federal
or Caribbean government was proposed and meetings were held to effect this change.

Why a federation?

1. West Indians were generally dissatisfied with the unresponsiveness and reluctance shown by
the British government to deal with the social, economic and political problems being faced by the
colonies. They wanted an end to poor living and working conditions, limited political powers and
discrimination based on race and class.

2. West Indians in leadership positions felt that they were trained and knowledgeable about their
own nation states and could take over control of their own governance.
3. The teachings of Marcus Garvey helped to empower blacks to take charge of their own
governments.

4. They questioned the accomplishments of Crown colony government, and realised that not
much had been done to improve the conditions of the people.

5. Colonialism as a constitutional and ideological form of governance was now under attack, as it
was seen as an outdated and backward political rule.

6. The British government felt that it would make administrative decisions easier, as this could be
dealt with by the federal government that, in turn, would be answerable to the metro pole.

7. The British government believed it would be more efficient and cheaper to replace the
Governor and his staff in each colony with one governor-general and few officials for the entire
Caribbean region.

Problems arising

1. The larger territories feared their development would be held back by smaller and generally
poor colonies. They feared that if the free movement of Caribbean people were allowed, they
would be bombarded by more immigrants, and they already had more than they could manage.

2. In 1947, Alexander Bustamante said that people were "rushing to set up a federation of
paupers". Grantley Adams from Barbados said, "The plan would lead to nothing more than
glorified form of colonial rule." The Trinidadian representatives stated that it represented no
constitutional advance for the Caribbean.

3. The question of funding became an issue of debate.

4. There was also a problem concerning the location of the capital, as each country that was
proposed, was met with opposition and jealousy.

The End of the experiment

In 1961, Jamaica, after a referendum in which people were asked to vote whether or not to let
Jamaica remain in the federation, to which the people of Jamaica responded "No", officially
withdrew.

Dr. Eric Williams of Trinidad and Tobago stated after Jamaica's withdrawal that "ten minus one
equals nothing", which meant that Jamaica's withdrawal would make it impossible to bring about
a strong and unified federation, so he declared Trinidad and Tobago would also withdraw.

In 1961, the federation was dissolved. Both Trinidad and Jamaica gained their independence in
1962.

Despite the failure of creating a federation of Caribbean states, the idea of regional integration
was never fully lost. A number of regional organisations were formed with the aim of fostering
Caribbean unity and development. These include:

CARIFTA (Caribbean Free Trade Area)

The end of the federation meant the beginning of more serious efforts on the part of the political
leaders in the Caribbean to strengthen the ties between the islands and mainland. The heads of
government kept meetings to discuss the possibility of establishing a free-trade area. A free-trade
area is an area in which there are no barriers to trade. The heads of government of the islands of
Antigua, Barbados and British Guyana signed an agreement at Dickenson Bay, Antigua, to set up
the Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA) in 1965.

It came into effect on May 1, 1968, with the participation of Antigua, Barbados, Trinidad and
Tobago and Guyana. They agreed that there should be no trade barriers between themselves and
that any import duties they imposed on goods should be the same in all territories. By 1970, the
membership included Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Dominica,
Grenada, St. Kitts/Nevis/Anguilla, St Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Jamaica, Montserrat
and British Honduras (Belize).

CARICOM

It was at the Seventh Heads of Government conference, in October, 1972, that the Caribbean
leaders decided to transform CARIFTA into a common market and establish the Caribbean
Community (CARICOM), which was established on July 4, 1973, when Jamaica, Barbados, Guyana
and Trinidad and Tobago signed the Treaty of Chaguaramas, in Trinidad. The headquarters of
CARICOM is in Georgetown, Guyana.

Objectives of CARICOM

1. To encourage trade between member states (economic cooperation).

2. To foster cooperation in non-economic areas such as health, education, culture, sport, etc.

3. To coordinate foreign policy among the members of states.

Activities

1. Explain the following:

a. The Caribbean can truly be seen as one global village.

b. Caribbean integration is critical and essential to CARICOM member states.

2. Explain why Caribbean integration is very important to Jamaica.

3. State four reasons why Caribbean integration is possible.

4. Give three reasons why Caribbean integration is facing problems.

5. Give two problems that have arisen on several occasions, which tend to jeopardise the
integration movement.

Work
Maureen Campbell, Contributor
What is 'work'?

'Work' is a hard word to define. One person's idea of work can be

another person's idea of leisure. Something that you dislike doing at
work, you might enjoy in a leisure setting.

To work is to exert oneself by doing mental or physical labour for a

purpose or out of necessity. It is a big part of people's life. In our
society, there's also much social expectation that people will work.
Hopewell High School chef,
Kevon Evans, stirs a pot of
Why work? curried chicken. Lunch is
prepared for the students each
day at a discounted price. -
When you ask people why they work, many of them will say they're Photo by Claudine Housen
'only in it for the money'. When you work for money, you can be
financially independent, and have some control over your life.

Sometimes, money truly is the only reason a person works. But most people have more
substantial reasons for working. For example:

 They like to spend their days doing something they're good at.
 They like being productive.
 Other people need their skills, and they feel obliged to supply them.
 To perform rewarding and meaningful activities.

'Rewarding' and 'meaningful' work is work that allows you to:

 Fulfil most of your material needs.

 Meet your financial obligations.
 Feel as if you fit into and contribute to society.
 Feel a sense of well-being and accomplishment.
 Meet and interact with people of different backgrounds and cultures.

Types of workers

There are three main types of workers:

1. Primary worker - These individuals are involved in the production or extraction of raw
materials, e.g., farmers.

2. Secondary workers - These workers are responsible for the manufacturing of man-made goods
or the processing of raw materials, e.g., tailors.

3. Tertiary workers - Occupations concerned with the provision of service required by the primary
and secondary sector, e.g., health workers and educators.

The labour force

The labour force includes individuals who work and all those who are actively looking for a job.
The labour force is formed by individuals from the age of 16 and 65 years, who are capable and
willing to work.

Finding work
One can identify job opportunities by:

a. Reading newspaper advertisements.

b. Visiting employment agencies.
c. Applying to the civil service commission.
d. Visiting work places.
e. Websites on the Internet
f. Books and magazines.
g. Friends or relatives.
h. Help-wanted signs posted at workplaces.

The most important part of finding work is our ability to convince the prospective employer that
we are the right person for this job. Firstly, we try to convince the employer on paper in the form
of a résumé/curriculum vitae and then in person through an interview and/or an examination.

What type of work will I do?

When choosing a career, many questions will be asked, such as:

1. Is there scope for upward mobility?

2. Do I want to be creative?

3. Do I have the skills, temperament and the qualifications for such a career choice?

4. Do I want to work independently or with or for others?

5. Do I want to help others directly or should I produce things that people find useful?

Why is it so hard to get a job?

 Inexperience.
 Not academically qualified.
 The area is volatile where the job exists and individuals are afraid.
 Lack of investment capital for the creation of new business.
 Discrimination as it relates to age, sex, colour, ethnic origin, educational institution
attended, religion and area of residence.
 Unaware of vacancy.
 The individual may have to relocate.
 Level of competition being faced in the labour market, etc.

Unemployment

Unemployment refers to the condition of not having a job, or as being "out of work", or
unemployed. Not having a job makes it difficult, if not impossible, to meet financial obligations,
such as purchasing food to feed oneself and one's family, and paying one's bills. Being
unemployed, and the financial difficulties that come with it, may lead to a loss of health-insurance
benefits. It may cause malnutrition and illness, and is a major source of mental stress and loss of
self-esteem, which may lead to depression, which may have a further negative impact on health.

Types of unemployment
Frictional: When moving from one job to another, the unemployment temporarily experienced
when looking for a new job. People are also unable to fill vacancies that exist because of
ignorance, or distance from residence.

Structural: Caused by a mismatch between the location of jobs and the location of job-seekers.
"Location" may be geographical, or in terms of skills. The mismatch comes because the
unemployed are unwilling or unable to change geography or [Link] capital is available to make
new investments and industries find it difficult to succeed.

Cyclical: When there is not enough aggregate demand for the labour, caused by a business cycle
recession; the changing of taste especially from one brand to another resulting in poor business
for one brand.

Technological: Caused by the replacement of workers by machines or other advanced

technology. Industries become capital intensive rather than labour intensive.

Seasonal: When an occupation is not in demand at certain seasons. For example, construction
workers in winter, or the tourist industry.

Voluntary unemployment: Persons remain unemployed because of benefits they can receive
and have no intention of taking permanent jobs.

Activities:

1. Find the meaning of the following terms:

Self-employment, unemployable, employment and dependency ratio.

2. As a member of a prominent youth group in your community, address a youth conference on

the effect of unemployment among youths in the society. First, you should define 'unemployment'
and describe TWO types of unemployment in your country. Give THREE reasons why
unemployment among youths may be harmful to a country. Finally, suggest TWO ways in which a
youth group may encourage young people to become self-employed.

The lure of the city

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Internal Migration

People in the Caribbean tend to migrate from the rural areas to the
cities, resulting in urbanisation.

Why do people move to cities?

Larger cities are often seen as concentrations of social problems,

poverty and high unemployment rates. Thus, an interesting question
is why do people move to cities? Irwin High School students sing
during a church service to launch
the school's Parent Month
celebrations at St. Paul's United
Church, in Montego Bay, St. James,
last year. - Claudine Housen/Staff
Photographer
Contemporary migration in developing countries arises from the attraction of the city as compared
to the rural areas from which migrants move. Migrants may be attracted by better access to
public services such as electricity, clinics, schools, as well as better prospects for recreation in
cities. Thus, the 'bright lights' of the cities may be a pulling factor.

However, although some migrants move for these reasons, numerous studies show that migrants
respond primarily to economic incentives. People move from poorer areas to wealthier areas for
economic gain. Differences in average income or wage levels between rural and urban areas may
also significantly affect migration between two locations.

BOMBAY MIGRATION

We can look at what other factors push or pull individuals to the cities.

Push factors: These are the things that force people to leave the countryside such as:

 Natural disasters such as floods, too much rain in a short time, ground too hard, cannot
soak in, crops washed away.

 Drought - not enough rain crops cannot grow.

 Soil erosion - due to climate.

 Not many diverse job opportunities.

 Inadequate school facilities or tertiary institutions, such as universities, colleges, etc.

 Hard/manual labour. Many persons see farming as low-skilled, manual labour, unless they
are the owner of the farm. They prefer to obtain jobs outside of farming.

 The farms can no longer employ all the children that are born to farming couples as the
division of land gets smaller and smaller over generations.

 There may be few infrastructural benefits such as roads, which are poorly maintained,
water supply irregular and electricity non-existent.

Pull factors: These are the things that force people to go to the cities.

 The variety of jobs available and the regularity of paid jobs.

 Higher wages offered/more money.
 Educational opportunities in abundance beyond high-school years.
 Cities are established with the main commercial enterprises and cultural and recreational
facilities.
 The lure of 'the bright lights' and the search for a better future.

Urbanisation is the increase over time in the population of cities in relation to the region's rural
population. It is caused by the migration of people from the countryside to the city in search of
better jobs and living conditions.

Benefits and costs of urbanisation

Urban growth gives rise to economies of scale. Industries benefit from concentrations of suppliers
and consumers which allow savings in communications and transport costs. Large cities also
provide big differentiated labour markets and may help accelerate the pace of technological
innovation. Urban growth also allows economies of scale in such services as water supply and
electric power to be exploited.

Against these benefits, a major consequence of rural-urban migration is over-urbanisation. Along

with the rapid spread of urbanisation has come the prolific growth of huge slums and shanty
towns. Today, slum settlements represent over one third of the urban population in all developing
countries.

Surveys confirm that air pollution, congestion, social disturbances, crime and similar problems
increase disproportionately with city size. The concentration of people also causes congestion and
raises the cost of travel so that scarce resources like time and fuel are wasted. In addition, the
mounting pressure on existing services means deteriorating quality and a reduction of what is
available per person. As cities expand, the cost of providing basic services can rise enormously.

In other words:

 Many migrants find themselves living at sub-standard levels in high- population density
areas, in slums, shanty towns or squatting.

 Unreliable supplies of clean water, or inadequate sewage and garbage disposal.

 They may procure very poorly paid jobs or remain unemployed.

 They may turn to crime and violence to ensure survival.

 Not enough health or educational facilities.

 Young educated persons end up being the ones who migrate, leading to brain drain.

 New skills being used in the new settlement area.

 The development of the rural areas by the government encouraging would be migrants to
rethink.

 It is also argued that some persons from the rural areas may not be prepared for
competition in the city for reasons such as general lack of knowledge of urban way of life/culture,
urban occupations and their demands.

 Individual's adjustment period may also be a negative factor to a migrant to the urban
area.

 Traffic congestion, pollution and overcrowding in schools.

Preventing Urbanisation

1. Building of houses, upgrading and expanding educational facilities and providing skills-training
centres throughout the island.

2. The improvement of rural infrastructure, such as roads, water supply, telecommunications and
electricity becomes available in all rural areas.

3. Assisting persons involved in the agriculture industry, by offering loans, education, etc.
4. Development of non-agriculture employment to cater to those who want to get out of
agriculture.

Activities: The Lure of the City!

Write an article for a weekend newspaper on rural-urban migration. In your article, describe
THREE conditions in rural areas that may force young people to migrate to the city. Then, explain
ONE positive and TWO negative effects that this movement may have on the youth themselves.
Finally, suggest TWO strategies that may help the government to cope with the increasing
population in the city.

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

What is migration?

Migration is the movement of people from one place to another/one geographical location or
region to another for the purpose of taking up permanent or semi-permanent residence, usually
across a political boundary.

An example of semi-permanent residence would be the seasonal movements of migrant farm

labourers from the Caribbean to work in North America, for example to cut cane.

Who is a migrant?

A migrant is a person who moves from one place to another. He/she may be forced to leave
because they are afraid, starving or desperate for the safety and security of their family. People
can either choose to move (voluntary migration) or be forced to move (involuntary migration).

Types of migration

Internal migration is moving to a new home within a country; this may be temporary or
permanent. Internal migration is usually seen in the Caribbean as movement from the
countryside/rural areas to the cities/urban areas.
External migration/ international migration is moving to a new home in a different country or the
movement across political boundaries, that is, from one country to another.

Population transfer is when a government forces a large group of people out of a region, usually
based on ethnicity or religion. This is also known as an involuntary or forced migration.

Impelled migration (also called reluctant or imposed migration) is when individuals are not forced
out of their country, but leave because of unfavourable situations such as warfare, political
problems or religious persecution.

Step migration: A series of shorter, less extreme migrations from a person's place of origin to final
destination.

Chain migration is a series of migrations within a family or defined group of people. A chain
migration often begins with one family member who sends money to bring other family members
to the new location. Chain migration results in migration fields - the clustering of people from a
specific region into certain neighbourhoods or small towns. This is evident in the United States
and Britain.

Return migration/ returned residents: The voluntary movements of immigrants back to their place
of origin.

One of the most significant patterns of migration in the Caribbean is rural to urban migration.

Seasonal migration is the process of moving for a period of time in response to labour or climatic
conditions (e.g., farm workers following crop harvests)

People who migrate

An emigrant is a person who is leaving one country to reside in another.

An immigrant is a person who is entering a country from another, to take up new residence.

A refugee is a person who is residing outside the country of his or her origin owing to fear of
persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or
political opinion.

An internally displaced person is a person who is forced to leave his or her home because of
unfavourable conditions (political, social, environmental, etc.) but does not cross any boundaries.

Why do people migrate?

People move for a variety of reasons.

However, before one migrates, the following must/should be taken into consideration: The
advantages and disadvantages of staying versus moving, as well as factors such as distance,
travel costs, travel time, modes of transportation, terrain and cultural barriers.

Reasons for migrating

If people are satisfied where they are, they will not migrate.
For migration to take place there must be some factors that push people out or that pull them to
a new location.

Push factors: Reasons for emigrating (leaving a place): Because of a difficulty such as a food
shortage, war, natural disasters, racial or religious persecution, lack of employment political
unrest and economic deprivation etc.

Pull factors: Reasons for immigrating (moving into a place): Because of something desirable. Pull
factors are those which encourage a person to move. These include a chance for a better job,
better education, a better standard for living, a nicer climate, better food supply, freedom, etc.

Impacts of migration

Human migration affects population patterns and characteristics - social and cultural patterns and
processes, economies and physical environments. As people move, their cultural traits and ideas
diffuse along with them.

Diffusion: The process through which certain characteristics (e.g., cultural traits, ideas, disease)
spread over space and through time.

Country of origin

1. Many Caribbean islands depend very much on the remittances of these migrants for economic
survival. Remittance forms a large part of our means of obtaining foreign exchange.

2. The view that foreign is better than yard has weakened to some extent the integration process
in the Caribbean.

3. Investment ventures may not be developed because the people with the money have left.

4. It provides temporary relief to the unemployment problems.

5. Brain drain occurs as a result of the loss of mainly skilled and professional persons who
migrate.

The Receiving country

1. Racial or religious discrimination, language barrier, climatic differences and loneliness may
become problematic.

2. Changes in the age, sex, ethnic and religion.

3. Strain on the education and job creation aspect of government, as greater stress is placed
upon the resources of the receiving country because of the growth of the population.

4. The institution of new laws to protect both citizens and immigrants.

5. New skills and cultures will be introduced.

6. Development of crime and violence.

Activities
1. What is migration?

2. State TWO types of migration.

3. List TWO requirements a person may need to satisfy before migrating to another country.

4. Give FIVE reasons for the migration of many Caribbean people to TWO named countries.

5. Suggest THREE strategies that the government in your country may use to discourage highly
skilled persons from migrating.

Population distribution and composition

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Population distribution means the pattern of where people live.

This therefore deals with the geographical location/distribution of the people in a population.
World population distribution is uneven. In some areas, there are more people than in others.
There are no people at all in some areas. There are many factors that can affect the way a
population is spread over Earth's surface. These factors are what make the spread of the
population uneven. The factors are split into two sub-categories - human and physical factors.
Within each of these there are positive and negative factors.

Population density

Population density is a measurement of the number of people in an area. It is an average number.

Population density is calculated by dividing the number of people by area. Population density is
usually shown as the number of people per square kilometre.

There are a number of different environmental and human factors which affect why people are
not spread evenly across the world. The world is made up of a vast number of contrasting
environments. Some areas have a temperate or mild climate, others are covered with ice. Some
areas are fertile, others are desert. Some of these environments attract settlers, while other
environments repel settlers, as shown in the diagram below.

Factors affecting population density

There are a range of human and natural/physical factors that affect population density. (See
table)

Many nations that have a high population density relative to their resources are most times faced
with the problems of poverty, hunger, lack of privacy, vermin and disease, threat to life, high rate
of criminality, and lowering of the standard of living. It is therefore necessary for the government
to make decisions regarding the provision of infrastructure and the location of facilities such as
schools and hospitals.

Population composition
Population composition refers to the characteristics or the make up of a particular group of
people. These characteristics include the distribution of a population across age categories and
the number of men relative to the number of women, ethnicity, religion and occupation. Age and
sex composition are the most often considered aspects of population composition. These
differences can be shown in the form of line graphs, tables, bar charts and population pyramids.

Ethnic composition

Jamaica's motto clearly outlines the racial mixture in the Caribbean, "Out of many one people".
The ethnic groups in the Caribbean include Africans, Europeans, Indians, Chinese and people from
the Middle East.

Age composition

The age composition influences the kinds and numbers of products made. The age composition
also shows up the dependency ratio. That is, how many persons are carrying the burden of
supporting the rest of the members of society. The age composition suggests the type of
population in a country as to whether it is a youthful population or an ageing population.

The sex ratio

This is the proportion of men to women in a population, and is stated as the number of males to
100 females. Life expectancy, that is, the number of years that people in a given population are
expected to live, seems to be longer for a woman.

Why is this so?

 Males tend to have more dangerous experiences than females. They are the majority in
the army and may fight in wars and engage in more strenuous sports.

 Men seem to be more commonly the victims of criminal activities.

 Men are the ones most times employed in more dangerous jobs and may have more
accidents.

 There seems to be more male alcoholic drivers.

 Men tend to hide their illness until it's too far gone to be cured.

Religion

Christianity is the dominant form of religion in the Caribbean. This is a European legacy.

Islam: Hinduism is the legacy of indentureship. Judaism and Orthodox faiths are usually
associated with other migrants.

Activities

(a)(i) Define population density.

(ii)State how to calculate the population of a country. (You may illustrate by using figures)
(iii)Name one CARICOM country that has a high population density and one that has a low
population density.

(b) Give three explanations to show how the high population density of an urban community may
affect the delivery of its health services.

(c) Suggest two actions the government of your country may take to encourage people to
populate low density areas.

Physical factors High Density Low density

Relief (shape and Low land which is flat. E.g. Barbados High land that is mountainous.
height of land)
Resources/Industrial Areas rich in resources (e.g. coal, Areas with few resources tend
Influence bauxite, wood, fishing etc.) tend to to be sparsely populated.
be densely populated.
Climate Areas with temperature climates Areas with extreme climates of
tend to be densely populated as hot and cold tend to be
there is enough rain and and heat to sparsely populated.
grow crops.
Urban Influence The best schools, cultural and Lack of educational facilities,
recreational centres, administrative health care, cultural and
centres. recreational facilities.
Natural disasters Areas safe to a high degree from Areas prone to flooding and
natural disasters. other natural disasters are
avoided.
Human Factors High Density Low Density
Political Countries with stable governments Unstable countries tend to have
tend to have a high population lower population densities as
density. people migrate.
Social Groups of people want to live close Other groups of people prefer
to each other for security. to be isolated e.g.
Scandinavians.
Economic Good job opportunities encourage Limited job opportunities cause
high population densities. some areas to be sparsely
populated.
Demographic tools
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Demography is the study of population statistics

such as birth and death rates, immigration, the
labour force and population trends.

Policymakers need to study the population in order

to determine its characteristics such as size,
composition, structure and distribution.

Census

A census is an official numbering of the people of a

country or district; it may be further defined as the An example of a population pyramid
total process of collecting, compiling and publishing
demographic, economic and social data pertaining to
all persons in a country at a specified time. A census can also be described as a form of national
stocktaking. The census is a complete count of the population and provides detailed data on the
size of the population, age structure, educational attainment, labour force and socio-economic
characteristics.

In most countries, the census exercise is a decennial one, that is, every 10 years.

Demographers will use a census to find out about the following:

 Race distribution
 School enrolment in a particular area and the need for improvement
 Conditions of residence
 Educational level of the population and the facilities available and necessary
 Distribution of family income
 Dependency ratio
 Quality of housing and its availability
 Gender ratio of population
 Marital status
 The need and availability of welfare facilities
 The need for more schools, factories or homes for the aged
 Welfare needs of the population, the number of persons employed and unemployed
 Population size and number of persons in the labour force.
 Male/female ratio/age, sex ratio
 Marital status of adults
 Migration levels
 Choice of religion

What does the census cover?

Although the main focus of the population census is a count of the population, much more
information about the characteristics of the population is obtained. The census questions will seek
to solicit information on the age, sex, marital status, religion and educational characteristics of
each person. Questions on the economic activity of persons will provide information on the work
force and its occupational and industrial breakdown. In addition, questions are asked about each
dwelling place.

Census information is confidential

The law requires that all information collected from the census must be kept confidential. All
enumerators, supervisors, other field staff, as well as employees of the census office will be
required to take an oath of secrecy to not reveal any census information to anyone who is not a
sworn employee of the census organisation. This means that they will not divulge any census
information, under any circumstances, even to members of their families. Enumerators,
supervisors and other persons working with the collected information are instructed and cautioned
not to leave completed questionnaires lying around unprotected.

Some households may hesitate to answer some of the questions asked. This is understandable
since they will be asked to provide information which they do not usually make available to
strangers.

Population Pyramid

A population pyramid, also known as an age-sex pyramid, is a graphical illustration that shows
the distribution of various age groups in a population, which normally forms the shape of a
pyramid. It typically consists of two back-to-back bar graphs with population plotted on the x-axis
and age on the y-axis, one showing the number of males and one showing females in a particular
population in five-year age groups (also called cohorts). Males are conventionally shown on the
left and females on the right, and they may be measured by raw number or as a percentage of
the total population.

Information to be found on the population pyramid

A great deal of information about the population broken down by age and sex can be read from a
population pyramid, and this can shed light on the extent of development and other aspects of
the population.

The wide base of the pyramid indicates a large number of children, and the steady upwards
narrowing shows that more people die at each higher age band. The pyramid indicates a
population in which there is a high birth rate, a high death rate and a short life expectancy. This is
the typical pattern for less economically developed countries,

The pyramid steps indicate what percentage of the population is in a specific age group and is
arranged in five-year intervals. The pyramid can be used to deduce whether it is an ageing or a
young population. If the pyramid has a very wide base and progresses to a narrow top, we might
say it has a young population. The Caribbean has a young population. This situation results in
more than half of the population being dependent on the others, those who are working.

Activities

1. Copy EACH statement below and beside it write the word, from the list given that best fits each
statement.
Statements

A. A country's population divided by its area ____________

B. Counting all people in a country during a specific time ______________

C. Too many people in a country for its limited resources. ______________

Words: overpopulation, density, census, underpopulation

2. State THREE kinds of information obtained from a census.

3. Explain THREE ways a government may provide for the needs of a youthful population.

4. Suggest TWO activities a youth group may organise for retired persons in the community.
Development and the use of resources
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Resource: Living and non-living things that may be useful to people and their society. It is
anything natural or physical that can be harnessed to create wealth or improve the standard of
living of a nation. It can be described as assets and the means of meeting demands and achieving
goals.

There are two types of resources: human and natural/physical. Human resource - This includes
people, their skills, knowledge, values, attitudes and abilities.

Physical resource - This includes the land, water, forests, climate, air, geology, soils, seas, energy,
minerals and money.

When looking at human resources we usually look at:

a. The size and composition of the population.

b. A country's level of health and education.
c. The skills and attitudes the people have developed.

All societies contain resources; how we use resources depends upon the quality of the people, the
human resource. Human resources are responsible for the utilisation of physical resources. It is
very vital to the existence of mankind, and because of this, effort must constantly be made to
develop the inherent talents, skills and abilities of our people especially in the harnessing of our
physical resources and converting them into useful products.

A population's size and its level of health and education are important factors affecting its
economic performance. For instance, a population weakened by malnutrition or widespread
disease is less productive than a healthy one. A society's level and type of education have a great
effect on the amount and kinds of goods and services demanded and produced.

It can, therefore, be concluded that all institutions in society, such as the family, educational,
government, religious, in some way, influence and shape the quality of the human resource, and
the quality of the human resource in turns contributes to the progress of these institutions. The
importance of human resource cannot be overstated as it is needed in the utilisation of the variety
of skills to solve problems. The skills are also used to produce a wide variety of goods and
services that help to maintain and improve standards of living.

A skilled population includes engineers, scientists, doctors, lawyers, teachers, farmers, authors,
sports personalities, musicians, artists, poets, fishermen and the list goes on. The development of
human resources is a multi-stage process.

Valuing and maintaining our human resource

1. The ability to cooperate, integrate, work together in various groups for our mutual benefit.

2. Working or trying to find a job to make oneself, independent and career oriented.

3. Recreational activities and a clean and healthy environment, free from disease.

4. The size movement, control and growth of the population are of the utmost importance to
development.
5. Education available to all members of society, available at all levels, kindergarten, primary,
secondary and tertiary. This will aid in the development of major skills.

6. Proper nutrition and adequate health care for every individual in a community. This includes
the availability of primary and curative health care.

The population

Population is referred to as the total number of people/inhabitants living in a geographic area at

any particular time.

Demography is the study of population.

When studying the population we look at statistics such as birth and death rates, immigration.
Individuals interested in population studies also looks at the labour force and the population
trends. Policy-makers need to study the population in order to determine its characteristics such
as size, composition, structure and distribution. Population is also important as a country with five
million inhabitants has different production possibilities, needs, desires from one with five
hundred million.

Statistics in population

Population is not the same at all the time owing to a number of factors, the chief among them
being birth, death and migration.

Birth

Birth refers to the birth rate or crude birth rate and indicates the number of live births per 1,000
of the population in a given year. For example, in a country with four million, there are 100,000
births in 2006, the birth rate or crude birth rate would be calculated using the following formula.

Number of births X 1,000

Total population

I.e. 160,000 x 1,000 = 40

4,000,000

40 births per 1,000 of the population.

Death

The death rate or crude death rate is the number of deaths per 1,000 of the population in a given
year. If we are informed that 50,000 persons died in the above country during 2006, we calculate
the death rate using the formula:

Number of death X 1,000

Total population
I.e. 100,000 x 1,000 = 25
4,000,000

25 deaths per 1000 of the population.

Immigration rate

The formula used is as follows:

Number of immigrants X 1,000

Total population at destination

This will tell the number of immigrants arriving at a destination per 1,000 of that population of
that destination.

Emigration rate

The formula used is as follows:

Number of emigrants X 1,000

Total population of country of origin

Activities

The immigration rate is the number of emigrants departing an area of origin per 1,000 population
at the area of origin in a given year.

1. Explain the terms:

a. Population
b. Birth rate
c. Death rate
d. Immigration
e. Emigration

2. Differentiate, using examples, the two main types of resources.

3. "Human resource is better than natural resource." Discuss.

Revision on social institutions

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

1. An institution has all of the following characteristics except:

a. an organised structure.
b. overtime endurance.
c. does not address a particular need in society.
d. may have sanctions such as rewards and punishment.

2. Why are rules very important in any institutions?

a. They act as standards govern- ing the behaviour of members.
b. They enable leaders to be uncooperative.
c. They help members to vent their frustration at visitors.
d. They help members to compete for leader's attention.

3. Which of the following is not an institution?

a. School
b. Political party
c. Sports club
d. The mass media

4. An educational institution has which of the following characteristics?

a. Is highly organised
b. Offer financial advice
c. Assures persons of divine intervention
d. Accept jewellery and other valuables for safe keeping.

5. Religion carries out all of the following functions except:

a. provide members with a sense of belonging and identity.

b. establishes certain codes of conduct.
c. provides a skilled population.
d. provides direction and focus for life's journey.

6. Which of the following is not an economic institution?

a. Insurance companies
b. Trade unions
c. Credit unions
d. University

7. Which of the following is NOT a function of education and religious institutions?

a. Provide socially correct ways of living.

b. Transmit culture.
c. Willingness to fight off external aggression.
d. Giving a sense of identity to citizens.

8. 'National Sovereignty' refers to a nation's

a. obligation to support the work of the United Nations.

b. need to maintain democratic institutions.
c. development of high-income housing.
d. status as independent and self-governing.

9. The system under which a country is governed by a few influential people is known as:

a. anarchy.
b. oligarchy.
c. republicanism.
d. democracy.
10. Which of the following has executive functions?

a. Senate
b. Parliament
c. Cabinet
d. House of Representative

11. Under which of the following circumstances may government restrict the constitutional rights
and freedoms of citizens?

i. Threat of civil war

ii. Military invasion from another country.
iii. Widespread destruction from natural disasters.
iv. Peaceful demonstrations associated with trade union protest.

a. i, ii, and iii only

b. i, ii and iv only
c. ii, iii and iv only
d. i, ii, iii, and iv

12. In trade unionism, collective bargaining refers to negotiations:

a. among members to fill top positions in a union.

b. between various employers in a particular industry.
c. between an employer and a union representing employees.
d. among several trade unions seeking a common goal.

13. What is the main reason why government exist?

a. to ensure order in a country

b. to monitor the behaviour of individuals
c. to train individuals for combat
d. to provide employment.

14. A body of laws and rules defining the relationships of the Government to the people is called?

a. an institution
b. a corporation
c. a constitution
d. a federation

15. Which of the following statements is correct; a bicameral legislature is composed of:

a. the Cabinet and President

b. the Senate and House of Representatives
c. Parliament and the Judiciary
d. the Executive and the Judiciary.

16. TWO examples of a constitutional monarchy in the Caribbean are:

a. Jamaica and Guyana

b. Guyana and Barbados
c. Trinidad and Tobago
d. Jamaica and Barbados

[Link] chronological order of the political system of the West Indies is as follows:

a. Crown Colony, Republic, Constitutional Monarchy.

b. Proprietary, Old Representative System, Crown Colony.
c. Constitutional Monarchy, Republic, proprietary.
d. Old Representative System, Crown Colony and Republic.

18. Which of the following does not fall under the banner of the judiciary?

a. the industrial court

b. the appeal court
c. the resident magistrate's court
d. the coroner's court.

19. A bill becomes a law/act when:

a. it goes through several stages of reading and discussion in Parliament.

b. it has been successfully debated in the House of Representatives.
c. the President/Governor General gives his assent.
d. it becomes part of the laws of the country.

20. 'First-past-the-post' system refers to:

a. the first person to cast a vote on election day.

b. the first polling station to count the votes cast.
c. the candidate who receives the majority of votes in a constituency.
d. the first time the people of a country went to the polls.

Now, try this past question on Government. The following table shows the results of a general
election, in country X. Use the information in the table to answer questions (a) (i) - (iv)

Election results for country X

Party name % Votes cast No. of seats National turnout %
UAP 58.7 11
NWP 39.7 4
Independent 1.6 0
Total 100.0 15 70.7%

a. (i) What percentage of eligible voters did not vote? (1 mark)

(ii) Which party will be asked to form the Government? (1 mark)

(iii) What percentage of the votes cast was for the UAP? (1 mark)

(iv) How many members are likely to form the Opposition in Parliament? (1 mark)

b. (i) Give ONE reason why there should be an opposition party in Parliament. (2 marks)
(ii) State THREE responsibilities of the chief election officers/elections commission in preparation
for general elections in your country. (6 marks)

c. Suggest TWO ways members of the ruling party and Opposition may share in governing your
country.

Participating in government
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

In most Caribbean countries, there is a representative

democracy. The Government is chosen by the electorate and
people vote for the party of their choice. This system can perform
well if an informed and active electorate communicates its views
to government leaders.

In Jamaica, general elections according to the constitution should

take place every five years; however, the Government can call an
election spontaneously. An example is the JLP government snap
election, in 1982.
Collette Simmonds of Waterford High
The election procedure School, acting as councillor for the
Waterford division, reads from her
notes during a Portmore Junior Council
The country is divided into 60 constituencies. General elections meeting at the Portmore Municipal
Council office, at Portmore Pines, on
according to the constitution should take place every five years; Wednesday, November 15, 2006. The
however the government can call for an election at anytime. An function was in celebration of Youth
example is the JLP's snap election in 1982. Month. - Photo by Anthony Minott

The enumeration and registration information of voters is made

known through the preparation of the voters' list.
Announcement for nomination and election date.

Candidates are chosen and presented to constituencies.

Nomination of candidates is done in each constituency.

Publication of manifesto

Campaigning and electioneering - canvassing, party meetings, broadcasts, posting of flyers.

Election Day: The casting of votes at previously designated polling stations.

The counting of votes and the announcement of the winners and the party to form the
Government is decided on from the number of MPs for each party.

There might be recounting of ballots, and if necessary disputed results are challenged in the
court.

The Governor-General invites the party with the most elected Members of Parliament (MP) to
form the Government.

The Governor-General appoints the Prime Minister. Senators are chosen by both the Prime
Minister and the Leader of the Opposition.

The Prime Minister will then form his Cabinet. Members are sworn in.

Election day procedure

Voter enters the polling station and informs the poll clerk of his/her name. Voter presents ID;
thumbprint should be taken. Presiding officer instructs voter on voting procedure after removing
ballot paper from book. Voter places hand under the integrity lamp, if there is one to make sure
the individual has not voted before. Presiding office folds the ballot paper and hands it to the
voter. Voter goes behind a screen, marks an 'X' beside the candidate of his/her choice with a
pencil provided. Voter refolds the ballot paper exactly as it was give to him/her.

Presiding officer checks to make sure it is folded, he/she should not be able to see who the voter
has voted for. Voter dips finger into ink. The marked ballot is then placed into the ballot box.

The particulars of the voting are entered into the poll book by the poll clerk.

Once the voting time officially ends all potential voters on the premises who has not yet voted are
called inside and allowed to vote. If you arrived late, you will not be permitted to vote.

The electoral system

There are two main ways of deciding who has won and who will form the next government under
the democratic system. These are known as the-first-past-the-post system, used in most
Caribbean countries, such as Jamaica, Trinidad and Barbados. The proportional representation
system is also used in Guyana.

First-past-the-post System
More correctly known as simple majority voting, it is the most popular system employed
throughout the democratic world. Each voter is allowed to choose one person to represent them.
The person who amasses the most votes is the winner. There is no requirement to secure an
absolute majority, merely a simple majority. This type of voting requires voters to practise 'secret
ballot' as described previously in the election day procedure.

Advantages

 It is easy and quick to count.

 It promotes a party system of at least TWO, ensuring stability in the parliamentary

process.

 Minor parties and independent candidates can sometimes win against the major parties
without needing to secure 50 per cent of the vote.

 Voters can change the way a country is run by voting in a government from a completely
different party.

 Voters can choose a politician, whom they trust as a person, as well as party member.

Disadvantages

 Minor parties and candidates can find it difficult to win against the combined weight of
major party candidates. E.g. in the Jamaican situation.

 Many people may not have an MP from their party to represent their views in the House of
Parliament.

 A winning candidate may only secure a minority of the votes, but gets more than any
other individual candidate in the constituency.

 Sometimes the voters are in favour of the party, but not particularly the candidate and vis-
a-vis.

The Proportional Representation

Under this system a political party is awarded seats in proportion to the number of votes received
nationally. This is the electoral system in which the entire country is treated as a single
constituency. Each political party will be allocated the number of seats in Parliament which is
directly related to the number of votes cast for the party.

Advantages

 This system prevents gerrymandering.

 Party strength in the house will be a true reflection of the party's strength in the country.

 It is unlikely that a party with a minority of votes can form the Government.

 It allows minor parties and independents to win seats in Parliament.

Disadvantages
 It is complicated and might be costly and time-consuming to administer and count the
votes.

 This system means that voters can only vote for a party, not a candidate, who they might
trust as a person.

 The close relationship which may exist between a representative and voters in a
constituency, would disappear in this system.

 Coalition government may be formed because there is no single party with a clear
majority.

Activities

1. Compare and contrast the relative merits of the first-past-the-post and the proportional
representation method.

2. What do you think are the main factors that prompt Jamaican citizens to vote in a particular
way?

3. The first-past-the-post system ensures that there is a free and fair election and the main
democratic principles are upheld. To what extent do you agree?
Governments of Jamaica since 1665
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

The British settled in various Caribbean territories in the 17th century.

Jamaica was one of such country which was taken over by the British
from the Spaniards, in 1655.

Military rule

Jamaica was the first colony England acquired by conquest. This was in
the year 1655. From this time to 1661, the island was under military
rule.

Civil government

Colonel D'Oyley was appointed Jamaica's first Governor, commissioned

to rule with a council of 12. The governor and the council continued to
be the sole instruments of legislation in the island until 1664. Dania Campbell of Ocho Rios
High School at the TPDCo
Christmas tree lighting at the
The Old Representative system Turtle River Park, Ocho Rios on
Saturday, December 9, 2006. -
When the House of Assembly met in Spanish Town, on January 20, Roger Robinson/Freelance
Photographer
1664, the tradition of parliamentary government, patterned off the
English model, began in Jamaica. The colony was then ruled by a
governor, representing the English Crown, a council nominated by the governor and an elected
assembly.

The Assembly, from the start believed it "was the epitome of the House of Commons", set out to
gain powers and privileges. Laws were fashioned and catered for the plantocracy and the wealthy
class. The Assembly in Jamaica at its first session took into its own hand the entire administration
of the revenues - allocating funds, checking disbursements, appointment of a treasurer. If things
were not going their way in the island, they would refuse to disburse money for the upkeep.

In Jamaica the council had a dual function - it was at one and the same time an advisory and a
legislative body. In its legislative capacity, it had to give assent to all bills before they become
laws. These laws were passed by "the governor, council and gentlemen of the Assembly".
Not everyone could vote or had the franchise, as franchise was based on the ownership of
property and the payment of taxes. In 1864, it is said that only 1,903 persons could vote out of a
population of 450,000. It was in this way that the colony was governed for 200 years. But during
this time there were serious attempts at altering the Jamaican Constitution especially because of
the problems posed by the selfish Assembly members.

Crown Colony government

In 1865, after the Morant Bay rebellion, and in the wake of economic and political disintegration,
the council and Assembly agreed to dissolved itself rather than face infiltration by coloureds and
blacks. Directed straight from the colonial office in Britain, the governor became the ruling
authority.

Thus, in 1866 the two-chamber gave way to a single chamber, the Legislative Council, composed
entirely of nominated ex-officio members. In 1866, Sir John Peter Grant arrived in Jamaica to
carry out the administration of Crown Colony. It was the period in which many fundamental
reforms were made.

A new form of government

1884 marked the return to a measure of representative government in which nine elected
members now sat in the single chamber, the Legislative Council. The governor still presided over
the council and he was supported by a majority of nominated members. In 1895, the number of
elected members was increased to 14.

Under this system of government, power was once again shared by the elected members and the
governor, and the conflicts, especially over finance, continued. There were also new and powerful
forces at work demanding adult suffrage.

In 1944, Jamaica made a significant constitutional advance. The right for all citizens, 21 years old
and over, to vote. This was termed universal adult suffrage. This constitutional change came in
the wake of continued agitation both in and out of the legislature. With the holding of elections in
1944, the House of Representatives was for the first time composed of members aligned to
different political parties. Alexander Bustamante who had emerged as an outstanding labour
leader during the period of unrest in 1938 led the majority party in the House of Representatives.

Self-government

In 1959, Parliament achieved complete control over the affairs of the island; the governor only
having power in so far as external affairs was concerned. The Chief Minister now became the
Premier. It was in that same year that the Jamaican Parliament appointed an auditor general,
responsible to and removable only by Parliament, to see that government's finances were
managed as Parliament voted.

From 1958-62 Jamaica was involved in an attempt to form a federation. Jamaicans voted in a
referendum to withdraw from this federation and strive for its independence.

Independence

In 1962, August 6, Jamaica was granted its independence. The Parliament of Jamaica was the
sovereign legislative body. The membership of the House of Representatives remained at 45, but
the Constitution provided that the number may be increased to 60, as a new constitution was
drawn up for full control over internal and foreign affairs.
The Legislative Council was renamed the Senate with the membership remaining at 21, 13
appointed by the Governor-General on the Prime Minister's recommendation and eight on the
advice of the Leader of the Opposition. Jamaica became a constitutional monarchy. The monarchy
is represented by a Governor-General who is head of state.

Exercises:

1. Find the meaning of the following concepts:

a. Franchise
b. Adult suffrage
c. Referendum
d. Independence
e. Colony
f. Federation
g. Premier
h. Constitution

2. Identify government as it exists in your school.

Types of government/political systems
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Political systems have taken many forms throughout history. Societies vary in the amount of
power ordinary people have to influence the decisions of government. The world's political
systems can be analysed in terms of four categories - totalitarianism, monarchy, democracy and
authoritarian.

Totalitarianism

In this political system the people have very little to say. The nature of the power in
totalitarianism is coercion, as people have not freely chosen the government.

Totalitarian societies are, therefore, those that are controlled by a few people who usually arrange
the society for their benefit only. The rulers refuse to allow the population any say in the
important decisions that affect them and they may well ensure that their views hold by controlling
the police, the courts and the mass media.

Criticism is strongly forbidden and indoctrination becomes intense whenever political opposition
surfaces. It can, therefore, be viewed as the most controlling political system as these
governments thrive in an environment of social atomisation and fear.

Two Types of totalitarian societies:

Dictatorship: A government which consists of rule by one person or a group of people. The
dictator may be one person, such as Castro, in Cuba or Hitler, in Germany, or a group of people,
such as the Communist Party in China.

Oligarchy: A government in which a few people such as a dominant clan or clique have power.

Monarchy

A monarchy consists of rule by a king or queen; it is probably the oldest form of government. It is
a form of government that has a monarch as head of state. The distinguishing charac-teristic of
monarchies is that the heads of state hold their office for life, unlike in a republic, where a
president is normally elected for a certain period of time.

Since 1800, many of the world's monarchies have been abolished and have been replaced by
republics, or become parliamentary democracies. Democratic countries which retain a monarchy,
by definition, limit the monarch's power, with most having become constitutional monarchies,
e.g., Jamaica.

Democracy

This political system favours government by the people or by their elected representatives, or a
political system in which the supreme power lies in a body of citizens who can elect people to
represent them. It can be viewed as majority rule - the doctrine that the numerical majority of an
organised group can make decisions binding on the whole group.
The term democracy indicates a form of government where all the state's decisions are exercised
directly or indirectly by a majority of its citizenry through a fair elective process.

When these factors are met, a government can be classified as such. It also involves freedom to
express opinions critical of the government, to have an uncensored media, free from government
control, and an independent legal system.

Authoritarianism

Authoritarianism describes a form of social control characterised by strict obedience to the

authority of a state or organisation, often maintaining and enforcing control through the use of
oppressive measures. It can further be defined as a political doctrine advocating the principle of
absolute rule - absolutism, autocracy, despotism, dictatorship, totalitarianism.

This political system denies popular participation in govern-ment; there the citizens have no voice
or very little in politics. It is indifferent to people's needs and lacks legal mechanisms to remove
leaders from office.

Meaning Political
System
"Rule by the few". This is a form of government in which a small group holds Communism
ruling power.
Absolute government by an individual who has complete dominance or Democracy
power over others.
A state ruled by its best citizens, or a privilege group, or individuals with Oligarchy
superior wealth, power, or intellect.
Ruled by a tyrant who rules oppressively or cruelly. Absolute power is Republic
arbitrarily or unjustly administered.
This system of government is associated with collective ownership of the Theocracy
means of production, central economic planning and ruled by a single
political party.
Sovereignty resides in the people, and the legislative and administrative Autocracy
powers are lodged in officers elected by and representing the people.
Elections are held every four years.

A government ruled by or subject to religious authority. Aristocracy

Government by the people exercised either directly or through elected Tyranny
representatives.

Activity:

1. Research the following types of government. State the advantages and dis-advantages of each
type - oligarchy, autocracy, aristocracy, tyranny, republic and communism. Also, note a country if
possible where this type of political system is to be found.

2. Give five differences between a democratic political system and a totalitarian political system.

3. If you were asked to become involved in politics, which political system would you follow? Give
reasons for your answer.

4. Match the meaning on the left to the political system on the right.
Participating in government
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Most Caribbean Countries have a representative democracy which Gleaner Company Director Winston
can function effectively if an informed and active electorate Dear (centre) goes through the
communicates its views to government leaders. Most of our 'Youthlink' study guide section with
Cambridge High School students,
Sophia Graham (left) and Lisoney
Thorpe. The occasion was the second
day of The Gleaner's three-day
Youthlink CXC seminar, in Montego Bay,
April 2005. - Photo by Claudine Housen
citizens in some way tend to identify, to some extent, with a political party. Our failure to become
involved in a political party seems to help in diminishing the democratic process.

Why do we need political parties?

A political party is a political organisation that seeks to attain political power within a government,
usually by participating in electoral campaigns. Parties often have a certain ideology and vision. In
countries that have a Parliament, political parties that have seats in Parliament form a
Parliamentary party which consists of all their Members of Parliament. In the Caribbean, there are
two ways used to choose a government in which individuals are allowed to vote. These are the
proportional representation or the 'first past the post' system.

1. Political parties tend to act as an intermediary between people and government.

2. Political parties provide for challenges to public policies and for an orderly transfer of power.

3. Individuals can become involved by joining a 'political clubs' such as the 'PNP Youth
Organisation'.

4. Supporting candidates for public office.

Many people seem indifferent to their right to vote as over the years many persons/registered
voters do not take the task to cast a ballot. Is it that most people who do not vote are reasonably
content with their lives? After many elections, countries complain about voter apathy, as many
voters of all ages and races appear to be less enthusiastic about elections, especially local
government elections in Jamaica.

Why do some individuals not vote in an election?

1. Alienated from politics. Although dissatistified with the way society operates, they doubt that
elections will make much difference.

2. Many people move to a new neighbourhood and forget to re-register.

3. People with physical disabilities that limit mobility have a lower turnout than the general
population.

4. Many individuals are sick, disabled, or weary of election procedure.

There are also other reasons:

1. Religious reasons e.g. Jehovah's Witnesses.

2. If you are signed up to vote, it is said that you are also put into the jury pool.

3. Many individuals feel that whomever they vote for, it makes no difference, because once they
get into office they forget the people who put them there, and they no longer represent us at all.

4. Disapproval of the candidates their party has chosen.

5. Dislike party's policy or policies.

6. Party has no candidates.

Why do you vote?

Is it:

1. To speak your mind? Your vote is your voice. It tells elected officials how you feel about
important issues.

2. For our children? Our children can't vote - so we have to do it for them

3. To control our future? Elected officials make decisions that affect our daily lives, the individuals
we vote for will make decisions about our quality of life.

4. To stop something? Voting lets you stop complaining about things in your community. It puts
you in the driver's seat instead of at the back of the bus.

5. To win? In every election year, some races are decided by just a handful of votes. Those who
vote demand respect. When we vote, we win.

Voting in an Election

It is generally accepted that there are a number of reasons/factors that determine the way people
vote.

1. Parental influence
2. Gender
3. Ethnicity
4. Social class in society
5. Government performance
6. Opposition performance
7. The economic conditions of the country
8. Election campaign, promises and timing
9. Quality of candidates
10. Length of election company and advertising
11. Local issues in the society.
12. Age.

Activities:

1. Discuss the following, "There is no need to vote, just accept any government that the others
choose."

2. What do you see as the main factors that influence Jamaicans to vote or not to vote in an
election?

Concepts you should know

Census - An enumeration, or country, of a population

Politics - The social institution that distributes power, sets a society's agenda, and makes
decisions.
Democracy - A type of political system which gives power to the people as a whole.

Floating or uncommitted voters - Those who either do not vote at all or whose vote cannot be
predicated. They can upset election calculations.

Making sure the government works

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

To ensure that the executive arm of government does not abuse its power, certain limits have
been placed upon this arm of government. The idea of limits on the Cabinet is to lessen the
opportunities for the abuse of power. People tend to see this section of government as the one
which is considered to be most in need of curbing, as it is the section most concerned with the
use of power.

How possible is this check?

It has been argued that Parliament does not control the Cabinet; rather, it is the Cabinet that
controls Parliament and the Prime Minister who controls Cabinet, so there is no check on
executive power.

However, the democratic ideal requires this check to be placed upon government. Institutions
have, therefore, been set up to ensure that the executive arm of government, especially, does not
abuse its powers.

Some examples are:

 The Office of the Parliamentary Commissioner or Ombudsman
 The Auditor-General
 The Attorney-General
 The Governor-General
 The Leader of the Opposition
 The Director of Public Prosecutions
 Civil servants

Auditor-General

This person is responsible for reviewing and keeping a close check on the collection and spending
of public funds. This is to make sure there is no misappropriation of public funds.

Ombudsman

This person is responsible for checking, reviewing, and investigating the day-to-day operations of
ministries, tax offices, licensing offices, and all other offices concerned with government business,
to see if there is corruption and inefficiency. This is done whenever there is a complaint from a
citizen. The Ombudsman is also permitted to institute changes.

Attorney-General

The principal legal advisor to the Government is appointed by the Governor-General on the advice
of the Prime Minister. This person is a member of the Cabinet. He is not responsible for criminal
proceedings.

Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP)

This person is given exclusive right to start, carry out on or to stop all criminal proceedings. The
DPP is not subject to the direction or control of any other authority and can only be removed from
office on the grounds of non-performance or misbehaviour.

However, the DPP cannot be removed from office unless so recommended by a specially selected
committee.

The Leader of the Opposition

This person is named by the Governor-General and is usually the leader of the members of the
minority party in the House of Representatives.

Duties

Criticising and opposing controversial measures introduced by the government.

Sanction the appointments of the chief justice, judges of the Court of Appeal, and appointments
to The Services Commission.

Representing and presenting the views of the majority party or parties in the House of
Representatives.

The Opposition acts as an alternative government; the leader appoints main members of the
Opposition in a 'Shadow Cabinet'. The Opposition has to wait for a general election in most cases
to succeed as the Government.
Governor-General

This person represents the Sovereign of Great Britain and is appointed on the advice of the Prime
Minister of Jamaica. The Governor-General has no affiliations to any one political party. Generally,
he acts on the advice of the Prime Minister or the Cabinet. However, in some instances, he acts
on his own discretion.

Responsibilities

 Appointing the Prime Minister

 Appointing the Leader of the Opposition
 Appointing members of the Privy Council
 Appointing the Judicial or Public Services Commission
 Setting up of tribunals or enquires.

The Governor-General represents the British sovereign on ceremonial occasions such as the
opening of Parliament, the presentation of honours, military parades, etc.

Civil Service

A civil servant is a full-time employee whose duty it is to serve the Government of the day. He is
responsible to find out the wishes of the elected representatives and to perform these tasks
loyally and effectively.

The civil service is sometimes considered as the third force standing between the politician and
the public. The civil servant is, therefore, a servant both of the public and of the minister. He
must be impartial, efficient, and able to explain and answer questions and solve problems. He,
therefore, protects both the minister and the public.

Court system in Jamaica

Courts assist in the judicial function of government. Their main function is to see that justice
reaches people who have been wronged. They, therefore, manage disputes and conflicts, which
may come about while working towards the achievement of the goals. The judiciary is made up of
a chief justice and puisne judges in the Supreme Court and the Court of Appeal; Resident
Magistrates, coroners courts, traffic courts, Justices of the Peace in petty sessions courts, tribunal
or inquiries. (See below)

Structure

The judicial system follows British legal practices with some local variations. Cases may be
brought in the first instance before a lay magistrate (Justice of the Peace), a magistrate, or a
judge in the Supreme Court, according to the seriousness of the offence or the amount of
property involved.

The court system of Jamaica includes:

The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council which sits in London, England. It is the final court of
appeal for Jamaica. However, Jamaica was among the eight nations (Barbados, Belize, Dominica,
Guyana, Jamaica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago) whose
leaders met in Kingston on June 9, 2003, to ratify a treaty to establish the Caribbean Court of
Justice (CCJ). The first session of the CCJ was scheduled for November 2003. The legislative
framework for this court is now being debated.
The Court of Appeal - This court was created in 1962 with the passing of the Jamaica
Independence Act, and the Constitution of Jamaica. This court is visited when persons are
disappointed with the outcome of a case from any of the courts below except the petty session
court. This court also hears application for leave to the Judicial Committee of the Privy council.

The Supreme Court possesses unlimited jurisdiction in criminal cases, common law, divorce and
matrimonial matters, and bankruptcy. Two special branches of this court is the Revenue Court and
the Gun Court. The judge in a Supreme Court works with a jury in criminal cases, usually 12 or
seven, depending on the case. Civil cases are usually without a jury.

Criminal courts

The Resident Magistrate's' Courts are lower courts which try a variety of criminal cases. At least
one courthouse exists in each parish and is usually situated in the capital,and major towns. This
court is presided over by an appointed Resident Magistrate. Cases in the R.M. Courts are limited
to parish boundaries.

The Petty Sessions Court - A Justice of the Peace presides over this court. Justices of the Peace
are usually laymen appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the custos of
the parish. This court deals with minor offences that are punishable by statute law.

The Traffic Court - This is a special form of Resident Magistrate's Court. It deals specifically with
traffic-related offences within the Corporate Area (Kingston and St. Andrew). Other traffic
breaches are dealt with by the Resident Magistrate's Court in the parish.

Coroner's Court - This is the court that deals with inquests on the bodies of persons who have
died by violence or by accident, or who have met sudden or suspicious death.

Tribunals or inquiries - This form of judiciary allows for informal resolution of disputes, usually
those between the Government and individuals. An example is the Industrial Disputes Tribunal.
The arms of government
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

The Legislature

Parliament: This consists of the Governor- General, the Senate or Upper House, and the House of
Representatives or the Lower House.

The Senate

The Senate or Upper House is an appointed house in which the Government has a permanent
standing majority. In Jamaica, approximately two-thirds of these members are appointed by the
Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister. The remainder of the seats in the Senate
are filled by Opposition members appointed on the advice of the Leader of the opposition. The
Senate provides for consideration and revision of every bill passed by the House of Representative
before it can become law.

The House of Representatives

The House of Representatives or Lower House is an elected house. This is considered the most
'influential' house of the two, and the Government cannot exist if it is not supported by the
majority vote/members in the House. Each member of this House is elected to serve a
constituency; this is a geographical area. There are 60 such constituencies in Jamaica. Each
member of the House of Representatives is expected or supposed to look after the interest of his
or her constituents.

Functions of the Legislature

 Introduces new laws and statues.

 Amends existing laws.
 Appeals or remakes laws that are no longer applicable or relevant to society.
 Approves the annual budget.
 Discusses matters of urgent public concern.
 Ratifies international treaties.
 The law-making process (How a bill becomes law)
 Citizens, non-governmental organisations, or parliamentarians proposes a bill for a law.
How a Bill becomes law

 Bill is drafted in the Attorney-General's office.

 Bill is presented to the House of Representative. (First reading)
 Bill is now available for the public to discuss it and make suggestions for improvement.
 Bill is debated fully. Criticisms are noted. (Second reading)
 Vote as to whether the bill should go forward. If it is accepted, a committee examines,
discusses and amends it, and presents a report to the House of Representatives.
 Bill is read for the third time. If it is passed, it goes to the Senate or the Upper House
where the whole process is repeated.
 Once approved by both houses, copies are sent to the Governor-General for signature.
 The Governor-General signs the bill, which becomes an act of Parliament. This gives the
legislature the status of law.

The Executive

The executive power in Jamaica is vested in a Cabinet or an executive council. The number of
ministers making up the Cabinet varies from time to time and is led by the Prime Minister, who is
the leader of the major party and is appointed from the House of Representatives by the
Governor-General. The Prime Minister elects the ministers of the Cabinet. They are appointed by
the Governor-General from among the members of the two houses, the Senate and the House of
Representatives, no fewer than two and no more than three such members being members of the
Senate.

The Cabinet

The policies of the Government are decided by the Cabinet whose meetings are closed to the
public and the press under the Official Secrets Acts, Section 11, 1911, amended 1920. The word
Cabinet comes from a word, which means a private room for consultations. The Cabinet speaks as
one body; it exercises collective responsibility. As the centre of Government, it initiates all
government policies and programmes, and is therefore responsible for the general direction and
control of government. Each member of the Cabinet is expected to carry out a special portfolio or
responsibility. The member is referred to as a minister and is placed in charge of a ministry.

The Minister

If a portfolio is a large one, a minister of state and or a parliamentary secretary assist the
minister. The minister is responsible for carrying out the ordinary business of his or her ministry.
Some matters are, however, of national interest and are brought before the Cabinet for discussion
and decision-making as they are responsible for policy-making.

All ministers are responsible for the total development of the country's resources. For example,
the Ministry of Health seeks to safeguard the health of the people and the community. Healthier
people are more likely to work harder and for longer hours and this will contribute to the
country's development.

To ensure that the Executive arm of government does not abuse its power, certain limits have
been placed on it. The idea of limits on the Cabinet is to lessen the opportunities for the abuse of
power.

Exercise:

1. Define the following terms: Cabinet, civil servant, portfolio.

2. Make sure you can give an outline of how a bill becomes a law.

3. Give THREE differences between the role of the Cabinet, Senate and the House of
Representatives.

4. Outline five functions of the Legislature.

5. Find out how many individuals make up the Senate in Trinidad, and how they are chosen.
Compare this to the Jamaican situation.
The structure of Government
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Since 1962, Jamaica has been an independent nation in the British Commonwealth. The Jamaican
Government is a constitutional monarchy based on parliamentary democracy similar to that of
Great Britain. The Queen is a titular sovereign (ceremonial) and is represented on the island by
the Governor-General. An appointed Privy Council advises the Governor-General on matters
pertaining to the Crown, while much of the real power of the Government resides in the office of
the Prime Minister.

The Prime Minister is appointed by the Governor-General, as are the various ministers of the
Cabinet, who are recommended for appointment by the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister and
ministers come from the political party which commands the majority in the country's Parliament
based on elections constitutionally due every five years.

There are three branches of government - The Executive (decides on the goals/policies of the
nation), the Legislature (makes rules indicating how these goals are to be achieved) and the
Judiciary (managing the disputes/conflicts that may arise while working towards the achievement
of the goals). Each branch is supposed to operate independently; this is known as the principle
of separation of power. This is not always possible, however. For example, the executive is
taken from the legislature.

The principle of separation of power

The aim of separation of power is to prevent abuse of power by government. Each branch is to
check on the other branches, for example:
1. The Public Accounts Committee of Parliament has the power to investigate questionable
expenditure by the executive.

2. The executive should not spend public funds without the approval of Parliament.

3. The judiciary can declare void acts of Parliament that seeks to take away citizens' rights and
freedoms.

The Jamaican Legislature

It has a bicameral legislature made up of two houses, the House of Representatives, and the
Senate. The House is composed of 60 members elected to five-year terms, while the Senate
consists of 21 members appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister
and the Leader of the opposition.

The Executive branch

The executive branch in Jamaica is similar to the Westminster model. It consists of a Cabinet,
which is headed by the Prime Minister, assisted by his/her selected ministers. These ministers
may be chosen from the House of Representatives or from the Senate, but the number from the
Senate is at present limited to three. The executive council, since it is selected from Parliament, is
collectively responsible to Parliament. The ministers must give explanations about their ministry's
policies when they are asked to do so by any member of Parliament. The official head of
government is the Prime Minister and the official head of State is the Governor-General,
representing The Queen.

The Cabinet is the centre of the system of government. It is therefore res-ponsible for the
initiation of all government policies and programmes and is responsible for the general direction
and control of government. The Cabinet speaks as one body and therefore exercises collective
responsibility.

Any policy approved by the Cabinet is expected to be defended in public by every Cabinet
member. Even if a member is in disagreement with a policy, he or she is not at liberty to criticise
it in public. The entire Cabinet is held responsible for any decision of Cabinet.

The idea of secrecy is therefore a part of the Cabinet. The word 'Cabinet' comes from the word
which means 'a private room for consultations'. This is so as the most important matters of
national interest are brought before the Cabinet for discussion and decision-making.

The Judiciary

The main function of the judiciary is to interpret, apply and enforce the laws of the country as
stated earlier. It manages disputes and conflicts that may arise while working towards the
achievement of goals.

Sources

L.C. Ruddock and Sonia Robinson-Glanville, 1997, New Civics for Young Jamaicans, Carlong
publishers.

Stephen Moore, 2001, Sociology Alive, Nelson Thornes

Activities
A. i. Name the TWO missing arms of government required to complete the diagram above.

ii. State TWO functions of the executive arm of government.

B. Give THREE reasons why the opposition in Parliament is important to good governance of a
country.

C. Suggest TWO legitimate ways in which citizens of your country may express dissatisfaction
with the policies of government.

D. State what is meant by the constitution of a country.

E. List FOUR rights set out in the constitution of your country.

F. Give THREE possible results of a government's failure to observe the principles of the
constitution.

G. Define clearly the term, Parliament.

H. Outline the composition of Parliament in any named Commonwealth Caribbean country.

I. Explain the differences between: Parliament and Government and Parliament and Cabinet.

Government as an institution
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

To introduce this lesson, it is important to know the meaning

of the following terms.

Members of Marymount High's Schools'

Challenge Quiz team at the TVJ studios on
Tuesday, January 23. - Ricardo Makyn/Staff
Photographer
Government: A formal organisation that is responsible for direction and the political life of a
society.

Politics: The social institution that distributes power, sets a society's agenda, and makes
decisions.

Power: The ability to achieve desired ends despite resistance, in many cases, from others.

In the Caribbean, therefore, when we speak of government we refer to those who are responsible
for the day-to-day running and the orderly existence and functioning of the state.

According to Dr. Vaughn Lewis (ISER, 1978), the state is the territorially-bounded area to which
any group of people communally or collectively recognise themselves to belong, and from which
they exclude, by some process of common consent, outsiders.

The functioning of the state is conducted on the basis of a set of rules, regulations and institutions
which are usually defined in a constitution. The constitution is supposed to set the limits of
authority (the capacity for legal action) which those who rule are supposed to have or exercise
over members of the state.

Functions of government

 To maintain law and order:

a. The Government makes law for order and to maintain peace in a society.

b. To convene courts of justice to settle disputes and to punish wrongdoers.

c. To protect citizens and their property.

d. To enforce conformity to the laws of the land.

 To manage the country's finances:

a. This is accomplished through the annual budget to show how revenue will be raised and spent.

b. To make policies to help to control the spending of public money.

c. To raising revenue through direct and indirect taxation. This is done by levying taxes on income
(direct), property, services and goods (indirect).

 To maintain international relations:

Ambassadors are exchanged with other countries and various bilateral or multi-lateral
agreements/ treaties are made/drawn up.

 To provide social services and create employment opportunities.

a. This is made possible as welfare grants are made to the poor.

b. Social security such as national insurance, unemployment benefits and pensions are provided
by the government.
c. Sanitation, health care and education are in most cases provided by the government.

d. Jobs are created directly by employing individuals in the civil service and statutory
corporations.

e. Jobs are created indirectly by the provision of investment opportunities for private enterprises.

 The provision of public infrastructure:

These include the building of roads, airports, schools and hospitals, and in some cases, the
provision of public utilities.

 The defence of the country:

In the Caribbean, each government maintains an army to defend the country against internal and
external aggression.

Practice Exercise

Identify THREE social services provided by Caribbean governments. (3 marks)

Answer

Three social services provided by Caribbean governments include health facilities, namely
hospitals and clinics. Second, education through the schools where individuals are taught and
where we can produce a literate nation. Third, the public transportation system to help in the
moving of people to work and play.

Also, collection and disposal of garbage, provision of roads, electricity and water.

State THREE ways in which governments raise revenue to provide social services. (3 marks)

Answer

Governments of a country in the Caribbean are able to raise revenue to provide social services
through the collection of custom duties, land/property taxes yearly, and income tax (pay as you
earn).

Also, The rental of market stalls and health surcharges, etc.

Give THREE reasons why governments will provide the services that you identified in (a) above.
(6 marks)

Answer

Health: Every government requires a healthy population to contribute to national development.

Education: Government requires a trained and educated population. It is, therefore, necessary
for the Government to provide this resource on a large scale.
The provision of roads, electricity, etc.: Government has the resources to provide on a large
scale and these contribute to national development and may result in the growth of the standard
of living.

Suggest TWO ways in which officials of a ministry of finance may prepare the population for an
increase in taxation. (5 marks)

Answer

In order to prepare the population of a country for an increase in tax, there may arise the need to
have public awareness campaigns and public fora where the population is made aware of the
increase and the need for such an increase.

Also, The use of the media in its various forms to get public awareness.

Next week, we will look at the structure of government.

Activities

a. Why is government necessary?

b. Identify the various types of government existing in the Caribbean region today. Which one is
most widespread and why is this so?

Concepts in government
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

The following are terminologies used in the political

institutions.

Government: An agency or body with the authority to

control and direct the affairs of a country/city/municipality,
etc. It can also be the governing body of a community,
considered either as a continuous entity or as the group of
administrators currently in power.

Authority: This is the right and power to enforce obedience Irwin High School students sing during a
and delegate power from a high office. There is always the church service to launch Irwin High School's
need for a group to have persons who are able to punish or Parent Month celebrations at the St. Paul
United Church in Montego Bay recently. -
Photo by Claudine Housen
penalise others who are unwilling to obey orders or the laws. There are three main types of
authority:

 Traditional
 Charismatic
 Rational/legal

Leader: A leader is one who guides. He/she is responsible for the group he/she represents,
making sure the group works together to achieve its goals and objectives. Leadership is
necessary to prevent chaos/ anarchy, to direct, counsel or to inspire members, where and when
necessary.

Types of leaders:

 Autocratic or authoritarian
 Laissez-faire
 Democratic

Bi-cameral legislature: A Parliament made up of two houses or chambers. Jamaica has a bi-
cameral legislature made up of the upper house or The Senate, and the lower house or The House
of Representative.

Uni-cameral: Parliament with one chamber.

Bill: A draft of a proposed act of parliament - A proposal for a new law.

Cabinet: A group of ministers chosen by the head of government. These individuals assist in the
running of the country. They are responsible for making policies and help in the designing of laws
for a society or country. They are also responsible for a specific sector of the society, e.g.,
education. The cabinet is also known the executive arm of government.

Parliament: A body of persons whose main function is to pass laws for the society or country.

Tax: A compulsory payment made by citizens to the government to help in the financial running
of the country, e.g., Pay as you earn (PAYE).

Revenue: The money (e.g., taxes) that a government collects to pay for services that it provides
for the people.

Constituency: An electoral division in a country. In Jamaica, this electoral division is responsible

for choosing one candidate to parliament. This person, irrespective of his/her political affiliation, is
the Member of Parliament for the division and represents all the citizens in this division. There are
60 constituencies in Jamaica.

Constitution: The written principle by which a country, state or group is governed. It can be
viewed as a contract between the government and the people of the Country. The Jamaican
constitution was drafted in 1962.

The following are included in the Jamaican Constitution:

 The conditions required for becoming a citizen of Jamaica.

 The rights, responsibilities and freedoms of citizens.
 The processes involved in choosing a government.
 The functions, that is the powers and procedures of the legislature, the executive and the
judiciary.
 The collection and expenditure of government revenue.
 The role of the civil service.

Constitutional monarchy: Jamaica is a constitutional country, because it is a country with a

monarch (The Queen of England represented by the Governor-General) as its head of state as set
out in the constitution.

Democracy: Government ruled by the people: government based on one man, one vote. This is
the practice in Jamaica and most Caribbean islands.

Electorate: This term encompasses all the persons in a constituency or country who are eligible
to vote in an election.

Executive: This is the policy-making and administrative arm or branch of government. In

Jamaica, this comprises the prime minister and the members of the cabinet.

Franchise: The privilege of voting in an election is one of the greatest privileges of a citizen.

Laws: Rules passed by government to control the citizen's behaviour and for the good of society
in general.

Judiciary: The legal system of the courts.

Universal Adult Suffrage: This was passed in 1944, in Jamaica, giving one vote to every adult
over 21. This voting age was later reduced to 18 and over. Jamaica became the first British colony
to be granted adult suffrage.

Enumeration: The registration of voters.

Citizen: A member of a state who is a native or naturalised resident. Owes allegiance and loyalty
to that country, and who is entitled to protection from as government.

Pressure group: A group that tries to win public opinion or influence government to act in a its
favour.

Activities

a) Define clearly the term parliament.

b) Outline the composition of parliament in any named Commonwealth Caribbean country.

c) Explain the differences between:

[Link] and government

[Link] and cabinet.

d) As a registered voter, state THREE issues you would consider before voting for a particular
candidate or political party.

e) Why is a constitution necessary in a country?

Institutions in society
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

An institution is a regular and established way of meeting a

need considered fundamental and important by the group or
society which supports it. It is therefore a means by which
the needs of the society are met and social control is
established. An institution can also be a practice such as
marriage and baptism.

There are several types of institutions, each having special

characteristics and functions. Some of these institutions are:
Deputy head girl in charge of upper school,
Sheri-Dawn Cunningham (left), smiles with
Political institution e.g. government head girl for Montego Bay High School,
Educational institution e.g. school Kimberly Peterkin (centre) and deputy head
girl in charge of lower school, Kathryn
Religious institution e.g. church Espeut, on September 27, 2005. - Photo by
Economic institution e.g. bank Claudine Housen
Recreational institution e.g. sports
Social institution e.g. the family

Characteristics of an institution

Institutions have the following characteristics:

 A formal organisational structure

 transmission of the culture of society
 socialising individuals
 to develop the individual morally, spiritually and physically
 carrying out research for the advancement of society
 Are universal, every society has some form of these institutions.
 Each institution is related to a fundamental need or specific purpose.
 Endures over generations and develop rituals and practices.
 They provide values, norms and a clear organisation structure that regulates human
relationship.
 Have patterns of interrelated roles.
 institutions are protected and preserved by society.

Religious Institutions

Religion is the belief in a deity; this is a belief in somebody greater than man. The belief in a
supernatural being.

Man has always believed in the existence of something in the universe, wiser and more powerful
than himself, which understands and governs the mysteries of life that are beyond human
comprehension and control. From pre-history, man has always found something to worship,
whether the sun, moon or any other object of nature. Man is the only creature we know that
worry about the future, questions his existence, origin and future.

 It helps man to give meaning and direction to his life. Religion therefore gives a sense of
purpose to life, so members feel that their lives are worth living and therefore, gives them hope
for the future.
 it sets out specific ways of worshipping a deity
 it offers solution to life's problems
 Religious institutions stand for the highest moral values that human beings can conceive
and it gives its followers a sense of identity.
 It is a very powerful factor in social control as it tends to promote justice and reverence for
life.
 Its rituals, doctrines, traditions, precepts and ceremonies link people with the past,
present and future and give them a sense of security and comfort. It therefore has provided a
system of orderly behaviour for mankind.
 Religion creates and reinforces cultural values and mores. E.g. the Ten Commandments.

Economic Institutions

The economic institutions are all the values, norms and roles related to the production and
distribution of goods and services. If the individual is to survive he must have money, food, water,
and shelter. Man has always worked to supply his basic needs. We have become both producers
and consumers. Our financial service is provided for by banks, the stock market trust companies,
credit unions and life insurance companies.

In order to protect ourselves at work to gain money, workers have formed economic organizations
which give them power to bargain collectively, these are called trade unions. These unions
negotiate on behalf of workers, such as hours of work and conditions of work, vacation leave,
increase pay, fringe benefits, insurance and job security.

The main functions of a commercial bank as an economic institution are:

 To receive money on deposit

 To grant loans
 To transfer funds
 To buy and sell money
 To encourage thrift among the population

Educational Institutions

Educational Institutions can be classified into four main categories: early childhood, primary,
secondary and tertiary.

Characteristics/Functions of education

 The transmission of the cultural values of a society.

 It serves as an agent of social control and socialization.
 To develop the individual morally, spiritually and physically as the basic values of society
are reflected within its schools.
 Education is used as a means of social mobility.
 Equality of opportunity is one of the basic values of education in the Caribbean.
 It operates on a system of meritocracy as schooling and the degree of competence and
training is the method used to ascribe occupational placement in the Caribbean society.
 It prepares the individual for the world of work, teaching skills essential for employment
thus ensuring there is a labour force educated in accordance with the needs of our developing
societies.

Recreation

'A healthy mind in a healthy body'

Some basic functions of recreation:

 It helps in relieving stress and gets rid of frustration.

 It helps individual to stay physically fit and healthy.
 It provides relaxation from work and labour. It helps individuals to get involved in an
activity they like.
 To develop one's skill and talents for a better individual and a better society.
 It often ultimately fosters keen spirit of competition as well as a cooperative nature and
unity in groups.

Activities

1. Compare and contrast the roles and basic functions of any three institutions.
2. State why institutions are permanent features of society.
3. Outline the purpose of each level of education in the Caribbean.
Revision
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

1. Which one of the following describes bi-lineal

descent?

a. The duties and privileges of children is the responsibility of

the parents.

b. The duties and privileges of descent follow the female line.

c. The duties and privileges of descent follow the male line.

TRUCE: Kingston College's track team
captain Leford Green (left) shakes hands
d. The duties and privileges of descent follow the female and with Calabar High's head boy, Danike Knight,
male lines. at a Schools' Champs Peace meeting held in
Mandela Park on Friday, March 24, 2006. At
right is Calabar's track team Captain Garfield
2. Which one of the following is the best description of German. The truce followed a stabbing
'culture'? incident involving students from both
schools. - Junior Dowie/Staff Photographer

a. The art, craft, literature and music of a people.

b. The lifestyle, traditions, ideas and beliefs of a people.

c. The style, colour and significance of the clothes people wear.

d. The dancing and singing in the ceremonies of the people.

3. A child should be able to expect all of the following from its parents except:

a. Reliability

b. Consistency

c. Intolerance

d. Fairness
4. All of the following are good aspects of peer groups except they:

a. Can encourage people to work together to achieve good results.

b. Can make the efforts of individuals more effective.

c. Can encourage people not to work hard at school.

d. Can stimulate their members to good actions and achievements.

5. An out-group is best described as:

a. Two or more people carrying out an activity, interest or hobby.

b. A number of people working out in the fields.

c. A group of young people helping the mentally handicapped.

d. A group whose activities are disapproved by society.

6. Which one of the following is NOT true of the organisations of groups?

a. The members need constant supervision.

b. The members need firm leadership.

c. Groups demand loyalty from their members.

d. Groups demand commitment to their activities.

7. A person becomes a citizen of a country by all the following means except?

a. Emigration

b. Birth

c. Marriage

d. Naturalisation

8. Which one of the following is not an influence on cultural life?

a. A norm

b. A law

c. A folkway

d. A custom

9. The arrival of a new child in the family can affect all of the following Except the
a. Emotional life of the children.

b. Person who records the birth.

c. Family budget.

d. Parent's relationship.

10. All of the following are all reasons for some parents inflicting brutal punishments on
their children EXCEPT

a. Financial problems.

b. Emotional stress.

c. Census arrangements.

d. Personal frustration.

11. A young person who deliberately does the opposite of what he or she has been
asked to do by a parent is showing;

a. Tolerance.

b. Defiance.

c. Fairness.

d. Consideration.

12. Unwanted pregnancy among young, unmarried teenagers causes all of the following
except:

a. The intellectual development of the mother may be hindered.

b. The children may be born retarded.

c. It creates economic problems for the girls and their families.

d. It could lead to an increase in the abortion rate.

13. All of the following are grounds for divorce EXCEPT:

a. Irreconcilable differences.

b. Independence.

c. Infidelity.

d. Abuse.

14. Which is a probable cause of teenage pregnancy?

a. Role models.

b. Abstinence.

c. Lack of religious and moral education.

d. Pressure of the nuclear family.

15. A peer group can best be described as:

a. A group of people who are about the same age and have the same interest.

b. A group of people from the same religious and ethnic background.

c. The members of a community who live and work together.

d. A number of people sharing the same geographical location.

16. Which of the following are legal drugs in the Caribbean?

a. Alcohol and heroine.

b. Tobacco and alcohol.

c. Tobacco and cocaine.

d. Alcohol and marijuana.

17. A person is most likely to commit suicide in which of the following cases?

a. Loss of a loved one.

b. Peer pressure.

c. Prolonged and incurable illness.

d. Quarrel with a friend.

18. Abortion is a method of?

a. Ending pregnancy.

b. Breaking up an unhappy love affair.

c. Preventing conception.

d. Procreation.

[Link] one of the following always hinders a good family life?

a. Education of woman.
b. Alcoholism.

c. Religion.

d. Wealth.

20. Family conflicts can lead to these types of behaviour among children, except:

a. Nervousness.

b. Eloquence.

c. Emotional stability.

d. A negative concept of adults.

21. Excessive beating of a child will not affect its:

a. Material well-being.

b. Behaviour and manners.

c. Self-image.

d. Physical development.

22. Which of the following is least desired among family members?

A. Support.

B. Competition.

C. Commitment.

D. Cooperation.

23. Street children are LEAST LIKELY to engage in:

a. Prostitution.

b. Vending.

c. Begging for money and food.

d. Using illegal drugs.

24. A 'drug dilemma' exists because:

a. Only illegal drugs are abused.

b. Some persons abuse legal and illegal drugs.

c. People always use drugs wisely.

d. People are knowledgeable about all drugs.

25. An example of a formal secondary group is:

a. Family.

b. young men playing in the street.

c. Scouts.

d. A study group.

Syllabus outline
Maureen Campbell, Contributor
An early Philosopher observed and noted that "a man's troubles begin when he is free to do as he
pleases ..." Socialised human beings require some conformity to cultural norms if they are to live
in a group. They must learn to regard the property rights of others and observe the etiquette and
norms of their group. No society can cater to the whims and fancies of all its members. Each
person in his desire for freedom would infringe on the rights of others and threaten the
institutions which most of us consider important. There is always a need to prevent chaos,
because, as said, man seems to be "selfish by nature."

All societies impose some form of social control to some degree on their citizens. Some of the
rules of conduct fall into the realm of good manners as the culture defines them. As such they
describe behaviour that is socially desirable but not necessarily compulsory. Other rules of
conduct are not optional and are enforced by laws. In complex, large-scale societies, laws are
usually written down formally so that they can be known clearly to everyone.

The behaviour of individuals is, therefore, monitored and regulated both formally and informally.
Social control entails rules of behaviour that should be followed by the members of a society.
Social control refers to social mechanisms that regulate individual and group behaviour, leading to
conformity and compliances to the rules of society. Social control is essential if only to prevent
chaos or anomie.

Informal social control uses customs, traditions, norms and other social values inherited by the
individual. It is exercised by a society without explicitly stating these rules and is expressed
through custom, norms, and mores using informal sanctions such as criticism, disapproval, guilt
and shaming. In extreme cases, this may even include social discrimination and exclusion.

This implied social control usually has more control over individual minds because they have
internalised the moral codes held by the members of a society. As children grow up they normally
learn what is proper and improper, right and wrong, good and bad. Traditional society uses mostly
informal social control embedded in its customary culture, relying on the socialisation of its
members to establish social order. More rigidly-structured societies may place increased reliance
on formal mechanisms.

Informal social control

No society seems to be relying solely upon informal social control; all societies have laws to deal
with the inevitable disputes that may arise. Laws vary from culture to culture; this formal social
control is expressed through law as statutes, rules and regulations against deviant behaviour. It is
conducted by government and organisations using law enforcement mechanisms and other formal
sanctions such as fines and imprisonment. In democratic societies the goals and mechanisms of
formal social control are determined through legislation by elected representatives and thus enjoy
a measure of support from the population and, in most cases, good citizens with voluntary
compliance.

Agents of Social Control

The institution of government is the supreme authority in the Caribbean. It devotes much of its
attention to social control of its members. As mentioned earlier, social control entails rules of
behavior that should be followed by the members of a society. Some of the rules of conduct fall
into the realm of good manners as the country's culture sees them. As such, they describe
behaviour that is socially desirable but not necessarily compulsory. Other rules of conduct are not
optional and are enforced by laws. This forms the role of the state in a society. In the Caribbean,
laws are usually written down formally, to reform a constitution, so that they can be known
clearly to everyone.

While government is the ultimate authority in modern society, even its power is never adequate
for effective control unless citizens cooperate and are reasonably law abiding.

Agencies other than the state which exercise social control functions include the church, the
family and the education system. Social control may take place through two main ways, internal
or external.

Socialisation is achieved through institutions such as the family, religion and education which is
mostly viewed as internal social control. External social control is achieved through a system of
norms, sanctions and enforcement, made possible through the legal and political institutions of
society.

The family: Who wants to be rejected?

Who wants to lose self esteem in the eyes of those you care most about?

Who wants to bring shame and disgrace to your families name by poor self-control?

The family uses fear of rejection, shame and loss of self-worth in the eyes of families, friends and
co-workers to keep individuals in check. The family is seen as a primary source of socialisation. It
is the family that helps in transmitting the norms and values of a society. As said by Mustapha "it
aids in developing the conscience of individuals - your own internal policeman." Most families
provide a bond that keeps its members in check.

Religion draws people together who share common doctrines and beliefs and, therefore, share a
collective conscience and a strong sense of brotherhood and community.

Education

The basic link between the individual and society. This institution is assigned the main task of
transforming the child and adolescent into a responsible citizen. This is done by teaching respect
for law and order a function of secondary socialisation.

Economic systems

Business and Industry are great influences in social control, especially in the changing of habits,
customs and new ways of doing things. Management has rules on working attire, conduct and
productivity, and uses the reward method for good performance, a raise in pay, promotion,
certificate of merit, bonus, fringe benefits and also sanctions for wrong conduct.

The Media

Promotion of social conduct is done also by using persuasive devices, speeches, posters, leaflets,
demonstrations on the television, editorials and advertisements showing both the negative and
positive aspects of social control.

Activities
1. Lying, cheating, stealing and killing are violations of norms in our culture. Taking each item
separately, identify the social controls which normally prevent you from engaging in these
activities. Are they informal or formal controls external or internal?

2. Analyse the social controls used in some social institutions of which you are a member. Are the
controls reasonable. Could they be improved? How?

3. Find the meaning of the following terms: norms, mores, folkways, rules, laws, sanctions, self-
control, conscience and punishment.

Understanding groups
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

In social studies and sociology, a group is usually defined as a collection consisting of a number of
people who share certain aspects, interact with one another, accept rights and obligations as
members of the group and share a common identity. Using this definition, society can appear as a
large group. [Link]/wiki/Group_(sociology)

Characteristics of groups:
1. Every group has a set of norms: a code of conduct about what is acceptable behaviour. They
may apply to everyone in the group or to certain members only. Some norms will be strictly
adhered to, while others permit a wide range of behaviour.

2. The group usually has sanctions (e.g., disapproval) which it may apply in the case of
'deviation'. Common norms in groups include: taboo subjects, open expression of feelings,
interrupting or challenging the tutor, volunteering one's services, avoiding conflict, length and
frequency of contributions. All of these are usually hidden or implicit and new members may find
it difficult to adjust.

3. Membership may be voluntary or involuntary.

4. Groups have clearly defined status.

5. Groups share values, beliefs and attitudes.

6. Groups share interest and activities.

7. Common symbols, e.g., age, sex, uniform, badges, logos. etc.

Functions of Group

Every individual possess needs and interest such as the need for:

 Survival
 Security
 Belonging and companionship
 Shared experience
 Identity
 Status and importance

Types of groups

Groups may be categorised according to the following:

 Size
 Structure
 Membership
 Purpose
 Normalisation

In contrast with primary groups, secondary associations are marked by lack of spontaneous
formation. They are more formalised, self-conscious organisations. In many aspects of
interrelation such groups are in no way dependent upon face-to-face contacts. The more distinctly
organised secondary group relations, we denote as institutions.

Structure of groups

Groups are either formal or informal:

Formal groups are organised with clear-cut structures which govern the interactions of members.
These groups usually have some form of constitution, or code of conduct, which describe the rules
and sanctions of the group. Lines of authority are clearly defined within the group and they
operate with specific objectives in mind.

Informal groups have no written rules regarding the behaviour of its members. They are formed
through similar interest, hobbies, through constant face-to-face interaction or based on kinship
patterns.

Peer groups

Some groups are formed by people around the same age group and social status who share in
most cases close bonds. Peer groups help in the growth and development of individuals. They
provide emotional support and help in the making leaders. Some peer groups are positive as they
help in commitment, decision making and respect for law and order. While on the other hand, this
group may be negative and coerces, forces, and encourages its members to pursue negative
activities, such as violence, drug use and other delinquent activities.

Groups according to membership

Groups may either be voluntary or involuntary

Voluntary groups are formed to provide some service to the community or to support a good
cause, e.g., The Red Cross.

Involuntary groups are groups in which membership is forced, it is not a choice, e.g., compulsory
military service.

In-group and out-group

A group can hold special meaning for members because of its relationship with other groups.
Identified as "we" and "they".

An in-group can be defined as any group or category to which people feel they belong.

An out-group is a group or category to which people feel they do not belong.

One typical consequence of in-group membership is a feeling of superiority and distinctiveness

among members who see themselves as better than people in the out-group.

Groups according to size

Comparing primary and secondary groups

Primary Groups Secondary groups

Members typically engage in many Members typically engage in distinct,

Activities
of the same activities. highly specialised activities.

Clearly defined, corresponding to

Hierarchy Often informal or non-existent
offices.
 Informal application of general
Norms Clearly defined rules and regulations.
norms.

Variable, often based on personal Technical competence carries out

Membership
affection or kinship. Generally very assigned task. Usually large
criteria
small.

Variable: typically family, peer,

Examples Church, School, political party etc.
small clubs etc.

Typically casual and face to face. Typically formal and in writing. Short
Communication Relatively long period of duration, temporary. Little social
interaction. intimacy or mutual understanding.

Focus Person oriented Task oriented

Activities

1. a) i. Identify TWO formal groups to which young people usually belong.

ii. Outline TWO characteristics which hold members of formal groups together.

b) Give THREE reasons why formal groups tend to have a longer life span than informal groups.

c) Suggest TWO activities an environmental club may organise to attract new members.

2. Jan: Come on sally, only babies don't smoke.

Sally: No thanks, Jan

Jan: You're not a scary cat are you? Try it!

Sally: No thanks.

a) i. Suggest the activity that is being encouraged by Jan.

ii. How does Sally respond?

b) Define the term 'peer pressure'.

c) Suggest THREE other ways in which Sally can deal with the pressure put on her by Jan.

d) Give TWO ways in which acceptable peer group activity may be helpful to the development of
Sally and Jan.

e) Sally and Jan belong to a netball club. Give FOUR characteristics of such a group.

3. a) State FOUR characteristics of secondary groups

b. How does membership in a secondary group aid the process of socialisation?

c. You are very keen on a hobby and see it as a life-long activity. You would like others to join in
with you to form a group for the hobby. Explain the role of the hobby to the group.

The broken family

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

A broken family is one in which either the wife or the husband is

not present. A family may be broken because of death,
separation, desertion, annulment or divorce.

Death

Death is no respecter of persons; death is a common cause of

broken families in every society.

Separation Students and residents of communities

along Windward Road participate in a
peace march from the National Stadium
This is a situation in which the husband and wife are legally
to the Kingston waterfront on Peace Day
married, but are not living together by common consent. earlier this year. - Ricardo Makyn/Staff
Separation in many cases ultimately leads to divorce. It may Photographer
also be used by individuals whose religion inhibits divorce. In the case of separation, the couple is
still legally married.

Desertion

Definitions:

 Withdrawing support or help despite allegiance or responsibility; "His abandonment of his

wife and children left them penniless."

 Abandonment: the act of giving something up wordnet. [Link]/perl/webwn

 Desertion is the act of abandoning or withdrawing support from an entity to which one has
given an oath, or has claimed to owe allegiance, responsibility or loyalty.
[Link]/wiki/Desertion

Family desertion is an age-old problem. There is evidence that family desertion is but one
manifestation of marital instability; often it has been called "the poor man's divorce". Family
desertion is a personal and social problem of massive proportions. Desertion may eventually lead
to a divorce.

Desertion is intentionally leaving the marriage with the desire that separation be permanent,
against the wishes of the other spouse; desertion is not merely taking a trip.

Separation by mutual agreement is not desertion. To prove desertion by one spouse, the other
spouse must be blameless. To keep your options open, if your spouse tells you he or she is
contemplating leaving, don't agree! If you are contemplating leaving the marital residence,
consult an attorney.

In both separation and desertion, the couple is still legally married, so neither is free to remarry.
Such marriages can only be legally terminated by a court action in the form of an annulment or a
divorce.

Annulment

This is a court decision that declares a marriage null and void because of some legal flaw. This
flaw maybe either because of coercion, being under age, bigamy, insanity, fraud, marriage by an
unauthorised person or unwillingness to consummate the marriage union. After an annulment,
each partner returns to his original status before the wedding took place, since an annulment is
legal recognition that no marriage existed.

Divorce

"I promise to love, honour and cherish." Until death do us part."

Divorce is the legal dissolution of an officially recognised marriage. A divorce may only be granted
after court litigation.

It is no longer considered necessary to endure an unhappy marriage. Many religions have relaxed
negative attitudes toward divorce. As societies provide greater opportunities for women, more
and more wives are becoming less dependent on their husbands, both economically and
emotionally. They may then feel more able to leave if the marriage seems hopeless.
Reasons for the failure of marriages

 Financial problem
 Neglect
 Loneliness
 Interference
 Infidelity
 Abuse - mental, physical or sexual
 Unrealistic expectations
 The need for independence

Grounds for divorce:

 Incompatibility: The couple is unable to live together because of irreconcilable

differences of personality.

 Adultery: When one of the marriage partners engages in voluntary sexual relations with a
third person, he or she is committing adultery.

 Physical and mental cruelty; Cruelty is generally considered to be conduct that

endangers the safety or health of the injured person.

 Desertion or abandonment: The abandonment must be coupled with a lack of intent to

return to the marriage relationship.

Impact of divorce on children

Divorce is traumatic for all involved; for some, it signals the welcome end to being witness to a
very dysfunctional relationship. Studies have shown that children may benefit from parental
separation because it lessens their exposure to conflict. If divorce does not lower children's access
to resources and does not increase stress, its impact on children may be neutral or even positive.
Divorce does not ruin the life of every child it touches, though its effects on a child is not always
benign.

Poverty

Poverty involves living in a state or situation in which certain essential material goods are lacking.
Poverty is basically a relative concept. How poor a person is and what level of living he must be at
to be considered in a state of poverty depend on how rich the rest of the people in his social
situation are, and what level of living they enjoy. Relative deprivation refers to determining the
poverty by the minimum level of living that the society regards as decent and reasonable. The
poverty level is based on what everybody else has.

Absolute poverty refers to a minimum level of subsistence that no family should be expected to
live below.

Relative poverty refers to a floating standard of deprivation by which people at the bottom of a
society, whatever their lifestyles, are judged to be disadvantaged in comparison with the nation
as a whole. One commonly used measure of relative poverty is the poverty line, a money income
figure adjusted annually to reflect the consumption requirements of families based on their size
and composition. It serves as an official definition of which people are poor.

Causes of poverty
 The scarcity of food and goods

 Some individuals claim that people are poor because they are lazy and do not want to
work. This is not always true as many individuals are unable to find employment, maybe because
of;

 Physical disability

 Discrimination in hiring practices

 Lack of adequate training

 Lack of education

 Institutionalised inequality or the extent to which we have institutionalised certain patterns

of inequality contribute to the continuation of poverty.

Keep the family together

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Street Children
The worst sin towards our fellow creatures
is not to hate them, but to be indifferent to them;
that is the essence of inhumanity.

- From The Devil's Disciple by George Bernard Shaw

The term 'street children' refers to children who have made the streets
their home. They do not live in a family home and do not have any
fixed address. It includes children who might not necessarily be
homeless or without families, but who live in situations where there is
no protection, supervision, or direction from responsible adults. A scene from an event put on by
the Kiwanis Club at the Ascot
High School, on Friday April 28. -
The public view of street children in many countries is overwhelmingly Ricardo Makyn/Staff
negative. The public has often supported efforts to get these children Photographer
off the street. Many street children throughout the world are subject
to physical abuse, as many treat them as a blight to be rid of rather
than as children to be nurtured and protected. They are frequently
detained simply because they are homeless, or criminally charged with vague offences, such as
loitering, vagrancy or petty theft. Girls may be sexually abused, or coerced into sexual acts.

Street children also make up a large proportion of the children who enter criminal justice systems
and are committed finally to correctional institutions. Few individuals will speak up for these
children, and few street children have family members or concerned individuals willing and able to
intervene on their behalf.

The United Nations has been attributed as estimating the population of street children worldwide
at 150 million, with the number rising daily. Ranging in age from three to 18, about 40 per cent of
those are homeless, the other 60 per cent work on the streets to support their families. They are
unable to attend school and are considered to live in "especially difficult circumstances."
Increasingly, these children are the defenceless victims of brutal violence, sexual exploitation,
abject neglect, chemical addiction and human rights violations.

Suicide

"Any person has the potential to become suicidal when confronted with a situation that produces
emotional pain and is believed to be inescapable, interminable, and intolerable."

J. A. Chiles and K. Strosahl (1995) The Suicidal Patient: Principles of Assessment,

Treatment and Case Management

Definitions of suicide:

Suicide comes from two Latin roots, 'sui' (of oneself) and 'cidium' (a killing or slaying). This gives
us the definition of suicide as the 'deliberate or intentional killing of oneself.'

 The act of killing yourself.

 A person who kills himself/herself intentionally. [Link]/perl/webwn

 Suicide (from Latin sui caedere, to kill oneself) is the act of intentionally ending one's own
life; it is sometimes a noun for one who has committed or attempted the act.
[Link]/wiki/Suicide

 The intentional taking of one's own life.

[Link]/grey stone/mentalhealth/ [Link]

 The purposeful taking of one's life.

[Link]/ info/[Link]

 Death where there is evidence that a self-inflicted and deliberate act led to the person's
death.
[Link]. nz/toolkits/suicide/ [Link]

Causes of suicide

No single factor has gained acceptance as a universal cause of suicide. However, depression is a
common phenomenon among those who commit suicide. Other factors that may be related are as
follows:

 Pain (e.g. physical or emotional agony that is not correctable)

 Stress (e.g. grief after the death of a loved one)
 Crime (e.g. escaping from judicial punishment)
 Mental illness and disability (e.g., depression, trauma, and schizophrenia)
 Catastrophic injury (e.g., paralysis, disfigurement, loss of limb)
 Substance abuse
 Adverse environment (e.g., sexual abuse, poverty, homelessness, discrimination)
 Financial loss (e.g. gambling addiction, loss of job/assets, stock market crash, debts)
 Unresolved sexual issues (e.g. sexual orientation, unrequited love, aftermath of a break-
up)
 To avoid shame or dishonour

Modern medicine treats suicide as a mental health issue. Medical professionals advise that people
who have expressed plans to kill themselves be encouraged to seek medical attention
immediately. This is especially important if the means (weapons, drugs, or other methods) are
available, or if the patient has crafted a detailed plan for executing the suicide. Depressive people
are considered a high-risk group for suicidal behaviour.

Associated problems

"Suicide does not just occur. Experience has shown that it is more often the end result of a
process that has developed over a period of time."

- N.L. Farberow

Suicide is the outcome of neurobiological and psychological breakdown. Becoming suicidal is a

process that begins in severe stress and pain generated by a serious life crisis. Suicide occurs
when the stress induces psychological pain so unbearable that death is seen as the only relief.

There is no choice. Suicidal individuals are beset by suffering that is distracting and disabling.
Suicide is a state of total pain, which limits options to enduring or ending utter agony.

Suicide grievers struggle with 'why' and 'what if'. Suicide grief is driven by learning. Most of what
is encountered is negative and amplifies grief. Grieving opens with conflict among what is felt,
believed and heard.

Efforts to make sense of the loss seems hard to grasp. Why? Hopes of healing wither. Pain
worsens with holidays, birthdays and the anniversary of the loss one. Anger comes from seeing
that the loss may have been prevented.

The enormity of the loss fosters disaffection and powerlessness. Severe stress and pain peak and
plateau. Relationships become strained and some do not survive. Next comes self-realisation of
the consequence of the loss. This is the healing.

Activities

Street children: A growing trend in the caribbean.

a) (i) Define the term 'street children'.

(ii) Outline TWO situations in the home which may be responsible for the number of "street
children" in urban areas of the Caribbean.

b) Give THREE reasons why it is important for Caribbean countries to reduce the number of street
children.

c) Suggest TWO ways in which a welfare organisation may cater to the needs of street children in
urban areas.

1. Give THREE reasons why you think individuals commit suicide.

2. Suggest what a counsellor can do and say to prevent someone from committing suicide.

3. Who commits the most suicide in a society, males or females? Give reasons for your answer.

What is teenage pregnancy?

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

A live birth, foetal death or abortion occurring to a female

under 20 years of age. [Link]/kic/ gen_def.html

Teenage pregnancy is a social issue of teenage girls getting

pregnant. In developing countries, teenage pregnancy is
quite usual since many women are expected to be married
and have children before they are 20. [Link]/wiki/
Teenage_pregnancy

Causes Sangster's Book Store Promotions

Representative, Yvonne Christie (left), looks
through a Collins Dictionary with Lacovia
1. Lack of religious and moral education. Comprehensive High School students: Kerene
Kirlew (head girl), Everie Salmom (head boy)
2. Broken homes where the impact of socialisation of and Rhonette Robinson (student council
president) following the handover of more than
children by both parents is weakened.
$100,000 in books to the school's library under
the Sangster's Book Store Outreach Programme
3. Lack of education on the disadvantages of sexual activity recently. - Claudine Housen/Staff Photographer
prior to marriage.

4. The influence of television where it is at times seemingly

portraying that there is nothing morally wrong with practising sex at any time and at any age.

5. Poor role models in society

6. Peer pressure

7. Promises made to young girls by men who seemingly have money and wanting to exchange
this money for sexual favours.

Consequences

1. The 'character' of an unwed mother is tarnished because of norms in our society.

2. Teenagers invariably lack the social and psychological maturity to raise children.
3. School drop-outs, as education and training may be curtailed.

4. Forced into marriage.

5. Affects health.

6. Teenagers do not always possess the financial resources required to maintain a child or
children.

Solutions

1. Parents and schools must strive to educate teenagers about sex, pregnancy and other teen
issues.

2. Supervision of what is watched on the television.

3. Young people should practise group dating.

4. When all else fail it is recommended that contraceptive be made available; however, from a
Christian standpoint, we believe moral restraint is the best solution.

5. Choose your friend wisely; avoid peer pressure and say no when it is necessary.

Juvenile delinquency

Delinquency: An antisocial misdeed in violation of the law by a minor. [Link]/

perl/webwn

Juvenile delinquency refers to antisocial or criminal acts performed by juveniles. It is an important

social issue because juveniles are capable of committing serious crimes, but society must also
recognise that responsibility for juvenile behaviour goes beyond the juveniles themselves.
[Link]/wiki/ Juvenile_delinquency

Causes

1. Low self-esteem

2. Poverty, unemployment and hopelessness.

3. Incidence of child abuse: It is believed that witnessing or being a victim of violence at a very
early age can have a demonstrable long-term effect on a child's decision to use physical force.

4. Availability of guns, drugs and alcohol. Alcohol is available in some form that young people can
lay their hands on. Illegal drugs serve as a source of income in an underground economy
associated with violence.

5. Media glorification of macho violence and avoidance of its real-life consequences.

6. The absence of involved fathers in homes. Poor parental supervision and the absence of secure
biological fathers in the home have become a growing phenomenon.

7. Peer pressure and the environment in which they live.

Individuals argue that it has been found out that troublesome and delinquent children are more
likely to come from troubled families and neighbourhoods. Family factors associated with higher
rates of delinquency include early (teenage) childbearing, and substance abuse during pregnancy,
parent's criminal record or mental health problems, poor parental supervision, erratic child-
rearing behaviour, parental disharmony and parental rejection of the child.

Consequences of Juvenile Delinquency and Violence

Youth, their families, and society suffer multiple consequences from juvenile crime and related
problems. Both human and economic costs are significant.

The most profound consequence of juvenile crime is the loss of human life.

Other crimes committed by juveniles also carry both economic and psychological burdens. Youth
disproportionately commit arson, vandalism, motor vehicle thefts, burglaries, and larceny/thefts
with resultant financial ramifications for victims. Medical and other treatment expenses for victims
of robberies, rapes, and assaults also are significant. Families, particularly, may face distress and
added expenses when youths use alcohol or other drugs, or run away from home.

Social costs of delinquency are also significant. In addition to increased medical expenses and lost
years of productivity for both offenders and victims, there are tremendous costs related to
providing juvenile justice services.

Prevention methods

The prevention of delinquency requires identifying at-risk individuals and their environments
before delinquent activity and behaviour occur and then removing such risk factors or
strengthening resistance to the risk factors already present. The most logical starting place for
prevention efforts is the family.

 Build family cohesiveness and parent-child relationships by taking time each week to have
fun as a family.

 Monitor your child's activities: always ask where your child is going with whom and when
your child will be back.

 Set logical rules for behaviour according to your child's age and then apply age-
appropriate consequences fairly and consistently when the rules are broken.

 Get to know your child's friends and their families.

 Adopt a democratic parenting style by allowing your child's voice to be heard: listen
respectfully when your child is talking and make good eye contact at all times.

 Offer to help with academic problems and show concern about your child's studies and
behaviour in school. At the end of each day ask what went well in school and what problems
occurred.

 Talk to your child about peer pressure and the physical and emotional changes expected
during the teen years. Calmly explain what you expect from your child in the way of appropriate
behaviour.
 Assist your child in making good decisions by being a good role model: make good
decisions yourself and show your child how to evaluate the consequences of planned and
completed behaviours.

 Use natural or logical consequences (rather than punishment) in applying discipline. For
example if a child writes on the wall a logical consequence would be for her to scrub the wall
clean and paint it.

 Enrol your child in youth recreational activities such as Boys' and Girls' clubs extra-
curricular sports clubs at school and athletic programmes run by the YMCA and other well-known
non-profit agencies. If the methods stated above are already in place but are not working as
effectively as you would like then it may be time to consult a professional. Source: Identification
of children at risk at the police station and the prevention of delinquency. Psychiatry:
Interpersonal and biological processes Scholte E. M. (1992). 4 354-369.

Adolescence (4th Ed.). Steinberg L. (1996). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Treatment methods

Treatment methods include individual family and group counselling, probation and visits to places
of safety. Remember, prevention of delinquent behaviour is the best way to avoid having to
consider methods of treatment! However, if your child chooses to engage in delinquent behaviour
then he/she must also accept the consequences of those actions. Be firm and consistent.

Activities

1. Give THREE explanations to show why young people need proper guidance in parenting.

2. As a social worker, suggest TWO examples of advice you would give to teenagers who are
actively involved in sexual activities.

3. Discuss: "A juvenile delinquent is made not born."

4. Do juvenile delinquents grow up to be criminals? Discuss giving reasons for your answer.
Social problems
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

A social problem can be considered to be an "alleged situation that

is incompatible with the values of a significant number of people,
who agree that action is needed to alter the situation."

Social problems include:

 Domestic violence, divorce, desertion, teenage pregnancy,

promiscuity and incest William Knibb Memorial High School
 Alcohol and other drugs students listen keenly during a
 Crime and violence presentation at the Gleaner's Youthlink
CSEC Seminar on mathematics and
 Problems of youth and ageing accounts at the Montego Bay Civic
 Issues in sexual orientation/ alternative lifestyles Centre, in April. The seminar,
 Street children organised by The Gleaner Company,
aids students preparing for CXC
 Juvenile delinquency examinations. - Tasheika
 Sexually transmitted infections Mair/Freelance Photographer
 Poverty.

What is child abuse?

Child abuse is the physical or psychological maltreatment of a child or young person under the
age of 18 by an adult. There are four main types of abuse:

1. Physical

When children are hurt or injured by parents or other people. Hitting, kicking, beating with
objects, throwing and shaking are all examples of physical abuse and can cause pain, cuts,
bruising, broken bones and sometimes even death.

2. Sexual

This is when children are forced or persuaded into sexual acts or situations by others. Children
might be encouraged to look at pornography, be harassed by sexual suggestions or comments, be
touched sexually or forced to have sex or perform other acts that make them uncomfortable.

3. Emotional

When children are not given love, approval or acceptance. They may be constantly criticised,
blamed, sworn and shouted at, told that other people are better than they are and rejected by
those they look to for affection. This includes constant name-calling, being threatened, being
made fun of or made to feel small, and often seeing violence between the people who care for
them.

4. Neglect

When parents or others looking after children do not provide them with proper food, warmth,
shelter, clothing, care and protection.

5. Bullying and discrimination

Whether by adults or by another young person, this is also abusive and can hurt physically and
emotionally. Bullying and discrimination are not acceptable, and children should not suffer in
silence or have to deal with these problems on their own.

Effects of abuse on the individual

Abuse creates all sorts of emotions, including feeling:

 Frightened
 Alone
 Angry
 Unloved
 Guilty
 ashamed
 unimportant.

It can also make children feel confused, especially if the person hurting them is someone they
look up to. But, whatever the feeling it creates, abuse is wrong and never your fault.

Regardless of what abusers say (phrases like 'No-one will believe you' and 'I'll kill you if you tell';
or even suggesting that it's your fault they're abusing you) they do not have the right to hurt you,
and you do have the right to live a normal, abuse-free life.

Getting help

Even if you think there's no way out of the problem or if you're under pressure not to tell anyone,
there are people you can talk to. One of the most important things to remember is that whatever
you're going through, you don't have to keep it to yourself.

Start by talking to someone you know and trust, such as a:

 Parent, carer or someone else in your family

 Close friend, or one of their brothers, sisters or parents
 Neighbour
 Teacher or school counsellor - some schools have mentoring schemes
 Doctor or school nurse
 Social worker

Who abuses children?

It is not just strangers who abuse children - 95 per cent of children calling sexual and physical
abuse know the abuser. Abusers include parents, uncles, aunts, grandparents, teachers, family
friends, and brothers and sisters.

The majority of abusers 'reported' are usually men. They come from all classes, professions and
backgrounds. Some women do abuse children, as do young people.

What can you do?

Child abuse is emotionally and physically damaging and can even result in death. It also creates
all sorts of confusing feelings and emotions. Often a child may not realise that what is making
him/her feel scared or worried is abuse. You can help to keep children and young people safe by
watching for unexpected changes in their appearance and behaviour. If a child tries to talk to you
about something that is worrying him/her, listen carefully and take them seriously.

It is very important to remember that abuse is never the child or young person's choice and is
never their fault. The idea of talking about abuse can be daunting. It can be difficult to know what
to do for the best, whether you are being abused or are worried about somebody else. You will
probably feel worried about what will happen if you tell. You might feel embarrassed, or think that
you won't be believed. You might think the problem will go away if you ignore it. Or, you might
think that you will be seen as interfering or a 'busybody'. You might think that the child will be
taken into local authority care and the family will be broken up. Speaking out is the first and most
difficult step, but it's also the most important. By telling someone, you can stop a child being
abused.

Whether you suspect child abuse or are a victim yourself, don't keep it to yourself. It's important
to get help, for the safety of the child involved.

Only then can the abuse be stopped.

Activities

1. State and explain the four main types of child abuse.

2. What are the possible causes of child abuse?

3. Outline four effects of child abuse on the individual.

4. Suggest ways in which child abusers can be brought to justice.

5. Name agencies/groups that are willing to help in solving/ preventing child abuse.

Parenthood: A challenging experience

Maureen Campbell, Contributor
The family is a major factor in the well-being of adults, children
and society. Parents are the backbone of any family, the
enormously powerful force in the lives of children.

What kind of parent are you?

A newborn in a family causes many new experiences and a

number of problems that tend to affect the mother, father and
other members of the family. Most new parents express some Lorna Gooden (second right), manager
surprise about the sheer level of physical demands. Amongst most of social services and home economics
new parents the overwhelming responsibility for caring for their at the Rural Agricultural Development
baby falls to the mother. Authority, explains the use of these
food products to students of Ardenne
High School. From left are Rohan
One mother wrote in her diary when her daughter was a month Lawson, Mariam Baker and Ashli
old. "A month is only four weeks - but it has been an eternity for Alexander. Occasion was a ceremony
me. I'm a zombie. Four weeks of night feedings and little sleep. I held at the school to mark World Food
haven't read a paper. I barely have time to shower and wash my Day. - Rudolph Brown/Chief
hair." (Lowenstein & Lowenstein 1983, p.18). Photographer

Planning your family

A couple should decide how many children it will have, when it will have them and how they will
provide for them. It is necessary for prospective parents to be aware of the following when
planning to be good parents:

1. Be healthy, drug-free, and free from all communicable diseases. You do not want your child to
be a victim of such a disease, which may have various effects, from mental to physical, on the
child.

2. Learn about growth and development of a child. You sure do want to cater adequately for the
needs of your child at different ages.

3. Ensure that your child is given love, affection and attention, and is socialised. His or her
demands for everyday life should be assured. The child should be made ready to live in the
outside world, being well socialised and in possession of the necessary qualities to make such an
adjustment.

4. A stable job or a steady and adequate income to cater for the needs of the family is very
essential. Pursue education, be knowledgeable, so you can form the first school at home, teaching
your child academically and instilling religious values to your offspring.

5. Space your children; be knowledgeable about family planning techniques. Ensure your family
size does not grow beyond your ability to support them.

6. Be knowledgeable about first- aid techniques, as you never know when you may have to use it.

7. Build emotional strength, be patient, be calm and composed when you are disciplining your
child or looking after a sick child that is constantly crying.

8. The female's body should be developed sufficiently to enable her to go through pregnancy and
deliver the baby without much difficulty or threat to her health or life.

Family-life education
Being a good parent requires providing a child with the gifts of love, attention, energy and
resources, generously and unstintingly over a long period of time. It involves nourishing a small
body, but it also involves growing a child's soul - sharing the stories and rituals that awaken a
child's spirit and nurturing the spiritual bonds that create meaning and morality in that child's life.

Family-life education is very necessary when preparing to be a good parent. Being educated about
family life provides a compre-hensive approach to family life by educating the parent to be.
Family -life education provides the parent-to-be and others with the knowledge of the following
issues.

a. It teaches parenting skills and the responsibilities of parenthood.

b. It provides the individual with the information to make a family plan and to avoid unwanted
pregnancy.

c. It helps in the teaching of family planning techniques and the relationship between sex and
pregnancy.

d. It, therefore, provides information on how to deal with human sexuality, reproductive health,
self-esteem, values, relationships, parenting, family planning, contraception and sexually
transmitted diseases.

These are all issues on which parents-to-be need information and professional guidance in order
to be "good parents".

According to Brathwaite and Reynolds, in The Social Study Guide, a good parent should have
the following:

1. Good communication skills so that they can talk to their children and also be able to listen to
them.

2. Socialisation skills to teach their children the values, norms and mores of the society.

3. Disciplinary skills in order to deal with inappropriate behaviour.

4. Nutritional skills so that they can prepare the kinds of meals that would help the child to grow
and stay healthy.

5. Skills in managing money in order to budget properly for the children's material needs. (Pages
48 and 49)

Expectations of parents

Every day, more than three-quarters of a million adults around the world experience the joys and
heartaches, the challenges and rewards of becoming new parents. Despite the fact that most
people become parents, and everyone who ever lived has had parents, parenting has remained as
a challenging and mystifying subject about which almost everyone has his or her own opinions,
but about which few people agree. One thing is certain, it is the principal and continuing task of
parents in each generation to prepare children of the next generation for the physical, economic
and psycho-social situations in which those children must survive and thrive.

Many factors influence the development of children, but parenthood is believed to be the 'final
common pathway' to childhood oversight and caregiving, development and stature, adjustment
and success. Not only is the sheer amount of interaction between parent and child necessary, but
also childhood is the time when human beings are particularly most susceptible and responsive to
external experiences. Indeed, the opportunity for enhanced parental influence, and prolonged
learning, is thought to be the evolutionary reason for the extended duration of human childhood.

Challenges faced by parents

Yet, parenting is under 'friendly fire' today on account of strong secular and historical trends
operating in modern society. Industrialisation, urbanisation, poverty, increasing population growth
and density, and especially widespread dual parental employment constitute centrifugal forces on
parenting and the family. Society at large is also witnessing the emergence of striking
permutations in parenthood and the constellation of the family structure, notably in the rise of
single-parent headed households, divorced and blended families, and teenage first-time moms
and dads.

Because these society-wide changes exert many unfortunately-debilitating influences on

parenthood, on interactions between parents and children, and consequently on children and their
development, organisations at all levels of society increasingly feel the need to intercede in child-
rearing and to right some of society's ills through family intervention. This trend too leads away
from a focus on parents as the proximal protectors, providers and proponents of their own
progeny.

Yet, parents are children's primary advocates and their front-line defence. Parents are the corps
available in the greatest numbers to lobby and labour for children. Few sentient parents want to
abrogate their child-rearing responsibilities. Quite the opposite, virtually all parents want only the
best for their children.

([Link] html)

Activities

Try these questions.

1. Boys and girls should be equally prepared for parenthood.

a. State THREE ways in which the family can prepare its boys for parenthood. (6 marks)

b. Give THREE reasons why you would recommend family-life education for boys and girls in
schools. (6 marks)

c. Suggest THREE activities that a youth club could undertake to help its members prepare to be
successful parents. (5 marks

2. a) Outline THREE types of skills parents need in bringing up their children. (6 marks)

b) Give THREE reasons to show why young married couples may consider having a small family.
(6 marks)

c. Suggest TWO ways a community group may provide guidance for young unwed mothers. (5
marks)
Legacies of our ancestors
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Our rich Caribbean heritage is aptly depicted in the Jamaican

motto, 'Out of many one people'. Over 70 per cent of our
population is composed of individuals of African descent.
However, the contribution of other ethnic groups, such as
the Indians and Chinese to the social and economic
development of the region cannot go unnoticed.

Culture is generally defined as everything that is socially

learned and shared by a group of people in a society. It
refers to a way of life and to all the ideas, beliefs, customs,
language, art, technology and practices of a society, which
Volunteers from Catalyst in Columbus, Ohio,
have been passed on from one generation to another. It is USA, interact with students at the Grace and
the way of life of a people. Culture gives a society its Staff Community Development Homework
identity. A society cannot exist without a culture. It should Centre on Tower Street, downtown Kingston
recently. - Winston Sill/Freelance
be made clear that comprehending cultural differences and Photographer
grasping the cultural basis of our behaviour is crucial for anyone in today's multicultural world.

The Amerindians

The first recorded settlers of the Caribbean. We have adopted words such as hammock, canoe,
barbeque, Jamaica, maize and cassava from them. They have left the following with us:
barbequed fish and other meat, the making of cassava bread and pepper pot, and the smoking of
tobacco. The worship of many gods was a feature of the Amerindians lifestyle.

Africans

The Caribbean islands provide agricultural resources. Growing and harvesting crops under the
harsh Caribbean sun was very hard work. At first, the Europeans used the native Caribbean
Indians as slaves. As the need for more slaves grew, Africans were brought to the islands. Over
many decades, as many as 20 million Africans were brought to the Caribbean islands by force.
These people were taken mainly from West African countries between Senegal and Angola.

Birth - ceremonial cutting of the 'navel string'. Mother stays in for nine days after giving birth.

Death - wake, belief in spirits and ghost.

Marriage - special wedding garments, act of giving gifts, betrothal, wedding ceremony and ritual.

Dances - Jonkonnu, kumina, Dinki-Mini and Bruckins, etc.

Religion - Orisha, Kumina, Shango, etc.

Medicines - herbal cures, folk medicines, and bush doctor.

Music/instruments - folk music, mento music, banjo, drums

Europeans

Europe's interaction with the Caribbean began in 1492 with the Spanish-sponsored voyages of
Christopher Columbus. Columbus' voyages to the Caribbean incorporated two differing traditions
of expansion. The first was influenced by his Genoese roots and his experience in the Portuguese
mercantile system. This background allowed Columbus to view his task as mainly one of discovery
to be followed by the establishment of commercial outposts and trading centres that would tap
into indigenous resources. The primary goal of this system was the quick exploitation of the local
area with minimum investment.

Cultural impact:

Birth - christening of the baby.

Marriage - exogamy, engagement, courtship. Something old, something new, something

borrowed and something blue. Throwing of the garter, bouquet. Throwing rice, honeymoon and
special wedding gown.

Dances - Quadrille, maypole, etc.

Religion - Christianity, Roman Catholic, Protestants and Judaism.

Diet - Escoveitched fish, peas and bean dishes. Jerked meat, the making of buns, cakes,
puddings, cheese, ham, bacon, wines, etc.

Asians

Indians: They arrived as indentured labourers between 1845 and 1917. At the end of the
indentureship contract, many Indians reverted to their ancestral occupations; some became
fishermen or farmers, and others became barbers, goldsmiths, ironsmiths and moneylenders.

The Indians introduced several plants and trees in Jamaica, such as the betel leaves, betel nut,
coolie plum, mango, jackfruit and tamarind. The food habits of Indians have a distinctly Indian
flavour and taste.

Chinese: The Chinese represent a small proportion of the Caribbean population; nevertheless,
their impact have been great, particularly in the area of commerce. The Chinese were brought as
indentured labourers to work on the plantations following the emancipation of the slaves. They
soon left the plantation and set up businesses, small grocery shops into large enterprises
embracing not only retailing, but also wholesaling.

Chinese celebratory dances such as the lion and dragon dances are always looked forward to by
many Jamaicans as part of our national events. Chinese industry and their disciplined approach to
work, their care and nurturing of children and the emphasis they place on education and on
family life, set examples for the Jamaican society. The tradition of the extended family in Chinese
culture parallels that in African cultures, so is respect for age, whether it be to a member of the
immediate family or to an outsider.

Marriage - endogamy and may even be arranged. Special wedding garments.

Religion - Hinduism, Islam and Buddhism.

Diet/food - roti, curried goat, rice, pak choi, spices and vegetables.

Activities

Caribbean family life patterns include some cultural practices passed on through generations.

1. List THREE ethnic or racial groups found in the Caribbean.

2. For each of the groups you listed, state ONE cultural practice of the group that has been
passed on through generations to present-day Caribbean families.

3. Give THREE reasons why some cultural practices from many years ago have continued to be
important in present-day Caribbean life.

4. Suggest THREE actions that your government can take to support the efforts of cultural groups
in your country.

5. Identify various examples of cultural practices in the Caribbean that did not originate in the
islands.

6. State FOUR reasons for cultural transmission and explain how this is accomplished.
7. Outline FIVE factors that may prevent an individual from adequately performing a particular
role.

8. Gender is most important in determining the roles of family members. Discuss.

Building blocks of our daily lives

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Social Interaction

This is the process by which people act and react in relation to others.

Status

Status is viewed as a social position that an individual occupies. Status

is a part of our social identity and helps define our relationship with
others.

"The first condition of having to deal with somebody is knowing with

whom one has to deal." (Georg Simmel 1950)

Over a lifetime individuals gain and lose statuses, e.g., a teenage girl is
a daughter to her parents, a sister to her siblings, a friend to her peers, Right Ordinary Seaman V.
the head girl of her high school and the goal attack of her Reynolds of the Jamaica
neighbourhood netball team. She may grow to become a parent, a Coastguard explains to
students from the Queen's
lawyer, a wife, the choir leader at her church, etc. School how the Rigid Inflatable
Boat used for open water
Statuses can be achieved or ascribed. interception by the Coastguard
is operated, at the World
Maritime Institute Week expo
Ascribed status at the Caribbean Maritime
Institute on September 26. -
Ricardo Makyn/Staff
This is a social position an individual receives at birth or assumes Photographer
involuntarily later in life, for example, a female or a Jamaican.
Individuals have little or no control over ascribed statuses.

Achieved status
An achieved status, in contrast, is a social position a person assumes voluntarily that reflects
personal ability and effort. Examples are honours student, Olympic athlete and prime minister,
etc.

It is believed, however, that people's ascribed status may influence the statuses they achieve.
Some statuses seem to matter more than others, as one's occupation may convey a great deal of
social background, education, and income. One's surname may also be enough to push one into
the limelight. (You should try to identify some examples in Jamaica).

Role

"People hold a status and perform a role."

A role is behaviour expected of someone who holds a particular status. The actions and activities
assigned to, or required, or expected of a person or group - 'the function of a teacher', 'the
Government must do its part', 'play its role'.

Individual members of families occupy certain roles, such as child, sibling, and grandchild. Along
with roles come certain social and family expectations for how those roles should be fulfilled. For
example, parents are expected to teach, discipline, and provide for their children. Children are
expected to cooperate and respect their parents.

A person's role is always expanding or changing, depending upon his or her age and family stage.
Individuals within a family have both instrumental and affective roles to fulfil. Each serves an
important function in maintaining healthy family functioning.

Instrumental

Concerned with the provision of physical resources, for example, food, clothing and shelter,
decision making and family management.

Affective roles

This exists to provide emotional support and encouragement to family members. In addition,
families have other role allocation and accountability.

Essential Family roles

Families are like a team - each individual member brings skill, personality and role to the family
team.

Researchers have identified five major roles as being essential to any family type.

1. Provision of resources: Providing resources, such as money, food, clothing, and shelter for all
family members. (Instrumental role).

2. Nurturance and support an affective role.

3. Life skills department: This includes the physical, emotional, educational and social
development of children and adults.
4. Maintenance and management of family system. Leadership, decision making, handling family
finances, and maintaining appropriate roles with respect to extended family, friends and
neighbours. The maintaining of discipline and enforcing behavioural standards.

5. Sexual gratification of marital partners. A satisfying sexual relationship is one of the keys to a
good quality marital relationship.

Note

Families must:

a. Establish clear roles

b. Allow for flexibility
c. Allocate roles fairly
d. Be responsible in fulfilling their roles.

Relationships

The family tie is the closest, the most tender and sacred of any human relationship on earth. In a
family, the personal worth and dignity of each member should be affirmed and safeguarded in an
environment of respect, equality, openness and love. Relationships within the family may range
from cooperation to conflict.

Family members have different ideas and values and this creates conflict among them. This
conflict may arise when two or more members of the family have a disagreement or an argument.

The generation gap is also a major cause of conflict in the Caribbean, as parents and children
have different ideas and values. Parents always want children to follow their own way because
they think it is the right way. Children do not agree in most cases and may rebel. Many children
believe that it is "modern times" and, therefore, their parents are behind and are old-fashioned.

Activities

a. What is your role in your family?

b. Complete the roles of the following individuals in the family:

Men Women Children

Primary income earner Caring for children Household chores

Emotional security and Other domestic work
support - meal preparation
- Sewing
Starting a family
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

In all societies throughout history, families have been the main

vehicles of group identity and the chief receptacles of vested
interests. Family membership has been the dominant fact of
life, the chief determinant of social status and economic well-
being. Because the family is widely accepted as a basic social
institution of the society, it is often thought that the family
shapes or influences the rest of the society and in turn is often
shaped and changed by the rest of the institutions of the
society.

A student from Rusea's High School in

Lucea, Hanover, raises issues which she
Choosing marriage mates
feels need to be examined in relation to
tourism, globalization and rural All people do not follow the same steps in the same order in
development, during the 2006 'Dialogue
for Development Forum on Globalization, choosing a marriage mate. In some countries, young people
Rural Development and Tourism'. The have almost complete responsibility for finding and selecting a
event was sponsored by the Planning mate for marriage. In most Caribbean countries, children do
Institute of Jamaica. - Photo by Noel
Thompson have considerable freedom and autonomy in the selection of
their marriage mates.

Dating

This is getting to know a variety of partners. Young people are allowed to spend time together in
recreational settings, where they get to know each other and enjoy each other's company.

Courtship/mate selection

This is the phase in which a man and a woman develop a mutual relationship before they make a
commitment. It is based on romantic love and/or mutual physical attraction. The idea of romantic
love seems to be a precondition of marriage, as is practised in the Caribbean. Two persons are
interested in each other, 'get serious' or 'going steady'. They now only date each other. They will
soon become engaged.

Engagement

Engagement is an official public declaration of one's intention to marry. This is seen as a promise
made by two adults who are courting and, therefore, belong to each other romantically and that
they should/will ultimately marry each other.

Legal Union/ Common law Union

The forming of a union through legal marriage usually follows an engagement. However, a couple
may decide to 'shack up' in a consensual/common law union.

Arranged marriages

The parents select marriage partners for their children. Often, because the young people scarcely
know each other, it is hoped that they will develop an affectionate and warm relationship after
marriage, and they will continue to have pleasant companionship for life.

"Love matches start out hot and grow cold, while arranged marriages start out cold and grow
hot." (Xiaohoe and White, 1990)

'Shot-gun' marriage

Two persons may be forced to marry because of the occurrence of pregnancy. Many individuals
marry after becoming pregnant to stave off embarrassment of having committed fornication or to
not allow their child to be born illegitimatey or out of wedlock.

Marriage of convenience

This is a situation where a person marries another because of wealth, status, or position. For
example, the situation where a national decides to marry a foreigner so as to facilitate obtaining
citizenship for his or her spouse.

Elope

Individuals may elope, that is, run away with a lover and usually get married or form a common-
law relationship/consensual union.

Cohabitation

This is a situation where unmarried couples live together. This is found in every stratum of society
in the Caribbean region. Although cohabitation is increasingly accepted, and in some instances
the prelude to marriage, people continue to make a distinction between living together and a
'proper' wedding and marriage.

You have already met some of these terms in the second lesson; however, we now put them in
their right perspective:

Number of marriage mates

Monogamy - One partner at a time

Polygamy - Forms of marriage that involve more than one mates, that is, two or more partners
at a time.

Polygyny - A man having more than one wife at any one time

Polyandry - A woman having more than one husband at any one time.

Choice of Partners
The following so aptly describe how many of us choose our partners in the Caribbean region.

"The lightning shaft of cupid seems to be guided strongly within very definite channels of income,
class, education, racial and religious background." (Peter Berger, Invitation to Sociology 1963.)

Homogamy

This is interbreeding among an isolated group of individuals having similar characteristics. This is,
therefore, the tendency for people of similar backgrounds to marry people with similar
characteristics, such as religion, race, education, ethnicity, wealth, nationality and social class.

Endogamy

This is the custom of marriage within the group, class, caste, or tribe; inbreeding.

Exogamy

Marriage outside of one's tribe, clan, or family.

Rules of descent

Matrilineal - Descent comes from mother and her kin.

Patrilineal - Descent comes from father and his kin.

Bilineal - Descent comes equally from mother's and father's family. Allegiance is shared.

Rules of residence

Matrilocal - Newly-married couples live with wife's family.

Patrilocal - Newly-married couples live with husband's family.

Neolocal - Newly-married couples establish new, separate households.

Authority

Matriarchy - Authority held by oldest female, usually mother.

Patriarchy - Authority held by oldest male, usually father.

Egalitarian - Husbands and wives share authority equally.

Activities:

1. a. Give the meaning of EACH of the following terms:

(i) monogamy
(ii) homogamy

b. Give ONE example of a non-legal union between consenting adults that is found in the
Caribbean.
c. State ONE way that a man and a woman may enter a legal union in your country.

d. Give THREE reasons why it is considered important for a young couple to enter into legal
marital relationship.

e. As a social-worker, suggest TWO ways that parents may use to sensitise young adults in the
family to the importance of legal relationships

Functions of the family in a changing world

Maureen Campbell, Contributor
 The family in its different forms continues to have great
significance on society. "It remains as a stubborn,
complex, biological, psychological, economic, and cultural
entity that exists in its own right and intervenes in the
process of social change in a powerful way."
- (Mike O'Donnell, 1993)

It is through the family that we gain and identity and

The Jamaica Cultural Development Commission continuity with the past: a name, physical characteristics,
(JCDC), in association with People's Telecom a 'place' in the community, and a reference point against
Jamaica Limited, presents the Official Opening of
the 'Ms. Lou Bandana Village', in honour of her which we are measured or can measure others. There are
birthday, held at the Louise Bennett Garden 'good' families offering support and comfort and 'bad'
Theatre, Hope Road, St. Andrew, on September 7. families where the weak are usually or may be, abused by
Here Oliver Samuels (fifth from left) and Keecha
Hamilton (fourth right), COO and co-founder of the strong. Whatever its quality, the family and its
People's Telecom Ja. Limited cut a birthday cake, function are influenced by the choices and experiences of
assisted by students from Vauxhall and its members throughout their life course. In Sociology, by
Immaculate high schools. - Winston Sill/Freelance
Photographer John Macionis, he writes that the family carries out
societal functions not easily accomplished by other means.

Ways in which the family functions

1. Social placement: Parents confer their own social identity (ascribed) in terms of race,
ethnicity, religion, and social class on their children at their birth.

2. Caregiver: Voluntary caring for the elderly and sick and refusing to place them in a home or
hospice.

3. Social unit providing social control: Family members are taught the roles and values of
their society. This process by which we learn and are taught the acceptable patterns of behaviour
and the culture of a society is known as socialisation. The family is believed to be the first and
most influential setting for socialisation. As mentioned, the family is only one of the agencies of
socialisation; other agencies include the school, the community, the church, the mass media and
the workplace.

4. Education of its members: It is the family that is responsible for providing the basis for
much of the education a child receives. This responsibility should continue throughout the period
that the child attends school.

5. Financial/economic assistance: Every family needs the basic necessities of life, such as
food, clothing, and shelter. Some family members provide the income to obtain these basic
necessities. However, in many countries, the state, government or other non-governmental
organisations carry out this function as family members are shirking their responsibility. This puts
a strain on the Government and other organisations, and at times leads to increase in taxes to
raise revenue to meet the ever-increasing demand.

6. Keeping body and mind together: A family is seen as essential for material and emotional
security. According to Macionis, many view the family as a "haven in a heartless world." A family
should, therefore, provide love, care and attention for each member; it should be a haven when
all else fails. "a shelter in the time of storm." As human beings, we need to know that there is
someone to comfort us and cheer us on when we hurt or we are sad, to share our joy and
accomplishments. As social beings, we need to know that there is someone who cares about us
and loves us. This all starts in the family.
7. Passing on family tradition and values: A family usually takes pleasure in telling the young
about the family's past and instill within them the need to keep the family proud, not to disgrace
the family. The family is also responsible to pass on the traditions, ways of life, customs and
beliefs from one generation to another.

8. Reproduction: The social institution of the family is the basis on which sexual reproduction
and procreation will take place. In the Caribbean, the norms of the family define conditions under
which sexual relations may occur. The family, therefore, reproduces the species thereby enabling
the continuation of the human race.

Activities

1. Name some government agencies that share or undertake the functions of the family
explaining why they have decided to share in carrying out such functions of the family.

2. Identify the changes in the family in recent years. What factors are responsible for these
changes?

3. Which of the functions discussed do you think is most important in today's Caribbean society?

4. In what ways has your family determined your values, norms and roles?

5. In one type of Caribbean family, the father is head and the mother socialises the children.

a. State TWO responsibilities of the father as head of the type of Caribbean family described
above.

b. State ONE way in which the mother socialises the children.

c. Give THREE reasons why many Caribbean families may function different from the family
described in the statement above.

d. Suggest THREE ways in which community groups may help people who have problems at home
or in school.

The family
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Families are the foundation of society. It's a setting where

existence begins, where are nurtured and given the tools
to go out into the world, capable and healthy.

While families have the greatest potential for raising

healthy individuals, they can also wound their members in
Students who participated in a recent Gleaner places that will never heal. When families break down and
Editors' Forum. - Rudolph Brown/Chief
Photographer
fail to provide the healthy nurturing we need, the effects affect not only our own lives, but also
our communities.

Types of Family

Most of the time when a person thinks of the definition of a family, the image of a mother, father
and children is what comes into the mind. That is actually the definition of a nuclear family, which
is parents, and one or more children. However, there are more definitions that can be used to
define a family, such as, a single-parent family, which is one parent and a child or children. An
extended family is when a nuclear family or single-parent family lives with any extended family
members.

Family units take a variety of forms, all of which involve individuals living under one roof. The
family form or structure does not indicate how healthy the family is or how it functions. The
family form is merely the physical make-up of the family members in relationship to each other
without respect to roles and function. The variety of forms a family may take includes the nuclear,
single-parent, extended or blended family

It is therefore evident that children grow up in many different types of families. Some children are
brought up by single parents, some by both parents, some by step-families, and of course, they
may experience several different sorts of family arrangements during their childhood.

Nuclear

"You don't choose your family. They are God's gift to you, as you are to them."

The words, father, mother, brother, sister, refer to certain positions in the family group. These
positions are made obvious by the way the people who occupy them behave.

For a group to be called a nuclear family, there must, at sometime, be a father, mother and at
least one child. This type of family structure is found in almost all societies, although the length of
time in which the family remains in this form varies even within the same society. In nuclear
families, both adults are the biological or adoptive parents of their children.

Single-parent

One of the most striking changes in family structure over the last 20 years has been the increase
in the number of single- parent families. In this family, there is only one parent in the household
raising the children. Owing to high divorce rates and adults choosing not to marry, this seems to
be currently the fastest growing family in Jamaica, and seemingly the Caribbean.

Blended

A couple family is one containing two or more children, of whom at least one is the natural child
of both members of the couple, and at least one is the stepchild of either member of the couple.
A stepfamily is the family one acquires when a parent marries someone new. As a result, it has
often been said, "Step families are born out of loss."

The Blended/Step family

Such a stepfamily may suggest Cinderella's family or the Brady Bunch. Actually, neither situation
tells the whole story. In a blended or stepfamily, one or both partners have been married before.
Each has lost a spouse through divorce or death. One or both of them have children from their
previous marriage. They have fallen in love and decided to remarry. They form a new stepfamily
that includes children from one or both of their first households.

Extended

An extended family is two or more adults from different generations of a family, who share a
household. It consists of more than parents and children; it may be a family that includes
parents, children, cousins, aunts, uncles, grandparents, foster children, etc. The extended family
may live together for many reasons, such as, to help raise children, to support an ill relative, or to
help with financial problems.

Sometimes children are raised by their grandparents when their biological parents have died or no
longer can take care of them. Many grandparents take some primary responsibility for child care,
particularly when both parents work. Extended families can be found all over the world in
different communities and countries.

Extended family (or joint family) is a term with several distinct meanings. First, it is used
synonymously with consanguineous family. Second, in societies dominated by the conjugal family
(nuclear family), it is used to refer to kindred (an egocentric network of relatives that extends
beyond the domestic group), who do not belong to the conjugal family. Often there could be
many generations living under the same roof.

In extended families, the network of relatives acts as a close-knit community. Extended families
can include, aside from parents and their children, cousins, aunts, uncles, grandparents, foster
children, etc. This is in contrast with the smaller nuclear family.

Activities

a. Define the following terms: matrilineal, patrilineal and single-parent family.

b. Give four ways in which a single-parent family may be formed.

c. Give four factors that may cause single-parent families to experience difficulty.

d. When studying the extended family, give three areas of concern which may cause problems for
such a type of family.

e. Give two differences between the single, nuclear, blended and extended families.

f. 'Family type has always been changing'. Is this statement true or false? Give reasons for your
answer.
Concepts on the family
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Activities:

Please try to complete the following without looking at the answers

below. Each statement below is the definition of a concept that you
should know in this section of the syllabus. (Section A1)

1. Marriage uniting three or more people. _________

2. A family in which kinship descent is traced through the

mother.______________________

3. A family in which there is one person, whether mother or father,

who has sole responsibility for his/her children is referred to as a
Jason, a blind student of Meadowbrook ______________
High School, who is on the quiz team.
- Ian Allen Staff/Photographer
4. A social institution found in all societies that unite people into
cooperative groups to oversee the bearing and rearing of children.
_____________________
5. The system by which members of a society trace kinship over generations.
____________________

6. A marriage restriction that a person marries someone within the tribe, race, social class,
religion, etc. ___________________

7. A family in which kinship descent is traced through the father. ______________

8. A family unit that includes parents and children as well as other kin. _________

9. A residential pattern in which a married couple lives with or near the husband's family.
________________

10. A marriage restriction that requires a person to marry someone outside his or her immediate
family, clan, village or tribe. ____________________

11. The personal traits and social positions that members of a society attach to being female and
male._____________________

12. Sexual relations or marriage between certain relatives. ___________________

13. A social bond based on blood, marriage or adoption. ___________________

14. A legally sanctioned relationship, entered into most times because of "love", usually involving
economic cooperation as well as sexual activity and child-bearing that people expect to endure.
______________________

15. A form of social organisation in which females dominate males. _____________

16. A type of family organisation in which several generations of blood relatives live together. Also
called an extended family. ______________________

17. A residential pattern in which a married couple lives with or near the wife's family.
___________________

18. Marriage uniting two partners. ______________________

19. A family unit composed of parents and their children. ________________

20. A form of social organisation in which males dominate females. _____________

21. Marriage uniting one female and two or more males. ___________________

22. People who interact in a defined territory and share culture. ______________

23. Marriage uniting one male and two or more females. ____________________

24. A type of family organisation in which family membership consists only of the married couple
and their dependent children. Also called a nuclear family. _________________

25. In marriage a situation in which one spouse abandons the other. ___________
26. The legal dissolution of an officially recognised marriage. _________________

27. The transmission of genetic characteristics from parents to their

children.__________________

28. A family containing two or more children, of whom at least one is the natural child of both
members of the couple, and at least one is the stepchild of either member of the couple.
__________________

29. For this type of marriage to occur parents select marriage partners for their children.
__________________

30. The way of life of a people: the shared, learned behaviour of the members of a society.
_______________________

Answers
1. polygamy 16. matriarchy
2. matrilineal 17. matrilocality
3. single parent 18. monogamy
4. family 19. nuclear family
5. descent 20. patriarchy
6. endogamy 21. polyandry
7. patrilineal 22. society
8. extended family 23. polygyny
9. patrilocality 24. conjugal family
10. exogamy 25. desertion
11. gender 26. divorce
12. incest 27. heredity
13. consanguine family 28. blended family
[Link] 29. arranged marriage
15. marriage 30. culture.
Syllabus outline
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

It's a new year filled with expectations and an attitude to work

hard to achieve our goals. This year, many of us will write the
social studies CSEC examination and will undoubtedly find
ourselves more knowledgeable, aware of what is happening to
us and around us. We will come to the realisation that
"learning is not done to people, it is done by them".

Social studies involves the study of human beings and the

society they form. It has been referred to as an academic
subject, which is devoted to the study of society and including
Ascot High School students at their Child's or drawing upon such disciplines as economics, history,
Day concert on the school grounds in geography, anthropology, archaeology, law, philosophy,
Portmore, St. Catherine. - Photo by Hugh
Stone
political science, religion and sociology, as well as appropriate
content from the humanities, mathematics, and the natural
sciences. It is therefore an integrated study of the social
sciences, peoples, places, environments and societies.

Management of risks

Social studies seeks to enable individuals to understand change, conflict, and key issues which
affect their lives, and which will ultimately affect their future. It should also help the individual to
understand the management of risks, appreciate diversity, make us aware of environmental
issues, promote sustainability and respect for human rights. The aim of this subject is therefore
to help prepare individuals to face their responsibilities and develop a critical understanding of the
changing world in which they live.

The teaching of social studies should be relevant, stimulating and interesting. The learner should
be responsible for the learning and construction of knowledge, through discovery learning, as
social studies seeks to encourage initiative, with students asking questions and arriving at their
own answers. Students of social studies should be able to look for evidence rather than receiving
knowledge passively, and link concept to real-life situations.

This course is designed to give students the tools necessary to concentrate on the systematic
study of human society and human interaction. Students will develop a sociological imagination in
which they will observe the connections between their personal lives within society, as well as
public policy issues. Using observation, the scientific method, and cross-cultural examination,
students will discover how patterns of behaviour develop, culture is learned, and social predictions
are made.

We will begin with the first objective

(a) - Define and use key concepts used in association with the family:

The concepts are:

kinship, status, extended family, monogamy, sibling, bigamy, polyandry, polygyny, patriarchal ,
incest, matriarchal, patrifocal, matrifocal, matrilineal, patrilineal, marriage, divorce, legal
separation, annulment, alimony, inheritance, blended family, single parent, family tree.

You will need to know these concepts and be able to define them in the examination. For this
week, find the meaning of the concepts above.

Syllabus Outline - First section

INDIVIDUAL INTERACTION
Section A1 Individual and Family
Objectives:
a. Define and use key concepts used in association with the family.
b. Discuss the individual's role in society.
c. Identify the various types of families and compare them.
d. Evaluate the functions of the family, roles responsibilities of each
member.
e. Aspects of African, European, Amerindian and Asian family influence in
the Caribbean.
f. Examine changes and the results of the changing role of family members
in the Caribbean.
g. Explain factors that prepare individuals for parenthood.
h. Examine some social issues that influence Caribbean family life.
i. Discuss laws as they relate to the family and to specific social institutions
The process of socialisation.
Objectives:
Define socialisation.
List the agents of socialisation.
Describe how the process of socialisation is culturally determined.
Trace how socialisation is a life-long process.
Evaluate the functions and roles of socialising agents.
Test
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

1. The consanguine family is also known as the:

(a) conjugal family

(b) nuclear family
(c) extended family
(d) single parent family

2. A family unit composed of one or two parents and their children, and which is based on
marriage, is the:

a. nuclear family
b. consanguine
c. exogamous
d. extended

3. Exogamy and endogamy are cultural norms relating to:

a. Marriage patterns
b. Descent regulations
c. Residence patterns
d. Authority patterns

4. A marriage forms that unites one woman with two or more men is termed:

a. monogamy
b. polygamy
c. polyandry
d. polygyny

5. Which of the following is not a descent pattern?

a. matrilineal
b. patrilineal
c. neolocal
d. bilineal

6. Remarriage often creates families composed on both biological parents and stepparents and
children. These are called?

a. extended families
b. blended families
c. neolocal families
d. matrifocal families

7. Through which of the following processes does the family strive to maintain the continuity of
society?

a. monogamy and polygamy

b. polygyny and polyandry
c. endogamy and exogamy
d. procreation and socialisation

8. The family form in which great power is assigned the male head is said to be:

a. matrifocal
b. the nuclear family
c. patriarchal
d. an extended family

9. All of the following constitutes the traditional roles of women EXCEPT?

a. conjugal
b. maternal
c. parental
d. wage-earning

10. Study the following statement:

"Men dominate West Indian Society".

The concept embodied here is that of:

a. Patriarchy
b. polyandry
c. monogamy
d. Matriarchy

11. Which one of the following is not a major function of the family?

a. education
b. reproduction
c. socialisation
d. provision of economic needs.

12. The process of learning in which children and adults take on the feelings and attitudes and
ways of behaviour of the society around them is termed.
a. communication
b. socialisation
c. education
d. developmental

13. The custom of a bride's parents paying in money or kind to the husband is called;

a. Bride-wealth
b. dowry
c. family fund
d. maintenance

14. An element of the West African family transferred to the Caribbean is:

a. alimony
b. matricentric family
c. marriage
d. illiegitimacy

15. Slavery was responsible for all the following family relationships except:

a. the nuclear family

b. 'living with' relationships
c. visiting relationships
d. the matrifocal family.

16. All the following characteristics of a family can be changed except:

a. income
b. race
c. class
d. religion

17.

From the information in the diagram above depicting a family household, Winston must perform
the roles of:

a. breadwinner and disciplinarian

b. father and breadwinner
c. husband, son and father
d. father husband and nephew

18. Which of the following would correctly describe Winston's family?

a. Extended
b. Patriolocal
c. Joint
d. Patriarchal

19. Which of the following family functions has declined the most in the Caribbean over the past
several centuries?

a. socialisation
b. care and nuturance of children
c. social placement
d. economic production

20. The descent most commonly practised in the Caribbean is?

a. bilineal
b. matrilineal
c. patrilineal
d. neolocal

21. All persons who occupy a housing unit such as a house, apartment, single room, or other
space intended to be living quarters:

a. family
b. household
c. family group
d. extended family

22. The nuclear family is increasingly replacing the extended family as the predominant Caribbean
family structure because:

(i) of growing industrialisation

(ii) of improved transportation and communication
(iii) old people who no longer want to live in extended family households
(iv) of the rising divorce rate

a. i only
b. iii only
c. i and iii
d. ii and iv

23. Caribbean parents are having fewer children today because:

(i) the divorce rate is high

(ii) family planning has become more acceptable and more available
(iii) grandparents are no longer willing to help look after the children
(iv) standards of living are rising

a. ii and iii
b. ii only
c. i, ii and iii
d. ii and iv
24. Family planning is becoming more urgent now because of all the following EXCEPT:

a. countries cannot provide enough employment.

b. the cost of maintaining a child is greater
c. it is now known that childbearing is dangerous to health
d. the population explosion.

25. Pregnancies among secondary school girls are considered unacceptable because they:

a. can lead to abortions

b. is a consequence of breaking the law of the state.
c. show that the girl violated the mores of the society
d. can be dangerous to the health of young girls.

26. Which one of the following is NOT one of the general contexts in which power is commonly
defined as authority?

a. Traditional
b. Rational-legal
c. Charismatic
d. Democratic

27. Power that is legitimised by respect for long established cultural patterns is called?

a. traditiona
b. political
c. sacred
d. charismatic

28. Abortion is a method of:

a. procreation
b. breaking up an unhappy love life
c. ending pregnancy
d. preventing conception

29. An engagement announces a couple's intention to?

a. engage in pre-marital sex

b. get to know each other better
c. pool their resources
d. get married

30. The cause of arguments between mother and daughter about clothes is?

a. that the mother's and daughter's tastes in clothes always differ

b. generation gap
c. daughter is loose and wayward
d. mother is always right.

31. The oldest child in a family usually:

a. is the beat behaved
b. bullies the younger ones
c. gets to do what he/she wants
d. has greater responsibility than the younger ones.

[Link] of the following help to make a marriage last except:

a. unselfishness
b. sense of humour
c. chastity
d. tolerance

33. Divorce occurs when:

a. the partners decide never to live together again

b. the partners separate legally.
c. One partner is found guilty of adultery
d. The marriage is declared by the courts to be legally ended.

34. Which of the following set of groups belong to the same type:

a. football, steelband, hockey, chess

b. political party, credit union, bank, co-operative
c. church, choir, brotherhood, religious order
d. Boy scouts, cadets, Girl Guides, netballers.

35. Trade Unions, political parties and the Kiwanis clubs are examples of:

a. primary groups
b. secondary groups
c. peer groups
d. social problems

36. Which of the following groups in the Commonwealth Caribbean are involuntary.

(i) family (ii) army (iii) racial (iv) religious

a. i and iii
b. iii and iv
c. ii and iii
d. i and iv

37. Which statement is always true of an informal group? It

a. cannot have a leader

b. is made up of friends
c. is small in size
d. allows freedom of action and conduct.

38. The process whereby a group or society en-forces conformity to its demands and
expectations:
a. law and order
b. social control
c. socialisation
d. labelling

39. The ideas, beliefs, material objects that people in a society have created and adopted for
carrying out the necessary tasks of collective life.

a. convention
b. norms
c. mores
d. culture

40. Standards of desirability, of rightness, and of importance to society

a. cultural values
b. cultural standards
c. cultural myths
d. cultural purity

41. Rules for what should or should not be done in a given situation.

a. values
b. folkways
c. norms
d. mores

42. These rules govern everyday conduct, but violations usually do not bring serious
repercussions;

a. mores
b. folkways
c. values
d. sanctions

43. The behavioural expectations associated with a status;

a. status requirement
b. achieved status
c. ascribed status
d. role

44. A relatively small number of people who interact with one another overtime and thereby
establish patterns of interaction, an identity, and rules and norms governing their behaviour.

a. gang
b. group
c. congregation
d. crowd

45. A group to which one belongs and with which one identifies
a. reference group
b. out-group
c. in-group
d. voluntary group

46. This group is characterised by intimate face-to-face association and cooperation

a. primary
b. secondary
c. reference
d. in-group

47. Groups and organisations with norms and values centred around the most basic needs of a
society

a. obligarchies
b. bureaucracies
c. institutions
d. societies

48. Socialisation that occurs early in life, in infancy and early childhood.

a. preparatory socialisation
b. primary socialisation
c. secondary socialisation
d. feral socialisation

49. An institutionalised system of symbolic, beliefs, values and practices that deal with questions
of ultimate meaning:

a. Theology
b. Church
c. Sect
d. Religion

50. What is the term used for a decline in the authority of religious institutions, beliefs, values
and practices?

a. liberalisation theology
b. secularisation
c. the prophetic function of religion
d. nomination

51. Which of the following statements is correct; A bi-cameral legislature is composed of:

a. the Cabinet and president

b. the Senate and House of Representatives
c. Parliament and the Judiciary
d. The Executive and the Judiciary

52. In order to contest a seat in Parliament, Commonwealth Caribbean constitutions require that
an individual must:
i) be a citizen of that nation
ii) have reached a particular age
iii) be well-off financially
iv) have been a resident locally for a specified period

a. i, ii, iii
b. ii, iv
c. i, ii, iv
d. i, ii, iii, iv

53. Which electoral system is practised in Jamaica?

a. First-past-the past
b. Proportional
c. Adult Suffrage
d. Titular

54. Which of the following is not an acceptable definition of government?

a. It is the exercise of a measure of control over people.

b. It exists for the preservation of law and order
c. It is well defined geographical territory with people sharing a common nationality
d. It comprises a small group of people who constitutes the rulers, public authorities and the
administration

55. The concept of national sovereignty is best described as a nation's"

a. legal right to determine its own future

b. need to maintain democratic institutions
c. capacity to defend its territory against all nations
d. willingness to co-operate with other states

56. All of the following are functions of Government in a democratic state EXCEPT: a

a. to defend the state from external attack

b. to protect the citizens from violence and theft
c. To ensure that they live religiously good lives
d. To effect justice among citizens and between citizens and the government

57. The absence of government in a country may lead to a state of:

a. autocracy
b. anarchy
c. obligarchy
d. democracy

58. A body of laws and rules defining the relationships of the government to the people is called?

a. an institution
b. a corporation
c. a constitution
d. a federation
59. To be democratic, a government must

i) hold free and fair elections

ii) neglect basic human rights
iii) have a written constitution
iv) be responsible to public opinion

a. i, iii
b. i, iii
c. i, iv
d. ii, iv

60.

The above diagram of the three functions of government means that:

a. No one institution has supreme power to make laws

b. There is no complete separation of powers
c. They are all under the authority of one man
d. They all sit in the same house

The arms of Government

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

THIS LESSON will be based mostly on the system

of government existing in Jamaica. In 1962, the
Jamaican Constitution was promulgated,
establishing a parliamentary system of
government patterned after that of the mother
country Great Britain (the Westminster Model).

Members of the Calabar Quiz team who were crowned

champions of TVJ Schools' Challenge Quiz at the finals on
March 30. From left are Demar Barnett (captain), Aldion
Lee, Jermaine Robinson and Kemoy Lindsay. - Winston Sill
Photo
The British monarch is the head of state as shown in the diagram last week and is represented by
the Governor-General. The Prime Minister is head of government. In Trinidad, the President is
head of state.

THREE-PART GOVERNMENT SYSTEM

There are three arms of government. They are:

The Legislature which makes laws (legislate) on behalf of the people. These laws must be
administered.
The Executive which is responsible for the policy making and the day-to-day running of the
country.
The Judiciary which interprets the laws and settles disputes in the country.

We can conclude then that the executive is responsible for the goals of a nation. The legislature
makes the rules that specify how the goals are/will be achieved and the judiciary manages the
conflicts that arise while a country is working towards these goals.

THE LEGISLATURE

This is a branch of government empowered to make, change, or repeal its laws and to levy and
regulate its taxes. Most Caribbean legislatures are representative - composed of members who
are chosen by popular vote. Legislatures that provide direct representation are usually considered
democratic in practice because they are less susceptible to being dominated by a single party in
most cases. For example Jamaica.

PARLIAMENT

The various legislatures throughout the world are known by different names, such as congress,
parliament diet and assembly. Most are limited in their powers by the Constitution which sets out
all the proceedings of the House.

Jamaica and most other Caribbean countries have a parliament. This is composed of an appointed
Senate, the Upper House and an elected House of Representatives, the Lower House. Most
Caribbean governments have a bicameral or two-house legislature as noted above. In some areas
you may, however, find what is called a unicameral or single-house legislature.

THE SENATE OR UPPER HOUSE

In Jamaica, the Senate or Upper House is an appointed house in which the government has a
permanent standing majority. Of the 21 senators in Jamaica, 13 are appointed by the Governor-
General on the advice of the Prime Minister (the head of government).

The remaining eight seats in the Senate represent the opposition, appointed on the advice of the
leader of the Opposition. The Senate provides for consideration and revision of any bill passed by
the House of Representative before it can become law.

THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

(For each constituency, there is a Member of Parliament. There are 60 of them in Jamaica.)
This is an elected house considered to be the most powerful of the two houses, and the
government cannot exist if it is not supported by a majority vote in the house. Each member of
this house is elected to serve a constituency - that is a geographical area.

FUNCTIONS OF THE LEGISLATURE

 Introduces new laws and statues

 Amends existing laws
 Repeals or remakes laws that are no longer applicable or relevant to society
 Approves the annual budget
 Discusses matters of urgent public concerns
 Ratifies international treaties.

THE LAWMAKING PROCESS

Citizens, non-governmental organisations, or parliamentarians propose laws.

Bill is drafted in the Attorney General Office

Bill is presented to the House of Representative

First Reading

Bill is now available for the public to discuss it and make suggestions for
improvement in any.

Bill is debated on fully, criticisms are noted.

Second Reading

Vote as to whether the bill should go forward. If accepted, a commitee

examines, discusses and amends it, and presents a report to the House of
Representative.

Bill read for the third time, Third Reading. If it is passed it goes to the
senate/Upper house where the whole process is repeated.

Once approved by both houses, copies are sent to the Governor General or
President for signature.
 Governor General or President signs, the bill become an act of Patliament.
This gives the legislation the status of Law.

ACTIVITIES

Use the information in this lesson to answer the following questions.

1. Give the three arms of government in Jamaica.

2. Differentiate between the three arms of government.

3. What are the differences between the Lower and the Upper houses of Parliament?

4. How many stages must a Bill pass through before it becomes a law?

5. Why do you think a Bill has to go through all these stages?

6. As a citizen can you propose a law?

7. Why are laws necessary in a country?

8. Should anyone be above the law of a country? Give reasons for your answer.

9. Write a Bill that you would like to see become a law in Jamaica. Give reasons why you would
suggest that this law be made.

10. Should citizens have more say in the laws passed in your country? Why?

Read up on the Executive and Judiciary Arms of government for next week please.

The road to Independence

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

THE CARIBBEAN can be viewed as a very diverse region of political traditions. The colonial
experience is one of the most influential factors determining the type of governmental systems
and the levels of democracy in the country.

The political traditions are varied and mirror those of the former and present colonising powers.
The single most important explanation for this diversity is the variety of colonial history and its
related influence. The English-speaking Caribbean has adopted the British Parliamentary System -
the Westminster system.

The Caribbean has experienced several types of government in its history. The Spanish and
English ruled the Caribbean by colonial rule - the Caribbean was owned and controlled by people
in Spain and England. They approved the laws and decided how the country should be run on a
day-to-day basis.
STAGES IN THE CONSTITUTIONAL EVOLUTION OF THE BRITISH WEST INDIES

Military rule (1655-1661)

Old Representative System of Government

Crown Colony Government

Representative Government

Responsible Government

Internal Self-Government

Independence

MILITARY RULE

The British island of Jamaica was ruled by military governors because of the internal problems
between the English and Spanish settlers. In 1661, after expelling the Spanish, a civil governor
was installed.

THE OLD REPRESENTATIVE SYSTEM

This started in 1664 and ended in 1865 after the Morant Bay Rebellion in 1865 in Jamaica.
Representative government was not representative of the entire society; it only represented the
wealthy and property owners. Under this system, one had to own a certain amount of property
and be earning a certain amount of income in order to vote or to be elected. Only an exclusive
and small group had the opportunity to exercise their franchise.

Form of Government
Governor
Represented the crown/monarch

Legislative council
Nominated by the governor and served as
an advisory body.

House of Assembly
Elected by limited franchise

CROWN COLONY RULE (1865-1938)

The House of Assembly was dissolved and England ruled the colony directly. This meant that laws
were made in Britain and the planters no longer had very much influence regarding the kind of
laws which were passed. However, it was seen by many as a step backward as the only element
of representation that existed was now gone.

Governor
Legislative Council

REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT

In 1944 the movement towards more representative government began with the introduction of
Universal Adult Suffrage in Jamaica. A House of Representative was made up of members
nominated by the governor, as well as senior government officials, and the governor had his
executive council.

RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT

The governors executive council was made up of a majority of elected representatives who were
appointed and removed on the advice of the leader of the party. The leader was known as the
Chief Minister/Premier.

INTERNAL SELF-GOVERNMENT

Ministers were now in charge of internal affairs and the constitution continued to be the
responsibility of Britain - the leader of the party presided over a cabinet of ministers. The
Legislative Council became a senate of West Indians nominated by the party leaders and formally
approved and appointed by the governor who now functioned on the advice of his ministers.

In 1958 to 1961 Jamaica was involved in an attempt to form a Federation. Jamaicans voted in a
referendum (yes or no votes) to withdraw from this Federation and strive for its independence.

INDEPENDENCE 1962

In August 1962 Jamaica was granted its independence. All internal and external matters were
brought under local control and a locally-appointed Governor-General replaced the Governor. Sir
Alexander Bustamante became the first Prime Minister of Jamaica.

The country became a Constitutional Monarchy - government by elected officials whose head of
state is a monarch with limited constitutional powers. The representative of the monarch in
Jamaica is the Governor-General.

Trinidad became a Republic, that is, a government by an elected head of state who is not a
monarch. The head of state is usually a president. Note that Trinidad has a Titular President and
Guyana has an Executive President.

The structure of the Jamaican Government

Sovereign/The Head of State/the Governor General

Legislative Executive Judiciary

Parliament Prime Minister the Judicial Committee of the Privy

Council

Senate House of Cabinet Court of Appeal Supreme Court

Representative
 Voters Ministries/Civil Magistrates
Service

Ministry of Education
Ministry of Agrilture etc.

Activities

a. Find the meaning of the following concepts: franchise, Green paper, white paper, adult suffrage,
independence, colony and nationalism.

b. Explain why people find government necessary.

c. 'National Government' is part of an institution. Name the institution.

d. List THREE independent states in the Commonwealth Caribbean.

e. List THREE responsibilities of an independent state. Identify Government as it exists in your

school.

f. State the differences between a Titular and an executive president.

Election procedure - the voting system

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

AN ELECTION is a procedure that allows members of an

organisation or community to choose representatives who
will hold positions of authority within it. The most
important elections in Jamaica select the local and
national governments. The public is given a chance to
decide who governs at these two levels. This also gives
them the opportunity to help in choosing the policies,
programmes and directions of their country.

Election promotes accountability. The threat of defeat at

the polls causes pressure on those in power to conduct
themselves in a responsible manner and may force them
Sudents from Petersfield High School in to take account of popular interests and wishes in the
Westmoreland prepare for the principles of
business examinations, recently. - Junior Dowie making of their decisions. An electoral body is put in place
Photo to establish and staff polling stations, and verify the
eligibility of individuals who come to vote.

A voting system is a process that allows a group of individuals to choose between a number of
options and determines the preferred or winning option, based on the number of votes each
option receives.

WHO VOTES?
Exercising one's franchise is a privilege that should be enjoyed by all citizens of a country. Native
born or naturalised (foreign-born) Jamaican citizens over the age of 18 possess the right to vote.
The individual should be competent to exercise a share in the government.

 Persons under 18 years of age may not vote.

 Aliens may not vote; these are not citizens of the country and are therefore not permitted
to vote.
 Insane persons are deemed not mentally competent to exercise such a judgement.
 Persons convicted and serving sentences may not vote during the period of confinement.

WHY VOTE?

Because it is your fundamental right as a citizen. It is also the most basic means by which you
have a voice in how your government works. By voting, you participate in a process that
determines who will represent you, your family and your neighbours in your community, your
state, and your country.

VOTING IN AN ELECTION

It is generally accepted that there are a number of reasons/factors that determine the way people
vote. These include:

 The acquisition of partisan identification in childhood as a result of parental influence.

 Gender.
 A preference for candidates who share similar racial, religious, or ethnic background.
 Social class in society.
 Government's track record/performance.
 The Opposition's performance.
 The economic conditions of the country.
 Election campaigns, promises and timing.
 The perception of honesty, morality, and the ability to lead in particular candidates.
 The length of an election campaign and advertising used in the campaign.
 Local issues in the society.
 Issues and policy preferences of the various parties.

WHY DO INDIVIDUALS REFUSE TO VOTE?

Primarily because of:

 Religious reasons
 The belief that registered voters are also put into the jury pool.
 A feeling many individuals have that voting makes no difference because once elected
officials get into office, they forget the people who put them there.
 Disapproval of the candidate their party has chosen.
 A dislike of the party's policy or policies.
 The absence of a candidate to vote for if the party has not put forward a candidate.

CONCEPTS YOU SHOULD KNOW

Floating voter: A voter who either does not vote at all or whose vote cannot be predicted; such
voters can upset election predictions/calculations uncommitted voters.
Constitution: This is a system of basic principles according to which a nation or group is
organised. It is a contract between the government and the people of the country. It sets out the
rights, responsibilities and freedoms of citizens. It also sets out the functions, that is, the powers
and procedures of the legislature, the executive and the judiciary arms of government, among
many other things.

Public Opinion: Opinions which are held by the majority of the people, which is usually
expressed in popular newspapers, etc.

Suffrage/franchise: Adult suffrage or universal suffrage is the right of all people over the age of
18 to vote.

ACTIVITIES

1. In your country, the age at which a person may vote in national elections is 18. A political party
wishes to raise the voting age to 21. How would you respond? Give three reasons for your
response.

2. 'Leadership is only one of the factors determining the results of an election.' Discuss.

3. 'Leadership and economic performance are the most important factors that influence the
results of elections.' To what extent do you agree?

Electoral systems and voting

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

IN JAMAICA as in most other English-speaking Caribbean

countries general elections are held every five years.
Elections in the Caribbean have not been without
problems. General elections and even by-elections have
resulted in serious conflicts, even violence. Problems such
as voter registration, balloting and the electoral
administration have come in for its share of criticism.
There have been allegations of electoral fraud, such as the
stuffing of ballot boxes and inaccurate voters' lists.

ELECTORAL SYSTEMS

It is important that students like these be

educated on the importance of the electoral There are two main types of electoral systems practised in
system. the Caribbean region.
- File

1. First-Past-The-Post

Under this system, the country is divided into a number of constituencies from which a single
representative, that is, the one gaining the highest number of votes or being the sole candidate,
is elected.

In the First-Past-The-Post system, the winning candidate is simply the person who wins the most
votes. Therefore, the winning candidate needs to secure a higher total of votes than any other
candidate. This is known as a 'plurality'. There is no requirement to secure an absolute majority,
merely a simple majority. In theory, a candidate could be elected with two votes if every other
candidate only secured one vote.
The First-Past-The-Post, more correctly known as Simple Majority voting, is the most popular
voting system employed throughout the democratic world. The type of voting requires voters to
practise 'secret ballot': they place a tick or a cross (X) against the name of the candidate they
support.

Please note that the First-Past-The-Post system is used in Jamaica.

ADVANTAGES

1. It is easy and quick to count

2. It promotes a party system, at least two, ensuring stability in the parliamentary process.

3. Minor parties and independents can sometimes win against the major parties without needing
to secure more than 50 per cent of the votes.

4. The elected candidate is held accountable to his own voters, thereby helping to prevent
incompetent, fraudulent or corrupt behaviour by elected candidates.

5. Voters can change the way a country is run by voting in a government from a completely
different party.

6. Voters can choose a politician whom they might trust as a person, as well as a party.

DISADVANTAGES

1. The system inappropriately awards seats in general elections.

2. Winning parties on many occasions obtain a proportion of seats that is significantly higher than
the proportion of votes received. This seems to be an inherent weakness in this type of system.

3. Sometimes the voters are in favour of a political party but do not like specific candidates.

4. A winning candidate may secure only a minority of the vote. The majority of voters may have
supported someone else.

5. Minor parties and candidates can find it difficult to win against the combined weight of major
party candidates.

6. Many people may not have a Member of Parliament from their preferred party to represent
their views in the Houses of Parliament.

THE PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION

What exactly is proportional representation? This is a voting system that assures that the overall
results are proportional to the distribution of votes. For example, if a party receives 30 per cent of
the votes, it will get approximately 30 per cent representation in the house.

In this type of system your vote is always important. The difference between 20 and 30 per cent
doesn't mean anything in a majority winner-take-all election such as the First-Past-The-Post
system, but it means the difference between 20 and 30 per cent representation in a country that
uses the proportional representation system. Under this system, therefore, the idea is that a
political party is awarded seats in proportion to the number of votes received nationally.

The parties each list their candidates according to that party's determination of priorities. In a
closed list, voters vote for a list, not a candidate. Each party is allocated seats in proportion to the
number of votes, using the ranking order on its list. In an open list, voters indicate their order of
preference within the list.

This proportional system is used in Guyana.

ADVANTAGES

1. The total number of Members of Parliaments in the House reflects the total number of votes
cast per party.

2. It is unlikely that a party with a minority of votes can form the government.

3. It allows minor parties and independents to win seats in Parliament.

4. It is more representative of the wishes of the electorate in that the parties win seats in
proportion to the percentage of the vote they receive.

5. Each legislator would be representative for the entire country and not for a particular
constituency.

6. There is no need for a Boundaries Commission because there are no constituencies, as such,
preventing gerrymandering.

DISADVANTAGES

1. It is more complicated than the First-Past-The-Post system. It can be costly and time
consuming to administer and count.

2. The list system means that voters can only vote for a party, not a candidate whom they might
trust as a person.

3. Coalition governments are sometimes formed in which policies are not clear and decisions are
difficult to make. This will undoubtedly hinder development.

4. The close relationship which may exist between a representative and a voter in his
constituency would disappear under this system.

QUESTIONS

1. The two voting systems used in the Caribbean ensure that key democratic values are always
upheld. To what extent do you agree?

2. Compare and contrast, giving examples where they are used, the relative merits of the First-
Past-The-Post and the Proportional Representation methods of voting.
Types of government
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Government - from the Greek 'Kubernites', meaning 'pilot'

or 'steersman'.

A GOVERNMENT IS a formal organisation in a specific

geographic location, which directs the political life of a
society. Government exercises a system of control under
which the right to make laws, and the right to enforce
them, is vested, in a particular society. A government is
responsible for distributing power, sets a society's agenda
and makes decisions.

PURPOSE Long jump action at the Youngster Goldsmith

hurdles & field events classic at the Stadium
East complex, on Saturday, February 4.
The purpose of government is to protect the individual - Andrew Smith Photo
rights of its citizens. Since rights can be assaulted both
within a country and outside of it, the government must
deal with either threat. This requires an army for defence of the country, and a police system to
protect citizens from other individuals within the country. Since human beings possess rights,
governments are established strictly for the purpose of protecting these rights.

The people create governments in order to provide for collective needs (such as safety from
crime, poverty, illiteracy) that cannot be properly satisfied using purely individual means.
Governments, thus, exist for the purpose of serving the needs and wishes of the people, and their
relationship with the people is clearly stipulated in a social contract, the constitution that both the
government and the people must abide by.

FUNCTIONS

Modern governments perform many functions besides the traditional ones of providing internal
and external security, order, and justice. Most are involved in providing welfare services and the
regulating of the economy.

Governments concern themselves with regulating and administering many areas of human
activity, such as trade, education, medicine, entertainment and war.
There are many classification of government:

Government is distinguished by whether power is held by one man, a few, or many. It may also
be common to distinguish between types of government on the basis of internal organisation and
the degree of control exercised over the society.

Political systems have taken many forms throughout history. The world's political systems can be
analysed in terms of four categories: monarchy, democracy, authoritarian and totalitarianism.

MONARCHY

'One ruler': This is a type of political system in which a single family rules from generation to
generation, exercising traditional authority. The British monarchy is a good example. The Windsor
family traces its lineage back to at least 1,000 years. Monarchy is, therefore, legitimised by
tradition. Monarchs preside over co nstitutional monarchies. They seem to be merely symbolic
heads of state and elected politicians, led by a Prime Minister who governs according to political
principles embodied in a constitution. The nobility may formally reign, but elected officials actually
rule.

DEMOCRACY

Democracy is a type of political system which gives power to the people as a whole. Our
democratic system can be viewed as a system of representative democracy, which places
authority in the hands of elected leaders, who are accountable to the people. Democracy and
rational-legal authority are linked just as monarchy and traditional authority are. Democracy can
be further seen as individuals having the right to select their leaders from among those running
for office.

AUTHORITARIANISM

A political system that denies popular participation in government. This political system gives
their people little voice in politics. It is indifferent to people's needs, lacks legal mechanisms to
remove leaders from office, and gives people little or no way to voice their opinions.

TOTALITARIANISM

A highly centralised political system that extensively regulates people's lives. It has been
described as the most controlling political system. This system seeks to bend people to the will of
the government. Such governments are total concentrations of power, allowing no organised
opposition. Indoctrination becomes intense whenever political opposition surfaces.

The citizens has the right to assemble for political purposes and controlling access to information,
these governments thrive in an environment of social atomisation and fear.

ACTIVITIES

1. Read the statement below then use the following guideline to write your essay.

A government is essential to all societies

a. Define the terms 'government' and state THREE reasons why governments are seen as
essential to all societies.
b. Describe THREE functions of government.

c. Name and explain the four main political systems in society.

d. Suggest TWO legitimate ways citizens of a country may show their dissatisfaction with their
government.

Try the following;

a. Define EACH of the following:

1. general elections
2. electorate
3. constituency

b. Outline THREE important procedures a voter performs in the polling station on election.

c. Explain THREE factors a political party may consider in selecting a candidate to contest a
general election.

d. Suggest TWO strategies a candidate may use during an election campaign to gain popularity.
The economy
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

THE ECONOMY is widely considered the most influential of

all social institutions. It is the social institution that
organises a society's production, distribution, and
consumption of:

Goods such as: food, clothing, shelter, cars, swimming

pools, yachts etc.
Services such as: the work of the pastor, physicians,
teachers, etc.

Goods and services are valued because they ensure

survival; they make life easier and more interesting. The
Camperdown's Schools' Challenge Quiz team
economics of nations are the result of social changes. (from left): Machel Rayner, Everal Daley,
Three technological revolutions have reorganised Courtney Litchmore and Leroy Spencer (captain).
production and have helped to transform social life. - File

Members of the earliest human societies were hunters and gatherers living off the land. In these
societies technology was simple and production and consumption were all part of family life,
working for themselves in a household. (Cottage industry).

Industrialisation changed all this as new sources of energy were introduced; muscle was replaced
by steam engines. Work moved out of homes into factories which became centralised and very
impersonal. Mass production replaced subsistent living. In the factory a labourer repeated a single
task over and over, making only a small contribution to the finished product. Cottage industries
were replaced by wage workers. The Industrial Revolution raised the standard of living.

There was a further shift from industrial work to service work as automated machinery reduced
the role of human labour in production so that fewer people worked in industrial jobs and most
worked in service positions, including sales, public relations, health care, advertising and banking.

SECTORS OF THE ECONOMY

There are three sectors of a society's economy.

Primary sector

This is the part of the economy that draws raw materials from the natural environment. This
includes agriculture, raising animals, fishing, forestry and mining.

Secondary sector

This is the part of the economy that transforms raw materials into manufactured goods. It
includes operations such as refining petroleum into gasoline and turning metal into tools and
automobiles.
Tertiary sector

This part of the economy involves services rather than goods. A majority of the labour force is in
services, including clerical work and positions in food service, sales, law, health care, law
enforcement, advertising, and teaching.

An economic institution may be owned by society, the government, private enterprise, and local
investors or by international companies. They include financial service, such as banks, stock
market, trust companies, insurance companies, credit unions/cooperatives and indigenous saving
instit utions. These financial institutions provide the capital for economic activities.

Economic activities include the manufacturing of products and the provision of services. The sale
of products and services results in revenue. An internal and international trade develops, guided
by international regulation. It provides further employment as the need arises for distribution,
transportation, communication, marketing and advertising.

LABOUR FORCE

This can be viewed as the total number of workers in an area plus the total number of people
looking for work; the number of people believed to be available to work. It includes an estimate
or count of all potential applicants for jobs available; therefore, it is the total number employed,
assumed to be underemployed, plus those who are unemployed.

Labour, in economics, is effort necessary to satisfy human needs. It is one of the three leading
elements in production, the other two being land (natural objects) and capital.

In industry, labour has a great variety of functions, which may be classified as follows: In the
primary sector, it is important for the production of raw materials, as in mining and agriculture. In
the secondary sector, it ensures manufacturing or the transformation of raw materials into objects
serviceable to humans. Finally, in the tertiary sector, labour is necessary for the distribution and
transference of useful objects from one place to another, as determined by human needs.
Withouit labour, operations involved in the management of production, such as accounting and
clerical work cannot take place, and personal services such as those rendered by physicians and
teachers would not exist.

As a result of the Industrial Revolution at the end of the 18th century, most workers were
employed in large factories and similar undertakings. These workers were not protected from
economic exploitation or from the consequences of illness, disability, or unemployment. In the
early decades of the 19th century, increasingly prevalent ideas of freedom caused great changes
in the conditions of labour. Workers began to form trade unions and cooperative societies that
enabled them to participate in many types of political activities and to protect themselves by
political and economic means. Laws for the regulation of labor are now intended not to fix wages,
but to protect the workers.

ACTIVITIES

Look up information on the different categories of people who are excluded from the labour force.

1. Why are these people not included in the labour force?

2. What percentage of the labour force is female?

3. In which jobs are there mostly females?

4. What do you think are the reasons for this?

The cultural system

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

CULTURE IS the unique human means of survival. Through

culture, people not only adapt to the environment but they
change the environment to suit their purposes. To accomplish

Montego Bay High School fifth form

students are busy getting their school work
done. - Claudine Houosen photo
its task, culture must meet certain needs which are universal, the specific ways of meeting the
needs, however, vary from culture to culture.

Culture is, therefore, the values, beliefs, behaviour, and material objects that together form a
people's way of life. Culture includes what we think, how we act, and what we own. Human
beings have survived because they have created culture a learned and shared social heritage
that is transmitted from one generation to the next.

Culture may be looked on as material culture or non-material culture. Material culture is the
tangible thing created by members of a society while non-material culture is the intangible world
of ideas and beliefs created by members of a society.

Culture varies but tends to have five common components: symbols, language, values and
beliefs, norms and material culture.

SYMBOLS

These carry particular meanings recognised by people who share this culture. For example, a
whistle, raised fist, flashing light and siren all serve as symbols.

LANGUAGE

At the core of culture, is language. It is the foundation upon which the cooperation necessary for
human survival is based. Language is one of the cohesive bonds that unites people together,
holds culture together and coordinates the efforts of people in society. It is a system of symbols
that allows people to communicate with one another.

Language is a cultural heritage and the key to cultural transmission mainly via socialisation. This
is the process by which one generation passes culture to the next. Group life could not function
without some form of communication. Culture cannot exist without group life. Language, then, is
a functional necessity for human survival. It shapes our experience and to a great extent it
determines how and what we think. In this way language serves as a guide to social reality.

VALUES AND BELIEFS

* Values: Culturally defined standards by which people assess desirability, goodness, and beauty
and that serve as broad guidelines for social living.

* Beliefs: The mental components of culture; the learned and shared ideas that describe, explain,
and give meaning and purposes to life. Belief systems include religious, and magical beliefs. They
are a part

of every culture, and norms are useful to the individual

because they allow that person to determine in advance how
others will judge his or her actions. These are specific
statements that people hold to be true.

CUSTOMS

Group habits are the ways group members actually behave.

The way to communicate, the way to keep clean, and the
way to eat food are examples of customs. The fact that we
Members of the Knox College Schools' use knives, spoons, and forks to eat, while the Chinese use
Challenge team that defeated Bishop Gibson
High. From left are Kashwayne England,
Thadeka Brown, Kenisha Reynard and
Samantha Johnson (captain). - Junior Dowie
photo
chopsticks, indicate cultural difference, but we both share the custom of having a specific way of
eating.

NORMS

Standards of conduct which may not be religious or magical in nature. Norms can therefore be
looked on as rules and expectations by which a society guides the behaviour of its members.
Some norms warn us what not to do. Some norms state what we should do.

MORES

Refers to norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance. Mores distinguish
between right and wrong.

FOLKWAYS

These can be seen as norms for routine, casual interaction, appropriate greeting and proper
dress. Folkways draw a line between right and rude.

ACTIVITIES

1. Caribbean family life patterns include some cultural practices passed on through generations.

a. List three ethnic or racial groups found in the Caribbean. (3 marks)

b. For each of the groups you listed above, state one cultural practice of the group that has been
passed on through generations to present - day Caribbean families. (3 marks)

c. Give three reasons why some cultural practices from many years have continued to be
important in present-day Caribbean life. (6 marks)

d. Suggest three actions that your government can take to support the efforts of cultural groups
in your country. (6 marks)

2. Religion and music are aspects of the culture of Caribbean people.

a. Define the term 'culture'.

b. Name two traditional religions to which people in the English speaking Caribbean belong. (2
marks)

c. List two types of music that emerged as aspects of the culture of the people in the Caribbean.
(2 marks)

d. Give three reasons why people in the Caribbean should know about their cultural heritage. (6
marks)

e. Suggest two ways a youth group may encourage young people to participate in the cultural
activities of your country. (5 marks)
Institutions in society
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

AN INSTITUTION is a set of groups and organisations with

norms and values that centre around the most basic needs
of a society. It is also an association possessing a well-
defined organisational structure, with established rules and
which serves a particular need in society over an extended
period of time. Institutions can also be viewed as widely
held beliefs, norms or procedures which satisfy basic
needs.

Examples are the family, education, the economy, religion,

politics/government, and we may include
Samuel Cameron (left), vice-president of St. recreation/sports, health and medicine. Institutions are to
Catherine Cooperative Credit Union, presents the be found in some form in all existing societies. The
top prize for the St. Catherine Credit Union's
police/security force is an example, so is praying before
Youth Education Saving Debating Competition
2005 to (from left) Khadine Solomon, Earl each meal.
Richards and Nicole Henry, of Bridgeport High
School, at the St. Jago Health Centre on Friday,
December 1, 2005. - Rudolph Brown photo
TYPES OF INSTITUTIONS

Financial Educational Religious Health Sports Political Family

Banks Schools Churches Hospitals Sporting clubs Gov't
Trade Unions Colleges Mosques Clinics GYM Political Parties
Credit Unions Universities Temples
Insurance
Comp.
Etc.

Institutions have the following characteristics:

1. An organisational structure, (generally hierarchical)

2. Endure over time

3. Have a body of rules which define relations among members

4. Impose sanctions on members, that is, they give reward and punishment.

5. Develop rituals and practices

6. Finance operations to achieve objectives

7. Serve particular needs of individuals and society.

RELIGIOUS INSTITUTION

A religious institution is a social entity involving beliefs and practices based on a conception of the
sacred. Religion has always been an integral part of human experience and has existed in virtually
every human society. It is older than written history, as it helps to shape social life everywhere in
the world. Religion shows wide variations both historically and cross-culturally.

FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION

Social cohesion: Religion unites people through shared symbolism, values, and norms. It
provides rules of fair play and helps in maintaining an organised society.
Promotes conformity: Every society uses religious ideas to promote conformity. Much of
Caribbean laws are based on the Christian Ten Commandments.
Provides meaning and purpose: Religious beliefs offer the comforting sense that our brief
life serves some greater purpose. There is something to look forward to. Life offers sanctions,
rewards and punishments that according to Christianity, depend on the life you live on earth
before death. Sanctions are either eternal damnation or heavenly bliss.
Offers security: It provides security for the individual by offering stable reference points that
can be used to orient oneself to new conditions in a changing world.
Performs identity functions: By associating with others in a religious group and by acting
out rituals in accordance with the beliefs and values of that group, we come to better understand
who or what we are.
Provides support: In times of crises and consolation in times of disappointment, it helps to
bring the disaffected back into the group and to maintain individual and group morale.
 Facilitates cultural integration: This is by sanctifying, or making holy, cultural norms and
values. One is less likely to steal, if one's religion as well as one's society has rules against
stealing. In this way, religion helps to integrate the culture.
Social control: Religion helps to maintain the dominance of group goals over individual ones,
thus it facilitates social control.
Change agent: Religion may function as an agent of change in society. This happens when
religious values transcend and conflict with those of the secular world.

THE DIVERSITY OF RELIGION

The diversity of religious expression is worldwide. Many are localised with a few followers while
there are those that are widely known and have many followers. Some world religions are:

Christianity: The most widespread religion, an example of monotheism - the belief in a

single, divine power, God. This is in opposition to polytheism - the belief in many gods.
Islam: Followers of Islam are called Muslims. In Arabic, the word Islam means both
submission and peace.
Judaism: Emphasises moral behaviour in this world.
Hinduism: Has grown to become the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and
Islam. It claims about 13 per cent of the world's population. It is the dominant religion in India,
Nepal, and among the Tamils in Sri Lanka.
Buddhism: A global religion with a complex history and system of beliefs.

ACTIVITIES

1. Outline briefly the characteristics of your school as a social group and as an institution. To what
extent are you involved in a social group and an institution if you belong to a company of Boy
Scouts or Girls Guides?

2. (a) Name two social groups to which children belong.

(b) Explain four ways in which children may benefit from membership in these groups.

(c) Name four institutions in society.

(d) Explain why institutions are regarded as being permanent features of society.

(e) Identify three institutions which would be most helpful in controlling drug abuse. Give one
reason why each of the institutions chosen would be helpful.
Group cohesion
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

GROUP COHESION

THE REQUIREMENTS for keeping groups together include the following:

1. LEADERSHIP

One important element of group dynamics is leadership. Groups usually benefit from two kinds of
leadership, instrumental and expressive leaderships.

a. Instrumental leadership
This is group leadership that emphasises the completion of tasks.

b. Expressive leadership
Group leadership that focuses on collective well-being. These leaders are more interested in
raising the morale and minimising tension and conflict between members rather than in achieving
goals.

INSTRUMENTAL LEADERS EXPRESSIVE LEADERS

Concentrate on performance Build more personal, primary ties
Formal, secondary relationships with other group Offer sympathy to a member going
members. through hard times.
These leaders give orders and reward or punish Keep group united and may lighten tense
members according to their contribution to the moment with humour.
group's effort.
Enjoy more respect from members Receive more personal affection
(A) LEADERSHIP STYLES

Leadership is here characterised in terms of decision-making style.

1. Authoritarian leadership: This type of leadership focuses on instrumental concerns. The

leader takes charge of decision-making, and demands strict compliance from all others.

2. Democratic leadership: This is more expressive and aims to solicit/include everyone in the
decision-making process. The aim is to draw on the ideas of all members to develop creative
solutions to problems to act as guides.

3. Laissez-faire leadership: 'To leave alone'. Allowing a group to function on their own. The
least effective in achieving the goals of the group and demonstrates very little leader involvement
and influence on members.

(B) AUTHORITY

Power that people perceive as legitimate rather than coercive.

[Link] authority:
Power legitimised through respect for long established cultural patterns. This authority is woven
into a society's collective memory, so that people consider social arrangements almost sacred.
This authority is inherited, for example, the British monarch.

2. Rational legal:
Sometimes called bureaucratic authority as power is legitimised by legally enacted rules and
regulations. Rational legal authority flows not from family background or the inheritance but from
one's position in the formal organisation. A monarch rules for life, but a modern president accepts
and gives up power according to law, because his or her authority lies in the office, not the
person.

2. Charismatic authority:
Power legitimised through extraordinary personal abilities that inspire devotion and obedience.
Charisma has less to do with social organisation and is more a mark of exceptionally forceful and
magnetic personality.
Charismatics have the personal skills to turn an audience into followers and in the process they
make their own rules and may challenge the status quo. It is felt that because charismatic
authority emanates from a single individual, any charismatic movement may face crises of
survival upon the death of its leader.

(C) COMMITMENT/LOYALTY

The greater a person's commitment, the greater the advantages of conformity to group norms.
Strong social attachments also encourage conformity and thus generate group cohesion. Some
groups will, therefore, uphold certain principles and stand firmly behind them whatever the cost.
Such individuals are viewed as being committed.

(D) COOPERATION

This is the act of individuals, groups, communities, institutions and nations combining all the
resources at their disposal for a common purpose. Involvement in legitimate activities - such as
openness, honesty, education, acceptance of others - all help in cooperation, which enables group
cohesion.
(E) SOCIAL CONTROL

Attempts by society to regulate people's thought and behaviour. It can be seen as the various
means by which members of a society encourage conformity to norms. Observing or breaking the
rules of social life prompts a response from others, in the form of reward or punishment.
Sanctions, whether an approving smile or a raised eyebrow - operates as a system of social
control. Various forms of social control exist such as rules, norms, laws, mores and folkways,
which seek to ensure that members conform to expected patterns of behaviour.

The ways in which members of a society influence one another so as to maintain social order.
People develop mutual expectations for each other's behaviour, which, in the course of time,
becomes crystallised into customs or traditions, collectively called the 'culture' of a society. A child
must learn all the thousands of expected behaviour patterns, and practically the only actions with
purpose and direction he can engage in, are those he learns from others more socialised than
he/she, such as parents, teachers, and other children.

This process of 'socialisation', of learning expected behaviour patterns, provides the basic social
control in every society. There are rewards for conformity to the expectations of others. First, if
we conform to the expectations of others, they will conform to our expectations, so we get much
of what we want and need through mutual social control. Second, there are more specific
rewards, such as respect, approbation and material benefits. These are numerous and diverse,
ranging from very formal rewards presented in a ceremonial manner to very informal rewards,
which are almost imperceptible.

There are also punishments for failure to conform to the expectations of others, and these are
also numerous and diverse. This may range from the deprivation of human warmth and
association to formal imprisonment, fine and infliction of physical pain.

Sources:

John J. Macionis, 2003 Sociology 9th Ed. Pearson Education New Jersey.

Thomas/Anderson 1972 Sociology - The Study of Human Relationships, Harcourt Brace.

ACTIVITIES

1. a. List THREE features of your school that make it a formal social group.

b. Identify ONE function carried out by EACH of the following:

1. Both the school and the family.

2. The school ONLY.
3. The family ONLY.

c. Explain THREE ways in which a formal social group, such as the school, church or youth club,
exercises control over its members.

d. You are the leader of a youth club in your community. Suggest THREE activities in which you
can involve your group to help keep group members together.

2. a. Define the term 'Social Group'.

b. Give TWO reasons why people join social groups.

c. Describe TWO ways in which a person may become a member of a group.

d. Give TWO differences between formal and informal groups.

3. a. Name ONE type of leadership which a group may have.

b. A local club has been asked to send a representative to a national conference.

Describe how the type of leader named in (e) (1) above is likely to choose the
representative.

The police force

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

THIS IS an organisation to maintain order and to bring

suspected persons forward for trial. There is always the
need for safety and for the maintenance of law and order,
which has existed from the earliest times, as long as people
live in communities.

The police force deals principally with crime. The Jamaica

Constabulary Force (JCF), which is modelled after the
English police system, carries out all aspects of police work
David Brown, teacher in training at Herbert throughout the country, and also exercises responsibilities
Morrison Technical High School, St. James, uses for traffic control, immigration and the registration of
his lunch break to assist some eighth-grade
students. - Claudine Housen Photo aliens, in addition to miscellaneous duties.

The major components of the criminal justice system,

society's formal system of social control includes, the police, the courts, and the sanctions given
to convicted offenders of the law. The police are the primary point of contact between the
population and the criminal justice system. Police are responsive and accountable to citizens.

Laws - a set of rules that have become customary or have been enacted by the legislature by
which society seeks to regulate its conduct.

CATEGORIES OF LAWS
Civil and Criminal Actions
Criminal Civil Cases
1. Burglary Administration of divorce
2. Housebreaking Breach of contract
3. Arson Negligence
4. Manslaughter Slander
5. Murder Libel

Modern life is full of dangerous, violent individuals in communities who attack other members of
their community. Hence, there is a need for protection through the use of an organised force. But
the image of the police is very important if the people are to believe and have confidence in their
honesty of purpose and action.
There are four reasons cited as the basic reasons to punish wrongdoers.

1. Retribution

A craving for revenge, an act of moral vengeance by which society inflicts suffering on an offender
comparable to that caused by the offence. 'An eye for an eye.' Many people consider vengeance
reason enough for punishment.

2. Deterrence.

The use of punishment to discourage criminality. This is a calculation that rational human beings
will not break the law if they think that the pain of punishment well outweigh the pleasure of
crime. Punishment serves as deterrence in two ways.

a. Specific deterrence - This serves to convince an individual offender that crime does not pay.

b. General deterrence - the punishment of one person serves as an example to others.

3. Rehabilitation.

A programme for reforming the offenders to prevent subsequent offenses. Rehabilitation

motivates the offenders to conform. If offenders can be deviants they can also come to obey the
rules which are the main keys in controlling the environment. Reformation or the houses of
correction provides the controlled settings where individuals can learn to behave in accordance
with the laws of the country.

4. Societal protection.

A means by which society renders an offender incapable of further offences temporarily through
incarceration or permanently by execution. Like deterrence, societal protection is a rational
approach to punishment intended to protect society from crime. Prisons provide short-term
societal protection by keeping offenders off the streets.

PROBLEMS THAT MAY ARISE

1. Our society has a high rate of criminal ecidivism - subsequent offences by people convicted of
crimes.

2. Not all crimes are known to the police, and not all known crimes result in an arrest. No one
wants to be an 'informer'.

3. Incarceration severs social ties of inmates. This may lead them likely to commit more crimes
upon their release from prison as now they do not belong or are not wanted anywhere.

4. Being an ex-convict can be a powerful barrier/stigma to building a new life in a

community.

ACTIVITIES:

1. The prison population in the Caribbean continues to grow rapidly, with crimes
becoming more and more gruesome.
a. Explain the Justice system in your country. Giving TWO reasons why it is necessary. (6 marks)

b. Explain why a prison system is necessary in your country. (3 marks)

c. Give THREE reasons why so many young people in the Caribbean become involved in crime. (3
marks)

d. Suggest THREE actions that the Government can take to reform the prison system in your
country. (6 marks)

2. a. Outline THREE functions of the police force. (6 marks)

b. Give THREE reasons why someone may not want to report an accident to the police. (6 marks)

c. Suggest TWO ways in which the police can encourage citizens to provide information to help
them in their work. (6 marks)

3. It has been found that one fifth or 20 per cent of the road accidents involve pedestrians, a
large number of whom are killed when crossing the street.

a. State THREE ways in which fatal accidents involving pedestrians may be caused. (3 marks)

b. Give THREE functions of a Road Safety Association. (3 Marks)

c. Explain TWO effects that a large number of road accidents may have on the economy of your
country. (6marks)

d. Suggest THREE measures that a government can introduce to reduce the frequency of road
accidents. (6 marks)
Formal groups in society
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

THE TRADE UNION

A LABOUR UNION is an association of

workers that seeks to improve the economic and social
well-being of its members through group action.

Trade unions will represent workers in a particular industry

or craft, within all or part of a country, and will be
organised to improve and defend wages, benefits and
working conditions.
Jose Marti High School's School Challenge Quiz
team from left, Kevin Powell, Davion Ferguson,
In 1910 there was little or no organised labour in the
Clinton Russell and Captain Jermaine Francis. -
File British Caribbean and unions were not recognised by law.
In fact, the first ones were small unions of skilled workers.
In 1919 Trade Unions were, however, given legal
recognition in the British Caribbean. This was so because the authorities hoped that this would
help improve workers' conditions without strikes. Despite all this, unions faced many difficulties
and most were disbanded before 1930.

The 1930s brought new, stronger unionism with the riots from 1935-1938 in the British
Caribbean. In many of these territories trade unions and political parties became linked, as
leaders were political leaders and founders of political parties. The two major political parties have
historical links with two large trade unions the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP) 1944 with the
Bustamante Industrial Trade Union (BITU) formed in 1939 and the People's National Party (PNP)
1938 with the National Workers Union (NWU) in 1952.

By the 1960s trade unions in the British Caribbean had achieved minimum wage legislation,
workers compensation, paid sick leave, holidays with pay, redundancy pay and pensions. Trade
unions then became a legal entity made up of working people who have some things in common,
such as:

a. A skill or a trade.
b. A profession or occupation.
c. An employer.

TYPES OF UNIONS

There are two main types of unions

Craft Union - workers doing the same type of work in different companies.

General Unions - Different unskilled, technical and professional workers from different types of
jobs and companies.

COLLECTIVE BARGAINING

In many countries, a union may acquire the status of a legal entity exercising collective ba
rgaining power, with a mandate to negotiate with employers to maintain and improve wages and
working conditions for the workers it represents. In such cases, unions have certain legal rights,
most importantly the right to negotiate collectively with an employer or employers over wages,
working hours and other terms and conditions of employment - meaning that such things are not
set unilaterally by management, but must be agreed upon by both parties.

In many circumstances, however, trade unions and employers cannot come to an agreement and
workers may threaten strikes or other collective action to pressure employers to negotiate.

BENEFITS OF TRADE UNIONS

1. Improve terms of employment.

2. Improve working conditions
3. Job security
4. Job contentment and prospects
5. Income protection
6. Involvement in decision making at the workplace
7. Improvements in the standard of living.

SETTLING INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

Level 1 - Domestic/ Local

The desire to reach an agreement between employee and employer i.e. representative of
management and workers discuss the problems.

Level II - Conciliation

A third party is sought to encourage the parties to adjust their demands. This is usually held at
the ministry of labour.

Level III - Arbitration

Referral to the IDT (Industrial Disputes Tribunal). Here only facts are discussed, there is no
bargaining.

Workers may also carry out the following industrial dispute in order to get their request from
employers:

Go-slow Sick out

Work-to-rule Strike Picketing
The employers may stage on the other hand a lockout.

ACTIVITIES

Match the following words with the definitions below:

Go-slow, sick out, work-to-rule, strike, picketing, deadlock, arbitration, lockout, union delegate.

1. A deliberate act by workers to slow down or stop production ________.

2. Stoppage of work by a group of workers ________________.

3. Blocking the entrance of the workplace by workers.__________

4. Action taken by employers to exclude the workers from the work place._____________

5. The individual at the workplace who is chosen to represent the workers' interests in meetings
with the management or with the union. ________________

6. Absence from work because of alleged sickness. ______________

7. A situation in which neither party is willing to compromise so no agreement can be reached.

______________

8. Workers' decision to work only to the strict terms of their employment. _______

9. Discussions held between union and employer regarding wages payable and other benefits.
______________

2. Give the meaning of the following abbreviations:

BITU, NWU, TUC, NAJ, JEF, JUPOPE, JTA, JALGO, UAWU, UTASP

3. a. Name THREE types of industrial conflict other than strikes. (3 marks)

b. Give THREE reasons why workers may go on strike. (3 marks)

c. Describe TWO ways in which industrial conflicts are resolved. (6 marks)

d. You are a shop steward at an industrial plant. Suggest TWO positive effects and ONE negative
effect that a strike action can have on your country. (6 marks)

Categorising groups
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

GROUPS MAY be categorized according to several criteria:

Richard Wilson left, a member of the Island

Special Constabulary Force demonstrates the use
of the handcuff by the Police to students of the
Denham Town High School. Denham Town High
School was having their careerÕs day exhibition
at the school. - Ian Allen Photo
* PERMANENCY

Transitory or Recurrent

Transitory Groups - these are temporary groups, which meet only once for a relatively short time
e.g. crowds, audience and mobs.

Recurrent Groups - permanent groups in which persons interact over and over and for a long
period of time.

* STRUCTURE: FORMAL OR INFORMAL

Formal groups are those, which have an officially constituted structure, or formal organisation,
e.g. club.

Groups that are organised to achieve their goals efficiently, these are usually large secondary
groups.

Because of there greater size, it makes social relations less personal and fosters a formal, planned
atmosphere.

Formal organisations operate in a deliberate way not to meet personal needs, but to accomplish
complex jobs.

Informal groups are those which do not have an officially constituted structure or deliberately
formed organisations, e.g. peer groups, congeniality groups and neighbourhood play groups.

* SIZE: SECONDARY OR PRIMARY

Groups will vary according to size. These two types of social groups can be designated based on
the degree of genuine personal concerns that members show for one another.

PRIMARY GROUP

A primary group is a small social group whose members share personal and enduring
relationships. People in this group tend to spend a great deal of time together, engage in a wide
range of activities, and feel that they know one another well.

Though not without conflict, members of primary groups display real concern for each other's
welfare. The family is every society's most important primary group.

Primary groups tend to be personal and tightly integrated because they are among the first group
we experience in life. The family and peer groups are important in the socialisation process,
shaping attitudes, behaviour and social identity.

Primary relationships give people a comforting sense of security. They can be themselves, without
worrying about the impression they are making.

Members of primary groups tend to see each other a unique and irreplaceable. Brothers and
sisters may not get along, but they will always remain siblings ('blood thicker than water'). We
become bonded in our families by emotion and loyalty.

SECONDARY GROUP
A secondary group is a large and impersonal social group, whose members pursue a specific goal
or activity. Secondary groups have weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of each
other.

Secondary social groups are almost the opposite of primary social groups. They consist of an
impersonal social group based on a specific interest or activity.

Some examples of secondary social groups would include, co-workers, individuals who attend the
same church, or members of a club or association such as boy scouts. Social groups such as
these that are not considered primary do not maintain a strong attachment between members,
and are generally goal oriented.

According to Macionis,"Primary group members define each other according to who they are.
Those in secondary groups look to one another for what they are, that is, what others can do for
them. In secondary groups, we tend to keep score, mindful of what we receive in return".

Co-workers may have a superficial relationship with each other in order to maintain a suitable
working environment.

However, even though such a relationship could eventually transform into one of a primary
orientation, generally they remain in the secondary category.

* MEMBERSHIP: VOLUNTARY OR INVOLUNTARY

VOLUNTARY GROUPS

Formed to provide some service to the community or to support a good cause. On the other hand
group membership is voluntary when members have freedom to choose to be a member or not.
e.g. Red Cross, Kiwanis etc.

INVOLUNTARY

Groups are involuntary as individuals are force to belong, as they have no alternative - e.g.
military enlistment or national service.

* PURPOSE

This is important when categorising groups. Who will it serve, what will it do. How will it be
accomplished?

Informal Organization Formal Organization

* Members typically engage in many of the Members typically engage in highly
same activities. specialized activities.
* Hierarchy mostly non existent Clearly defined hierarchies, corresponding to
offices.
* No charter by-laws or regular meeting hours. Clearly defined rules and regulations.
* Membership criteria vary, and are often Technical competence to carry out
based on personal affection or kinship. assigned/required task.
* Relationship varies and is typically primary. Typically secondary with selective primary
ties.
* Communication is typically casual and face- Communication is very formal and in writing.
 to-face.
* Person oriented Task oriented.

Primary and secondary groups

Observation Primary Group Secondary Group
* Quality of relationship Personal orientation Goal orientation
* Duration of relationship Usually very long term Variable, often short term
* Breadth of relationship Broad usually involving may Narrow usually involving few
activities activities.
* Subjective perception of As ends in themselves As means to an end
relationship
* Typical examples Families, peer groups Coworkers, school, political
organisations

SOURCES

(i) John J Macionis, 2003 Sociology 9th Ed. Pearson Education New Jersey

(ii) Thomas/Anderson 1972 Sociology The study of Human Relationships. Harcourt Brace.

* ACTIVITY

a. Define the term 'social group' (3 marks)

b. Give THREE examples of social groups in a school . (3 marks)

c. Give THREE examples of social groups outside of a school. (3 marks)

d. Explain the difference between voluntary and involuntary social groups.

(3 marks)

e. You are the leader of a social group. State THREE ways in which you keep your members
together. (3 marks)
Revision on contemporary social issues in the Caribbean
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

1. The status of Children Bill passed in 1981 in Trinidad established which of the following:

(a) children cannot run away fromhome

(b) a father does not have to accept his child
(c) children are protected from peer pressure

(d) all children born inside or out side a marriage are seen as legitimate.

2. A legal separation can be

(a) a legal dissolution of a marriage

(b) a declaration by a court of a marriage being invalid
(c) a desertion
(d) a situation in which a husband and wife mutually agree to live apart.

3. An example of emotional abuse is

(a) beatings
(b) using indecent language
(c) withholding love and affection
(d) incest

4. Laws are passed in a country for all of the following reasons except.
(a) to guide a person's actions
(b) to allow a person to do whatev er he wants to
(c) to control a person's behaviour
(d) to facilitate social stability and order

5. Teenage pregnancy may be caused by all of the following except:

(a) peer pressure

(b) abstinence
(c) poor role models in society
(d) lack of religious and moral education

6. Street children are least likely to engage in:

(a) prostitution
(b) vending
(c) begging for money and food
(d) using illegal drugs

7. A 'drug dilemma' exists because:

(a) only illegal drugs are abused

(b) some persons abuse legal and illegal drugs
(c) persons always use drugs wisely
(d) persons are knowledgeable about all drugs.

8. An individual who abuses tobacco may suffer from:

(a) hallucinations
(b) loss of memory
(c) cancer
(d) malnutrition.

9. Which of the following drugs when abused is a major cause of vehicular accidents?

(a) tobacco
(b) cocaine
(c) marijuana
(d) alcohol

10. Which of the following would least likely cause someone to commit suicide:

(a) peer pressure

(b) depression
(c) death of a loved one
(d) prolonged or incurable illness.

11. All of the following are rights of the child except:

(a) right to a home and nationality

(b) right to work
(c) right to love, affection and attention
(d) right to an education.
12. Caribbean governments can BEST address the needs of children with disabilities by:

(a) providing free lunches

(b) building schools and providing specially trained teachers
(c) providing books
(d) educating the public about the children's problems.

13. An example of a formal secondary group is:

(a) family
(b) young men playing in the street
(c) scouts
(d) a study group

14. What is the name given to a group formed by children of the same age?

(a) peer
(b) gang
(c) youth club
(d) voluntary association

15. Which of the following practices would MOST likely increase the risk of a person contracting
AIDS?

(1) Having sexual intercourse with many partners

(2) Donating blood to a blood bank
(3) Sharing needles to use illegal drugs
(4) Touching someone who has the disease.

(a) 1 and 3 only

(b) 1,2 and 3 only
(c) 1,3 and 4 only
(d) 1,2,3,4

SECTION B

Question 1

A STREET CHILD'S LAMENT

"Life on the street is rough. I'm a child growing wild, my life is tough."

Write an essay based on the above statement. In your essay define the term 'street children'.

Give THREE reasons why a child may become a street child. Explain ONE reason why the street
child's life may be rough and he/she may be seen as a juvenile delinquent.

Describe TWO effects street children may have on their societies.

Finally, suggest TWO ways governments may try to solve the problem of street children.
Question 2

LAWS ARE ESSENTIAL TO ALL SOCIETIES

a. Give THREE reasons to support the above statement.

b. Identify TWO ways a father may show/claim paternity for his child.

c. Describe TWO ways in which giving children rights have improved their lives.

d. Suggest TWO rules schools could make to protect the rights of children living with disabilities.

Question 3

a. Identify TWO types of child abuse in the Caribbean.

b. State FOUR social conditions in some homes which may bring about abuse of the child.

c. Explain THREE reasons why it is often difficult to take corrective actions in cases of child abuse.

d. As an Officer of the Child Welfare Department, suggest THREE realistic measures which may be
instituted to protect children from abuse.
Domestic violence
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE is one of the most common crimes.

It is present throughout society, usually hidden, but there,
nontheless. Violence between adults who are in an
intimate or family relationship with each other, most often
a sexual relationship between a woman and a man.
Overwhelmingly, the recipients of the violence are women
and the perpetrators are men. It is clear that women do
sometimes abuse men and that violence can occur in
Students from McGrath High work out the answer
to a question at the St. Catherine Cooperative lesbian and gay relationships.
Credit Union School Quiz competition final at the
St. Catherine Health Centre in Spanish Town. -
Rudolph Brown Photo
But the overriding majority of domestic violence incidents
consist of men abusing, intimidating and violating women
whom they know intimately and often profess to love.
Women have been socialised to be good wives. They are taught to grow up, get married, have
children, and live happily ever after. They have been taught to believe the phrase "for better for
worse" and she has also learned that "marriage isn't a bed of roses".

Violence often occurs later in a relationship. The relationship has most likely experienced many
caring, intimate and pleasurable periods. The people in the relationship have had enough time to
establish a history of unity and concern for one another. Few would walk away from a serious
commitment without many hours of thought and consideration. With the onset of violence the
individuals become confused. Not only do individuals have to make the difficult decision of leaving
their spouses in relation to their own needs and desires, but must also make major decisions
which affect the lines of their children

Ironically, it is not until the spouse is abusing the children, or the children have reached the
expressive age of adolescence and urge them to leave, will a decision be made to abandon the
relationship. Many abused women have no employable skills, and few resources. Often, they see
no hope, or have no idea how to
survive in the world independent of their husbands' financial support.

At times, the violence is denied and friends and families may withdraw their support if their
advice is shrugged off. The individual may become cut off from family and friends alienated and
completely alone. Women may have feelings of worthlessness, confusion, and guilt; they believe
they are failures, and they could never take care of themselves on their own.

Victims may be confused as usually the men claims they love them, yet they are beaten. Fear of
being alone and taking care of oneself and the fear of what one's partner will do if one tries to
leave.

Physical violence by men against women may involve anything from threatening behaviour, slaps
and being pushed about, to black eyes, bruises and broken bones, to extremely serious incidents
of multiple assault. It can be life-threatening, resulting in internal injuries, permanent handicaps,
disabilities or death.

Sources: Marti Frederick and Roberta Foreman, Domestic Violence

A Training Manual for Mental Health Professionals , R & E Publishers. California 1984.

Gill Hague and Ellen Malos, Domestic Violence, Action for Change. New Clarion Press 1993.

CHILD ABUSE

Child abuse is the physical or psychological maltreatment of a child by an adult or adults. Child
abuse is often synonymous with the term child maltreatment or the term child abuse and neglect.
There are many forms of abuse and neglect and many governments have developed their own
legal definition of what constitutes child maltreatment for the purposes of removing a child and/or
prosecuting a criminal charge

Child abuse or maltreatment constitutes all forms of physical and/or emotional ill treatment,
sexual abuse, neglect or negligent treatment or commercial or other exploitation, resulting in
actual or potential harm to the child's health, survival, development or dignity in the context of a
relationship of responsibility, trust or power.

SYMPTOMS

Among the symptoms that various professionals sometimes ascribe to and seek as signs of child
abuse are as follows:

EMOTIONAL ABUSE

Belittling, threatening and ridiculing cause the child not to develop emotional stability, focusing on
mental, spiritual, moral and social development.

* Emotional withdrawal/distance
* Fear of parents/care givers
* Stunting of mental/emotional growth
* Failure to look people in the eye
* Temper tantrums/violence
* Neglect
* General dirtiness
* General unhealthiness
* Infestation of lice, fleas and similar parasites
* Parental refusal of needed medical care

PHYSICAL ABUSE

Physical abuse results in actual or potential physical harm from an interaction or lack of an
interaction by the parent or caregiver. This may be a single or repeated accident.

* Overly aggressive behaviour

* Distinctively shaped scars:
* Temper tantrums/violence
* Fear of parents/caregivers
* Bullying of other children
SEXUAL ABUSE

Sexual abuse is the involvement of a child in sexual activity that he or she does not understand,
unable to give informed consent, violation of the laws or sexual taboos.

* Emotional withdrawal/distance
* injured vagina or anus
* unusually early preoccupation with sex

Isolation and over protection/ neglect and negligent treatment

* This is caused from failure to provide basic necessities for the child that could result in harm to
the child. Failure to properly supervise and protect a child from harm as much as possible, which
could lead to harm

* Emotional withdrawal/distance.
* Shyness; few, if any, friends.
* Stunting of mental/emotional growth.
* Unable to take care of self with respect to age.
* being bullied by other children.
* child rarely seen in public (except possibly school).
* parents/care givers often (but not always) well educated .

CONSEQUENCES

1. Physical - bruises, wilts, ocular damage, fractures and poisoning.

2. Sexual - unwanted pregnancy, sexual transmitted infections, HIV Aids.

3. Emotional - Poor self-esteem, self-inflicted injury, eating disorders, sleeping disorders,

depression and anxiety, feelings and shame and guilt.

4. Long term - Development effects, disability, alcohol/drug abuse. They are at the risk of being
abusive and violent behaviour.

5. Fatal - Homicide, suicide, infanticide and HIV/AIDS.

RISK FACTORS FOR ABUSE

a. History of child abuse

b. Substance abuse
c. Witnessing abuse
d. Education level
e. Low socio-economic level
f. Lack of social support.

ACTIVITIES

a. Define the following concepts CHILD ABUSE and DOMESTIC VIOLENCE:

b. Give THREE reasons why children are abused?
c. Give THREE reasons why domestic violence continues unabated?
d. State the consequences of child abuse and domestic violence in the society.
e. Suggest ways in which the above-mentioned contemporary social issues may be dealt with in
the society.
The aged in the society
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

CARING FOR the aged is not an easy job, especially when it

comes to toileting and putting them into bed. You cant say, 'I'm
not going to do that' when you're working with them. There are
some things they can do for themselves, but they can't do it all by
themselves. That's were the care comes into it. You might not
think it is a nice job to do, having to take them to the toilet and
put them to bed, but when you have done it for a while, you get
use to it, and it's also good for them too. Being elderly and not
having good mobility do not mean that an individual is not of any
use to society. There are a few persons who believe/behave very
Montego Bay High School past students poorly towards the elderly; there are those who put their aged
cheer fellow classmate, Ife Sinclair,
during the school's prize-giving relatives in homes and do not visit them.
ceremony in St. James on November
24. Ife was named top student for the
2004-2005 academic year for her
The aged need our love and support. We (the young) are heading
achievements in the recent Caribbean there; we should think about how we will want to be treated? As
Secondary Education Certificate the saying goes 'Once a man, twice a child'.
examinations. She earned 10
distinctions. Ife is now attending the
Western Reserve Academy in the United NAMES FOR AGED IN SOCIETY
States, where she has been awarded a
full scholarship. - Claudine Housen
Photo There are many different names used to refer to the aged and the
names are used in different contexts.

* Old people - Probably the most basic name for them.

* The elderly - You know, those frail, white-haired people bent over their canes and walkers.

* Seniors - A slightly more respectful term for the elderly.

* Elders - A much more respectful term for old people, though typically reserved for those we
intentionally wish to respect. For example, older people with whom we are related, whether as
part of our family, or church group. Also, the term does not necessarily refer only to the very old,
but can refer to one's parents or an uncle or aunt who is presumably older than you are.

* Senior Citizens - The most respectful of all the names one could give to someone over the age
of 60 years.

All individuals recognise that ageing involves important biological processes. As we get older, we
gradually find it more difficult to fight off disease. Yet, as written in the book Thinking Sociology
(1998) written by Stephens, Leach, Taggart and Jones, "while ageing has deteriorating effects,
few older people become physically disabled. This does not, however, stop the social construction
of negative stereotypes about old people. For some old people, this ageist labelling theory creates
far more hurt than the physical effects of ageing".

HOW DO YOU SEE THE AGED?

Many individuals look upon old people in a negative light and it is not uncommon to think that
people over the age of 60 or 65 have little to offer. To many, elders seem to belong to a
generation that has grown irrelevant. In fact, many persons see the elderly as dependent,
crotchety, set in their ways, living in the past, forever giving useless advice, and weak, both
physically and mentally.
Andrew Achenbaun (1978) stated that in the 1800s, reaching old age was a rare enough
accomplishment, so the elderly admired the old and listened to their advice on how to stay alive.
Secondly, they were considered guardians of virtue and gave advice to others on how to live a
good life. The elderly knew more about their work and how to work productively than did the
young. To quit working simply because of age was considered foolish, and young workers
respected and learned from the elderly. Many of us still do and greatly believe that the old are
wise and always have good advice.

The rise of modern industry in the late 1800s, however, brought with it a decline in the social
value of the elderly. Improved sanitation and medical care meant that more people reached old
age, so mere age itself was no longer a distinction. Although medicine found cures for specific
diseases and thereby prolonged life, it ignored the problems of old age itself, and old age came to
be seen as a disorder for which there was no cure. New techniques and machinery in the
workplace meant that old workers knew less than the young about efficiency and productivity,
and managers began to retire elderly workers in favour of the young. Thus, the meaning of
ageing has been reversed from usefulness to uselessness, from wisdom to foolishness, from an
asset to a liability. How do you see the elderly?

SUICIDE

Suicide is intentional death. A suicide attempt is a nonlethal act that has, as its intended
outcome, death or the appearance of the willingness to die.

Efforts to prevent suicide are based on our ability to identify persons at high risk for suicide and
then to intervene effectively. However, since suicide continues we have still not found the cause or
the 'cure'.

For example, it is said that:

1. Men are about three times as likely as women to attempt suicide.

2. Whites have suicide rates nearly twice that of blacks. (Clemons 1990, p.12)

3. Firearms are the most common method of suicide for both men and women

4. Self poisoning (usually medication overdose) is the most common method of suicide attempt.

5. Widowed or divorced persons are more likely to commit suicide than married or single persons.

6. Persons who have previously attempted suicide are at increased risk for completing suicide.

7. Persons with certain types of psychiatric illness, such as schizophrenia, depression and other
mood disorders, alcoholism, and borderline personality disorders.

8. Severe and chronic physical illness are also associated with suicide.

Do you agree? What are your views on the topic?

THREE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SUICIDE

* The act is self-directed

* Every suicide terminates the life of that person.

* Suicide has an unsettling effect on survivors that the death experiences do not seem to have.

SOME SIGNS OF DEPRESSION AND SUICIDE RISK

 Sadness, withdrawal
 Lack of interest in activities previously enjoyed
 Sense of futility and feelings of worthlessness
 Feelings of guilt and self blame
 Drug and alcohol dependence
 Preoccupation with or talk about suicide
 A definite plan for committing suicide
 Previous suicide attempts
 Recent loss
 No hope for the future
 Fear of losing control, going crazy, harming others
 Feelings of helplessness
 Low energy, anxiety and stress

Source: Clemons, James T, 1990, Perspectives on Suicide, Westminster/John Knox Press.

ACTIVITIES

1. What perception do people of your age have of the elderly?

2. Who commits suicide?

3. Why do persons commit suicide?

4. What are the effects of suicide on the relatives of the person who commits suicide?

5. Suggest three ways in which individuals with suicidal tendencies may be counselled.

6. Compare and contrast the life chances of different age groups, in the Caribbean society.

Revision
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Answer all the following questions.

SECTION A

1. The process of learning in which children and adults take on the feelings, attitudes and ways of
behaviour of the society around them is termed:

a. communication
b. socialisation
c. education
d. development

2. Which of the following is LEAST likely to produce a well-adjusted and socially adjusted child?
a. parental disciplining of the child.
b. allowing adolescents to make some of their own decisions.
c. ensuring that the child has everything it wants.
d. teaching the child its society's moral values.

3. A family in which the married couple lives with the bride's family is:

a. patrilocal
b. matrilocal
c. matrilineal
d. patrilineal

4. An extended family may include the following EXCEPT:

a. parents, grandparents and children

b. parents, uncles and aunts
c. teachers and neighbours
d. grandparents, parents, parents, uncles, aunts, adopted children

5. Slavery was responsible for all of the following family relationships EXCEPT:

a. the nuclear family

b. consensual unions
c. visiting relationships
d. matriarchal family

6. Which of the following indicates authority of the male in a family?

a. Patriarchy
b. Endogamy
c. Patrilineal
d. Patrilocal

7. A family where there are three or more generations living in the same household is called:

a. common-law
b. nuclear
c. extended
d. a commune

8. All of the following important changes are taking place in the Caribbean family EXCEPT:

a. families are becoming smaller

b. men are assisting more in the care of children
c. children are being left to do as they please.
d. more wives are working outside the home.

9. Common-law types of unions in the Caribbean are more the custom of the descendants of:

a. East Indians
b. Europeans
c. Chinese
d. Africans
10. Which of the following is NOT a process of socialisation?

a. Education
b. Reproduction
c. Religious teachings
d. Recreational activities

11. An illegitimate child is one who:

a. has broken the law

b. has no father
c. is the result of an illegal sex act.
d. was born outside of marriage.

12. Which one of the following groups is an example of a nuclear family?

a. parents, grandparents, children

b. children, grandparents, uncles
c. parents, children, adopted children
d. children, aunts, cousins

13. A small boy tells his mother, "I want to do it myself." Which social need is the child expressing
in the household?

a. Affection
b. Identity
c. Belongingness
d. Independence

14. Which of the following identifies you as a member of a family?

a. Your Christian name

b. The duties performed
c. Your surname
d. Your position in the family.

15. The term 'monogamy' is used to describe:

a. A woman's refusal to get married.

b. The marriage of a woman to more than one man.
c. The marriage of a woman to one man.
d. The marriage of a man to more than one woman.

SECTION B

1. Socialisation is the process by which the family helps new members to learn their roles.

a. (i). Name ONE function of the family, other than socialisation.

(ii). Identify THREE ways in which the family socialises new members. (4 Marks)

b. State TWO traditional male occupations into which women have moved. (2 Marks)
c. (i). Explain TWO ways in which the traditional roles of the adult male in the family are
changing.

(ii). Give ONE reason why the roles of adult males are changing. (6 Marks)

d. Suggest TWO ways in which parents may deal with a child who has performed poorly in a
recent class exam. (5 Marks)

Total 17. Marks

2. Mr. Fred Peters, a working father, lives with his three children. The structure of this single-
parent family is shown in the diagram below.

a. Name TWO family types, other than single parent, found in the Caribbean.

b. Choose ONE word from the brackets that BEST completes the following statement, and write
the completed statement on your answer sheet. " The word that describes Mr. Peters' family is
(patriarchal/matriarchal/polygamous) (3 Marks)

c. There is no mother in Mr. Peters' family. STATE THREE ways in which this situation may have
come about. (3 Marks)

d. Explain THREE things that Mr. Peters' children may learn in their family because their mother is
absent. (6 Marks)

e. You are a social welfare worker. Give Mr. Peters THREE suggestions on how to be a successful
parent. (5 Marks)

a. State THREE reasons for divorce.

b. Explain THREE ways in which the divorce of parents may affect children.

c. Suggest TWO ways by which recently married persons may avoid conflict in their marriage.
Abusing drugs
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

DRUG ABUSE is the use of drugs in such a way that they harm one's
health, impair one's physical or mental functioning, or interfere with
one's social life. This is possible as these substances alter bodily
functions, behaviour, emotions, thinking, and/or consciousness. The
essential difference is that some drugs are socially acceptable while
others are not. Almost everyone uses drugs, maybe, we were born
with the aid of drugs.

In between, we have drugs for sickness, for pleasure, for the relief of
anxiety, for a queasy stomach, headaches, pain, discomforts of all
sorts.

We take drugs for social ease, as with alcohol, and we take them
Eltham Park High School versus
Norman Manley High School in
routinely, unthinkingly and habitually, as with cigarettes, coffee, cola
Grace Shield semi-finals at and other caffeinated beverages. When drugs used interfere with
Melbourne Oval, earlier this year. - people's health or their economic or social functioning, it becomes
Ian Allen Photo drug abuse and is generally considered a social problem. A serious
problem associated with some drugs is addiction, or drug
dependence, that is, the dependence on the regular consumption of a
drug in order to make it through the day.

Why are some drugs legal (aspirin, caffeine, nicotine, alcohol) and others, illegal (heroin,
marijuana and cocaine)?

ALCOHOL

Alcohol is one of our most common drugs; it is far more dangerous than its broad social
acceptability would imply. Drinking is responsible for fatalities in motor vehicle accidents. Cirrhosis
of the liver is a very common cause of death is sometimes a result of alcohol drinking. It is
believed that alcohol has also become a major cause of birth defects.
NICOTINE

Smoking kills, the consequences of addiction to nicotine are overwhelming. The smoker is more
likely to die from lung cancer. According to Ravenholt (1990) in the book Social Problem, smoking
is responsible for 390,00 deaths per year in the United States. Death from nicotine in many cases
are lingering and painful, a burden to both the victims and their families. Smoking also causes
progressive emphysema, a disease in which breathing becomes increasingly difficult until death
eventually occurs from respiratory failure.

WHY DO WE USE DRUGS?

1. A drug can be seen by the medical profession as a tool to help patients.

2. It is used by criminal entrepreneurs as an illegal product that makes much money.

3. It is used for users as an adventure, a religious experience, a "high", an escape, a mild nothing
that can be done without, or an absolute necessity for getting through the day.

ILLEGAL DRUGS

Cocaine:

Some street terms for cocaine are blow, nose candy, snowball, tornado, wicky stick. Cocaine
comes in various forms such as a white crystalline powder. Crack or rock cocaine is an off-white
chunky material.

Cocaine, as a powder, is generally snorted or dissolved in water and injected; meanwhile crack
cocaine is usually smoked.

What are some consequences of using cocaine?

* Cocaine use can become addictive.

* Smoking crack can cause severe chest pains with lung trauma and bleeding.

* Cocaine can caused deaths as a result of cardiac arrest or seizures followed by respiratory
arrest.

Heroin

The street terms for heroin are smack, thunder, hell dust, big H and nose drops. Pure heroin is a
white powder with a bitter taste. Most illicit heroin varies in color from white to dark brown. 'Black
tar' heroin is sticky like roofing tar, or hard, like coal. Its colour may vary from dark brown to
black. Heroin is used by injecting, smoking and/or snorting

Some consequences of the use of heroin are:

* One of the most significant effects of heroin use is addiction.

* Chronic use may cause collapsed veins, infection of heart lining and valves, abscesses, liver
diseases, pulmonary complications, and various types of pneumonia.
* It may cause depression of central nervous system, cloudy mental functioning, and slowed
breathing to the point of respiratory failure.

* Heroin overdose may cause slow and shallow breathing, convulsions, coma, and possibly death

* Users put themselves at risk for contracting HIV, hepatitis B and C, and other sexually
transmitted diseases.

Marijuana

Street terms for marijuana are grass, pot, weed, bud, Mary Jane, dope, indo and hydro.
Marijuana is a green, brown, or grey mixture of dried, shredded leaves, stems, seeds, and flowers
of the hemp plant. Marijuana is usually smoked as a cigarette or in a pipe or bong.

Consequences of using marijuana:

* It may cause frequent respiratory infections, impaired memory and learning, increased heart
rate, anxiety, panic attacks, tolerance and physical dependence.

* The use of marijuana during the first month of breast-feeding can impair infant motor
development.

* Chronic smokers may have many of the same respiratory problems as tobacco smokers have
including daily cough and phlegm, chronic bronchitis symptoms, frequent chest colds; chronic
abuse can also lead to abnormal functioning of lung tissues.

* Marijuana is the most commonly used illicit drug.

Activities

a. Identify TWO legal substances that some people in the Caribbean abuse.

b. Describe TWO factors that may cause young people to abuse drugs.

c. Give THREE reasons why some types of drugs are essential to society.

d. Suggest TWO activities that schools in your country may organise to educate young people on
the dangers of drug abuse.

e. Identify other types/forms of drugs used in the Caribbean noting the consequences of their
use.

f. What can the Government do to prevent/lessen the use of drugs in your country?
Where do you live?
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

THE TERM street children refers to children for whom the

streets, more than their family, have become their real
home. A street child is therefore any child who works and/or
lives on the street.

Often objects of pity and fear, these children are our boys
and girls who use the streets as their source of livelihood or
cardboard or carton boxes as their beds on the roadsides. It
is also possible that these highly mobile individuals alternate
Students of Petersfield High School in between living on the streets and living with their families.
Westmoreland leave school following the end
of the second shift. A fellow student, Enid
There is a tendency to view street children as criminals,
Gordon, was brutally murdered recently, and
victims, or as free spirits, claiming independence. Popular
her body found in bushes near her home in
images of street children portray them as vulnerable to
Content, Westmoreland. - Monique Hepburn
Photo
abuse, at risk of poor health, exploited by older children and
adults, and in some cases at risk from vigilantes. Some
children who work on the streets may only work during particular periods of the year or the day,
and may even attend school or training centres at other times.

These street children may become involved in scavenging, begging, hawking, prostitution or theft
to aid their basic survival. Many have been branded as 'anti-social', or demonstrating 'anti- social
behaviour'. Street children are viewed with suspicion and fear by many who would simply like to
see street children 'disappear'. Many motorists in Jamaica might find them menacing as they do
not wait to be asked to clean your windshield, the glare, the peeping into cars and snatching
whatever they can grasp, the obscene language used and the generally poor behaviour towards
women drivers is rather distasteful and may even be seen as appalling.

Most are teenagers, but some are as young as seven or eight. It is such a pity that without
education they have little hope of getting a decent job or building a better life in the future.

Why do children turn to the streets?

1. Poverty and therefore the need to seek work to help ends meet in the home.

2. Abuse or natural disasters

3. Factors that make the street a more attractive alternative. Life at home is particularly difficult,
for instance when there is abuse, the street might appear a safer place to the child.

4. Many street children do not live with their family, are not in school and have no official person
or institution to care for them. They lack the support offered by a family and must fend for
themselves.

5. Orphaned or abandoned by their parents

6. Escaping family violence or breakdown, which may spring from stresses of poverty leading to
alcoholism or abuse.

HELP FOR STREET CHILDREN IN JAMAICA

Street children receive national and international public attention; attention focused on social,
economic and health problems of children. Some examples are:

1. Children First - 'to work on the street and with potential street children to improve their life
chance, enabling them to make positive contributions to society'. (9 Monk Street, Spanish Town.
St. Catherine (984-0367) Email Kidz@[Link].

2. Kingston YMCA - "That they may be one," John 17:21. (Seeks to promote the welfare of young
people through spiritual, social, intellectual and physical activities, geared toward the
development of spirit, mind and body. 21 Hope Road, Kingston 10 (926-0801, 926-8081)
Kymca@[Link].

3. Unicef - 60 Knutsford Boulevard. Kingston 5 (926-7584)

ACTIVITIES

Street children: A growing trend in the Caribbean

a. 1. Define the term street children

2. Outline TWO situations in the home which may be responsible for the number of 'street
children' in urban areas of the Caribbean.

b. Give THREE reasons why it is important for Caribbean countries to reduce the number of street
children.

c. Suggest TWO ways in which a Welfare Organisation may cater to the needs of street children in
urban areas.

DESERTION

Desertion is seen as the voluntary abandonment of one spouse by the other spouse, without the
abandoned spouse's consent. The deserting partner does not let his/her spouse know where
he/she is going since he/she wants to escape from his/her family duties and responsibilities or
abuse or neglect. Desertion has been called 'the poor man's divorce' because it costs nothing and
involves no financial obligations.

There are two types of desertion. Actual desertion exists when the husband/wife leaves the home
without cause. Constructive desertion exists when one spouse leaves the home, but is justified in
doing so (due to the abusive behaviour on the part of the other spouse, for instance). The couple
remains legally married, so neither is free to remarry. Such a marriage can only be legally
terminated by court action in the form of divorce.

ACTIVITIES

1. Give the meaning of desertion.

2. State THREE reasons why spouses desert their partners?

3. When is desertion seen as a reason for getting a divorce in Jamaica?

Children having children
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

BEING SEXUALLY active demands a high level of responsibility and

knowledge about intercourse, because it can result in pregnancy.
Many teenagers may appear biologically mature, but many are not
socially mature or financially stable and may not appreciate all the
consequences of their actions.

WHY BECOME PREGNANT?

1. Girls try to get pregnant because they are afraid that they can't
have children.
Fourth form Anchovy High School
students make themselves busy
while they wait for their teacher to 2. Men believe that they should not get married without testing the
arrive on September 21, 2005. -
Claudine Housen Photo
waters.

3. According to Leon Dash (1990), many girls want children so they

will "have something to hold on to that they can call their own."

4. Many men/boys urge their girlfriends to get pregnant so they can feel like a man, so they can
identify with their 'youth'.

5. It is a way of testing the boyfriend's commitment or, in other words, 'holding a man'.

6. However, many poor, rich, young, unmarried women get pregnant because they want to.

PROBLEMS FACED WHEN CHILDREN HAVE CHILDREN.

1. Pregnancy often means that many young women and sometimes young fathers-to-be cannot
finish school, as they drop out of school to have their babies and do not return. In this way,
pregnant teens lose the opportunity to learn skills necessary for employment and self-survival as
adults.

2. Teenage pregnancy is usually a crisis for the pregnant girl and her family. Common reaction
includes anger, guilt and denial. If the father is young and remains involved, similar reactions can
occur in his family.

3. Risk for long-term failures such as school failure, poverty and physical or mental illness.

4. Some adolescents are too ashamed to seek proper medical care and education during
pregnancy, which may result in increased medical complications.

5. Babies born to teenagers are also at risk of neglect and abuse because their young mothers are
uncertain about the roles and may be frustrated by the constant demands of caregiving.

6. It is believed that a baby born to a teenage mother is more at risk of certain serious problems
than a baby born to an older mother.
7. Teens may not have good parenting skills or have the social support systems to help them deal
with the stress of raising an infant.

HELPING TO PREVENT TEENAGE PREGNANCY

1. Parents should have dialogue with their children - an open communication - providing guidance
to their children about sexuality, contraception and the risk and responsibilities of intimate
relationship and pregnancy.

2. Concerns about the high rate of teenage pregnancy has led to sex education in schools, as well
as the media providing information both electronic and written. These media provide information
on pregnancy and birth control.

AFTER THE ACT, WHAT?

1. If pregnancy occurs, teenagers and their families deserve honest and sensitive counselling
about options available to them.

2. Special support system is needed throughout the pregnancy, the birth, and given referral to
qualified mental health professional, if the teenager's emotional reactions need attention.

3. Pregnant teenagers need special understanding, medical care, and education, particularly
about nutrition, infections, and complications in pregnancy. Teach them the dos and don'ts.

4. Remember it takes two to make a child: fathers, you help to start it, so you must play your
part.

INCEST AND SEXUAL ABUSE

Incest is viewed as sexual intercourse between persons who are related to each other, within the
degrees where marriage is prohibited. It is, therefore, forbidden sexual relations between
relatives such as brothers and sisters or parents and children. That is any sexual act perpetuated
by a biological or non-biologically related person functioning in the role of a family member for
their sexual gratification.

Incest survivors come from both sexes and all economic and social backgrounds, races, religious
nationalities and sexual preferences.

INCEST TABOO

A social norm common to virtually all societies prohibits sexual relationships between certain
culturally specified relatives. In the Caribbean this taboo means that we must marry outside the
nuclear family. We cannot marry our siblings, and in most cases we cannot marry our first
cousins.

Sexual abuse includes:

1. Sexual touching and fondling.

2. Exposing children to adult sexual activity, including pornographic movies and photographs.

3. Having children pose, undress or perform in a sexual fashion on film or in person.

4. Peeping into bathrooms or bedrooms to spy on a child

5. Rape or attempted rape.

6. Forcing, tricking, threatening or pressuring a child into sexual awareness or activity.

SIGNS OF INCEST AND SEXUAL ABUSE

a. Depression
b. Sleep disturbances
c. Nightmares
d. School problems
e. Withdrawal from family, friends or usual activities
f. Running away
g. Low self-esteem
h. Self-destructive behaviour
i. Hostility or aggression
j. Suicide attempts
k. Displaying sexual knowledge, through language or behaviour, that is beyond what is normal for
their age.
l. Hints, indirect comments or statements about the abuse

WHY REMAIN SILENT?

1. Fear of the abuser, of causing trouble, losing adults important to them, being taken away from
home.

2. Anger of the abuser, at themselves, they have trouble talking about the abuse.

3. Sadness about having something taken from him or her, betrayed by someone he or she loved.

4. Fear no one will believe them.

5. Threatened or bribed by the abuser to keep it a secret.

6. Blame themselves or believe they have been bad, they are ashamed and embarrassed.

7. Too young to totally understand what is happening to them.

NB: No one can ever regain the childhood years lost to sexual abuse or incest.

ACTIVITIES

a. Outline THREE ways in which the school may help young people to become responsible
parents.

b. Give THREE explanations to show why young people need proper guidance in parenting.
c. As a social worker, suggest TWO strategies you would use to help young parents develop
appropriate parenting skills.

d. Give FIVE reasons why children and teens do not tell anyone about sexual abuse.

e. Suggests FIVE signs of sexual abuse and incest that may go unnoticed.

f. State THREE ways each by which teenage pregnancy, incest and sexual abuse can be prevented
in your country.

Looking at social problems

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

A SOCIAL problem is an aspect of society about which

people are concerned and one that they would like to
change.

St George's College Students celebrate a goal by

their school in a Manning Cup match against
Kingston High on September 27. - Ricardo Makyn
Photo
This is, therefore, the study of social conditions which cause difficulties for a large number of
persons and which the society is seeking to eliminate.

Social problems begin with an objective, condition, and some aspect of society that can be
measured or experienced.

The second key element of the definition is the subjective concern that a significant number of
people have about the condition.

Whether or not people view something as a social problem depends on their definitions of what is
involved.

People who agree on many things in life can disagree sharply about a particular social problem.
This is because as human beings we are constantly exposed to different ideas, definitions, and
information overtime.

The position, however, that an individual take on any social problem can change.

EXAMPLES

A few examples of such social problems/contemporary social issues which influence Caribbean
family life are teenage pregnancy, street children, alternate life styles, substance abuse, juvenile
delinquency, sexually transmitted diseases, child abuse, poverty, desertion, suicide, promiscuity,
incest, domestic violence, care and concern for the aged and those with special needs, prejudice
and divorce.

Many persons look for the causes of social problems as it relates to biological, psychological, and
socio economic factors in behaviour as well as in various social structures that affect/direct an
individual's behaviour.

Generally, no one cause is sufficient to explain all the varied individual manifestations of a social
problem.

For most problems we do not know all the causes, even in the case of a specific individuals
manifestations of a social problem when his hereditary, his life history, and the environment
surrounding him are well known.

PREJUDICE

Prejudice is a negative attitude towards an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial
minority. Prejudice is irrational, insofar as people hold flexible attitudes supported by little or no
direct evidence.

Prejudices are pre-judgements and they may be positive or negative. Our positive prejudices tend
to exaggerate the virtues of people like us, and our negative prejudices condemn those who differ
from us.

Because attitude is rooted in culture, everyone has at least some measure of prejudice. If one
should stereotype an individual on the basis of such characteristics as race, ethnicity, gender,
place of residence or religion that is a form of prejudice been manifested. Prejudice tends to
perpetuate false definitions of individuals and groups, most of whom they have never even met.
Sometimes prejudice results from ethnocentrism - the tendency to assume that one's culture
and way of life represents the norm or is superior to all others.

Ethnocentric people judge other cultures by the standards of their own group, which leads quite
easily to prejudice against cultures viewed as inferior.

Prejudice may target people of a particular social class, sex, sexual orientation, age, political
affiliation, physical disability, race or ethnicity.

One important and widespread form of prejudice is racism, the belief that ones race is supreme
and all others are innately inferior.

When racism prevails in a society, members of subordinate groups generally experience prejudice,
discrimination, and exploitation.

Today, overt racism remains a serious problem everywhere, and people still contend that some
racial and ethnic categories are "better' than others.

Racism has given rise to hate crimes in many countries. Its good however to look at each race by
using the words of Doctor Martin Luther King "not by the colour of their skin but by the content of
their character" should we evaluate each other.

Prejudice often takes the form of stereotype, an exaggerated description applied to every
person in some category.

Discrimination is treating various categories of people unequally.

Whereas prejudice consists of attitudes, discrimination is a matter of action. Like prejudices,

discrimination can be either positive or negative.

Discrimination like prejudice ranges from subtle to blatant. Prejudice and discrimination often
occur together they tend to reinforce each other.

ACTIVITIES

 What is the scapegoat theory?

 What do you understand by the term apartheid?
 Differentiate between discrimination and prejudice:
 Outline four ways in which prejudice may manifest itself in day to day life;
 Why do we have social problems in our society?
 Identify six social problems that you see in our day to day living.
 Preparing for parenthood
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

 A NEWBORN in a family causes many new experiences and

a number of problems that tend to affect the mother, father and
other members of the family. Most new parents express some
surprise about the sheer level of physical demands. Among most
new parents the overwhelming responsibility for caring for their
baby falls to the mother.
 One mother wrote in her diary when her daughter was a
month old. "A month is only four weeks ... but it has been an
Students from Bridgeport High answer
questions at the St. Catherine eternity for me. I'm a zombie. Four weeks of night feedings and
Cooperative Credit Union School Quiz
competition final at the St. Catherine
Health Centre in Spanish Town. -
Rudolph Brown Photo
little sleep. I haven't read a paper. I barely have time to shower and wash my hair."
(Lowenstein & Lowenstein 1983, p.18).
 A couple should decide how many children they will have, when they will have them
and how they will provide for them. It is necessary for prospective parents to be aware of
the following when planning to be good parents.
 1. Be healthy, drug-free, and free from all communicable diseases. You do not want
your child to be a victim of such diseases, which may have various effects from mental to
physical on the child.
 2. Learn about growth and development of a child, you sure do want to cater
adequately for the needs of your child at different ages.
 3. Ensure that your child is given love, affection and attention and is socialised. His
or her demands for everyday life are assured. The child is made ready to live in the
outside world; they are well socialised and possess the qualities to adjust in the outside
world.
 4. A stable job or a steady and adequate income to cater for the needs of the
family is very essential. Pursue education, be knowledgeable, so you can form the first
school at home, teaching your child academically and instilling religious values to your
offspring.
 5. Space your children; be knowledgeable about family planning techniques. "Two is
better than too many". Ensure your family size does not grow beyond your ability to
support them.
 6. Be knowledgeable about first aid techniques, you never know when you may
have to use it.
 7. Build emotional strength, be patient, be calm and composed when you are
disciplining your child or looking after a sick child who is constantly crying.
 8. Physical maturity - The female's body should be developed sufficiently to enable
her to go through pregnancy and deliver the baby without much difficulty or threat to her
health or life.
 FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION
 Family life education is very necessary when preparing for parenthood. Being
educated about family life provides a comprehensive approach to family life by educating
the parent to be. Family life education provides the parent-to-be and others with the
knowledge of the following issues.
 a. It teaches parenting skills and the responsibilities of parenthood.
 b. It provides the individual with the information to make a family plan and to avoid
unwanted pregnancy.
 c. It helps in the teaching of family planning techniques and the relationship
between sex and pregnancy. "If you don't indulge you won't bulge."
 d. It therefore deals with human sexuality, reproductive health, self-esteem, values,
relationships, parenting and family planning, contraception and information sexually
transmitted diseases.
 These are all issues on which parents-to-be, need information and professional
guidance in order to be "good parents".
 According to Brathwaite and Reynolds in The Social Study Guide, a good parent
should have the following:
 1. Good communication skills so that they can talk to their children and also be able
to listen to them.
 2. Socialisation skills to teach their children the values, norms and mores of the
society.
 3. Disciplinary skills in order to deal with inappropriate behaviour.
 4. Nutritional skills so that they can prepare the kinds of meals that would help the
child to grow and stay healthy.
 5. Skills in managing money in order to budget properly for the children's material
needs. (pp 48 and 49)
 ACTIVITIES
  1. Discuss the following:
 a. Children are our future: parents have a responsibility to bring them up properly.
 b. Is it possible to be a successful wife, mother and professional woman?
 2. Write an essay outlining how family life education may prepare boys and girls for
responsible parenthood.

Preparing for parenthood

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

A NEWBORN in a family causes many new experiences and a

number of problems that tend to affect the mother, father and
other members of the family. Most new parents express some
surprise about the sheer level of physical demands. Among most
new parents the overwhelming responsibility for caring for their
baby falls to the mother.

Students from Bridgeport High answer One mother wrote in her diary when her daughter was a month
questions at the St. Catherine old. "A month is only four weeks ... but it has been an eternity for
Cooperative Credit Union School Quiz
competition final at the St. Catherine
me. I'm a zombie. Four weeks of night feedings and little sleep. I
Health Centre in Spanish Town. - haven't read a paper. I barely have time to shower and wash my
Rudolph Brown Photo hair." (Lowenstein & Lowenstein 1983, p.18).

A couple should decide how many children they will have, when
they will have them and how they will provide for them. It is necessary for prospective parents to
be aware of the following when planning to be good parents.

1. Be healthy, drug-free, and free from all communicable diseases. You do not want your child to
be a victim of such diseases, which may have various effects from mental to physical on the child.

2. Learn about growth and development of a child, you sure do want to cater adequately for the
needs of your child at different ages.
3. Ensure that your child is given love, affection and attention and is socialised. His or her
demands for everyday life are assured. The child is made ready to live in the outside world; they
are well socialised and possess the qualities to adjust in the outside world.

4. A stable job or a steady and adequate income to cater for the needs of the family is very
essential. Pursue education, be knowledgeable, so you can form the first school at home, teaching
your child academically and instilling religious values to your offspring.

5. Space your children; be knowledgeable about family planning techniques. "Two is better than
too many". Ensure your family size does not grow beyond your ability to support them.

6. Be knowledgeable about first aid techniques, you never know when you may have to use it.

7. Build emotional strength, be patient, be calm and composed when you are disciplining your
child or looking after a sick child who is constantly crying.

8. Physical maturity - The female's body should be developed sufficiently to enable her to go
through pregnancy and deliver the baby without much difficulty or threat to her health or life.

FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION

Family life education is very necessary when preparing for parenthood. Being educated about
family life provides a comprehensive approach to family life by educating the parent to be. Family
life education provides the parent-to-be and others with the knowledge of the following issues.

a. It teaches parenting skills and the responsibilities of parenthood.

b. It provides the individual with the information to make a family plan and to avoid unwanted
pregnancy.

c. It helps in the teaching of family planning techniques and the relationship between sex and
pregnancy. "If you don't indulge you won't bulge."

d. It therefore deals with human sexuality, reproductive health, self-esteem, values, relationships,
parenting and family planning, contraception and information sexually transmitted diseases.

These are all issues on which parents-to-be, need information and professional guidance in order
to be "good parents".

According to Brathwaite and Reynolds in The Social Study Guide, a good parent should have the
following:

1. Good communication skills so that they can talk to their children and also be able to listen to
them.

2. Socialisation skills to teach their children the values, norms and mores of the society.

3. Disciplinary skills in order to deal with inappropriate behaviour.

4. Nutritional skills so that they can prepare the kinds of meals that would help the child to grow
and stay healthy.
5. Skills in managing money in order to budget properly for the children's material needs. (pp 48
and 49)

ACTIVITIES

1. Discuss the following:

a. Children are our future: parents have a responsibility to bring them up properly.

b. Is it possible to be a successful wife, mother and professional woman?

2. Write an essay outlining how family life education may prepare boys and girls for responsible
parenthood.

Roles, relationships and responsibilities of the Caribbean family Maureen

Campbell, Contributor

EVERY INDIVIDUAL occupies a position in the family. A status is a

social position which an individual occupies. Each individual has
different kinds of status. In each status, one is expected to
behave in a particular way which is unique to the individual's
status. This is viewed as the role of the individual. Individual
members of families occupy certain roles such as child, sibling and
grandchild.

Family roles are patterns of behaviour by which individuals fulfil

family functions and needs. Roles play an extremely important
part in healthy family life. The establishment of clear roles within
Students in class at Pentab High School. a family is directly connected to a family's ability to deal with day-
- Ian Allen Photo
to-day life practices, unforeseen crises, and the normal changes
that occur in family's over time.

Roles in a family may be confined due to gender, birth order, marital status, parental status,
socio-economic status, educational attainment or occupational status. Individuals within a family
have both instrumental and affective roles to fulfil.

Instrumental - concerned with the provision of physical resources e.g. food, clothing, shelter,
decision making and family management.

Affective roles exist to provide emotional support and encouragement.

Siblings fulfil many roles throughout their lifetime, especially if they are the oldest in the family,
they serve many times as caregivers for parents as well as caregivers for each other. In many
homes, chores are given with regards to your age and gender in a family.

Along with roles come certain social and family expectations/responsibilities for how those roles
should be fulfilled and by whom. Parents are expected to teach discipline and provide for their
children. Children are expected to cooperate and respect their parents. As family members age,
they take on additional roles, such as becoming a spouse, parent or grandparent. A person's role
is always expanding or changing, depending upon his or her age and the family stage. Roles
should be clearly identifiable.
Family members must know and acknowledge their roles and responsibilities. Families must make
many decisions about who will be responsible for completing a certain task or fulfilling particular
responsibilities. Roles should be assigned in such a way that family members are not
overburdened.

PARENTS

* Providing physical resources, such as money, food, clothing and shelter.

* Providing comfort, warmth and reassurance.

* Facilitate physical, emotional, educational, and social development of children.

* Leadership, decision making, handling family finances, maintaining appropriate roles with
respect to extended family, friends and neighbours.

* Meeting sexual needs in a manner that is satisfying to both spouses.

* Have a supportive, nurturing environment that facilitates their children's physical and emotional
development.

RELATIONSHIPS

The family tie is the closest, the most tender and sacred of any human relationship on earth. In a
family, the personal worth and dignity of each member should be affirmed and safeguarded in an
environment of respect, equality, openness and love. Relationships within the family may range
from cooperation to conflict.

Family members have different ideas, values and this creates conflict among them. This conflict
may arise when two or more members of the family, have a disagreement or an argument.

The generation gap is also a major cause of conflict in the Caribbean as parents and children have
different ideas and values. Parents always want children to follow their own way because they
think it is the right way. Children do not agree in most cases and may rebel. Many children, as the
trend goes believe that it is "modern times" and, therefore, their parents are behind and are old
fashioned.

CULTURAL PRACTICES OF OUR ANCESTORS

Culture is all the ideas, beliefs, customs, language, art, technology and practices of a society
which have been passed on from one generation to generation. It is the way of life of a people.
Culture gives a society its identity. A society cannot exist without a culture.

THE AMERINDIANS

The first recorded settlers of the Caribbean. We have adapted words such as hammock, canoe,
barbeque, Jamaica, maize and cassava. They have left the following with us, barbequed fish and
other meat, the making of cassava bread, pepper pot and the smoking of tobacco.

AFRICANS

Birth - Ceremonial cutting of the "navel string". Mother stays for nine days after giving birth.
Death - Wake, belief in spirits and ghost

Marriage - Special wedding, garments, act of giving gifts, betrothal, wedding ceremony and ritual.

Dances - Jonkonnu, kumina, dinki-mini and bruckins, etc.

Religion - Orisha, Kumina, Shango etc.

Medicines - Herbal cures, folk medicines and bush doctor.

Music/ instruments - Folk music, mento music, banjo, drums

EUROPEANS

Birth - Christening of the baby

Marriage - Exogamy, engagement, courtship. Something old, something new, something

borrowed and something blue. Throwing of the garter, bouquet. Throwing rice, honeymoon and
special wedding gown

Dances - Quadrille, maypole etc.

Religion - Christianity, Roman Catholic, Protestants and Judaism.

Diet - Escoveitch fish, peas and bean dishes. jerk meat, the making of buns, cakes, puddings,
cheese, ham, bacon, wines etc.

ASIANS

Marriage - Endogamy and may even be arranged. Special wedding garments.

Religion - Hinduism, Islam and Buddhism.

Diet/food - Roti, curried goat, rice, pak choi, spices and vegetables

ACTIVITIES

1 Identify various examples of cultural practices in the Caribbean that did not originate in the
islands.

2 State four reasons for cultural transmission and explain how this is accomplished.

3 Outline five factors that may prevent an individual from adequately performing a particular role.

4 Gender is most important in determining the roles of family members. Discuss

The changing family
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

LIKE ALL other societal subsystems, families must adjust/adapt to

changing conditions in order to maintain stability. To study change in
society, we usually study data through national surveys about the
following:

a) Divorce rate
b) Remarriage rate
c) Prevalence of single-parent families
d) Family size
e) Age of marriage partners
f) Family roles
g) Births to unmarried women
h) Family functions
Students take time out to view
something interesting. -
Contributed Photo It is argued worldwide that the number of divorce, legal separations,
desertions, and annulments has risen.

CAUSES OF DIVORCE

1. Not attained happiness within the marriage relationship.

2. Unrealistic marriage expectations.
3. Too early a marriage and unable to attain goals and expectations.

DIVORCE AND CHILDREN

Divorce often affects children who:

1. May develop a negative orientation toward marriage.

2. May become determined to avoid the mistakes their parents made. This may lead positively to
more realistic marriage expectations and a greater determination to stay married.

3. May be resentful and treated badly by one parent or may even be blamed for the breakup.

4. May be forced to live with the parent they do not wish to live with.

REMARRIAGE

Remarriage has led to a growing number of blended families; those in which at least one spouse
has been previously married and in which there are one or more children from the previous
marriage.

SINGLE-PARENT FAMILIES

There has been a rapid growth of single-parent families. The census Bureau of the United States
has estimated that about half of all children today will spend some part of their childhood in a
single-parent home.
Single parents are formed by:

* Divorce
* Legal separation
* Death
* Migration
* One partner in jail
* Decision not to marry.

DECREASE IN SIZE

There has been a long-time trend towards smaller families.

There are slogans in Jamaica, for example 'Two is better than too many', where we are
encouraged to have smaller families and not have 'out our lot'. This also is done because of
economic constraint.

AGE OF MARRIAGE PARTNERS

For a long period of time, both males and females married at earlier ages, but this trend has been
reversed, towards later first marriages, which is expected to continue.

ROLE CHANGES

Roles for both husband and wife have been altered within the family. There are also indications
that the authority previously held by the husband may now be more evenly distributed among
other family members.

Traditionally, the husband brought home the pay cheque and rarely participated in such mundane
household chores as cooking and cleaning. The wife tended to the house and children but, she
rarely brought home a pay cheque. Today, more married women are joining the labour force and
more men are sharing the mundane chores.

BIRTHS TO UNMARRIED WOMEN

Although most unmarried childbearing is unintended, the deliberate choice to accept single
parenthood has increased.

LOSS OF FUNCTIONS

Previously significant functions of the family have been taken over by structures outside the
home. Factories have taken over the production of most goods; governmental agencies have
taken over the protection of lives; the school has taken over the education of children; a variety
of recreational facilities and activities outside the home are absorbing peoples' leisure time, and
religious activities are becoming the sole province of the Church.

Many of the protective functions of the traditional family have been shifted to other institutions.
Today, we have medical technology, which only specialist and hospitals can handle. Family
members find it hard and impractical to care for many kinds of handicapped people at home and
so send them for special care outside the family. Also, many elderly persons feel useless and
unappreciated in the homes of their children.

ENHANCEMENT OF FUNCTIONS
Economic functions have changed most greatly; the family, a century ago, was the basic unit of
economic production. They were united by shared work on the farm or in the cottage industry.
Except to an extent not self-sufficient on the farm, the family is no longer the basic unit of
economic production, this has shifted to the shop, the factory, the office. The family is no longer
united by shared work for its members work separately.

The family is now a unit of economic consumption and has therefore become more important in
economic planning. With an ever-increasing number of goods and services available to it, and a
large number of wants to be satisfied, the family must plan its consumption to a greater degree
than ever before.

ACTIVITIES

1. Defend each of the following positions:

a. Divorce is not a necessary and useful institution for a society like ours.

b. Divorce is the cause and evidence of family breakdown, and should be avoided at all cost.

2. Why is the family found in all societies? Would it be possible, with modern technology, to
dispense with the family?

3. How do current family changes illustrate the interrelationship of institutions in our society?

Functions of the family

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

THE FAMILY is a social institution found in all societies that unite

people in cooperative groups to oversee the bearing and raising of
children. Family ties are also called kinship, a social bond based
on blood, marriage, or adoption. The family performs several vital
tasks; in fact the family operates as the backbone of society.
Throughout the world, families form around marriage, a legally
sanctioned relationship, usually involving economic cooperation as
well as sexual activity and child bearing, that people expect to be
Montego Bay High School fifth form
students listen attentively during
classes. - Claudine Housen Photo
enduring.

THE SEXUAL REGULATION FUNCTION

The family is the principal institution through which societies organise and regulate the
satisfaction of sexual desires. With varying degrees of taboos and indulgence, every society
tolerates some sex behaviour in violation of its norms. The incest taboo is a norm forbidding
sexual relations or marrying between certain relatives. Precisely which relatives fall within the
incest taboo varies from one culture to another. But all societies expect that most sexual
intercourse will occur between persons whom their institutional norms define as legitimately
accessible to each other.

THE REPRODUCTION FUNCTION

Every society depends primarily upon the family for the business of producing children.

THE SOCIALISATION FUNCTION

Socialisation is the process in which individuals learn the roles, rules, relationships and culture of
their society.

The family is the child's first primary group, and this is where his personality development begins.
By the time he is old enough to enter primary groupings outside the family, the basic foundations
of his personality are already firmly laid. All societies depend primarily upon the family for the
socialisation of children into adults who can function successfully in that society. One of the many
ways in which the family socialises the child is through providing models for the child to copy.
Role-taking /playing is thus a way of socialising children to accept and fill both their present and
their future family roles.

THE AFFECTION FUNCTION

Man craves intimate human response. Many persons argue that our need for companionship and
intimate, affectionate human response is vitally important to us. Most societies rely almost
entirely upon the family for affectionate response.

THE STATUS FUNCTION

The family serves as a basis for ascribing several social statuses, such as, black, urban, middle
class, Anglican. Each child starts out with the class status of his family and this initial placement
probably has greater effect upon achievement and reward than any other single factor.

PROTECTIVE FUNCTION

In all societies the family offers some degree of physical, economic and psychological protection
to its members. In many societies any attack upon a person is an attack upon his/her entire
family, with all members bound to defend him or to avenge the injury. In many societies all family
members equally share guilt and shame.

THE ECONOMIC FUNCTION

The family is the basic economic unit in many societies. Its members work together as a team
and share jointly in their produce. There is however some relation between one's power within the
family and the importance of one's economic contribution. The father is mostly viewed as the
breadwinner and the head of the household.

ALTERNATIVE FAMILY FORMS

In recent decades, our society has displayed greater diversity in family life.

ONE-PARENT FAMILIES

This seems to be on the increase from observation, as many children are born out of wedlock. It
is felt that single parenthood increases a woman's risk of poverty because it more so limits her
ability to work than the father and to further her education. According to (John J Macionis 2003 )
in the book Sociology, research shows that growing up in a one-parent family usually
disadvantages children. Some studies claim that because a father and mother each make
distinctive contributions to a child's development, it is unrealistic to expect one parent alone to do
as good a job.

COHABITATION

This is the sharing of a household by an unmarried couple. Cohabiting tends to appeal to more
independent minded individuals and those who favour gender equality. (Brines and Joyner, 1999).
Mounting evidence suggests that living together may actually discourage marriage because the
condition they find themselves in is satisfying.

GAY AND LESBIAN COUPLES

In 1989, Denmark became the first country to lift its legal ban on same-sex marriages. However
in the Caribbean 'many' gay persons are quiet about their sexual orientation.

SINGLEHOOD

In recent decades more people have deliberately chosen to live alone. It is argued that women
who are economically secure may wisely consider a husband a matter of choice rather than a
financial necessity. According to Leslie & Korman 1989) "By midlife, however, many unmarried
women sense a lack of available men. Because we expect a woman to "marry up," the older a
woman is, the more education she has, and the better her job, the more difficulty she has finding
a suitable husband."

ACTIVITIES

Concepts you should know

Family, kinship, marriage, endogamy, exogamy, descent, incest, infidelity and cohabitation.

1. Do you think that single-parent households do as good a job as two-parent households in

raising children? Why or why not?

2. Identify five changes in the family over time: What factors are responsible for these changes?
What is a family?
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

A SOCIALISED recognised group of persons who are related to

one another through the process of reproduction and/or
adoption. It is a universal societal structure because it meets
every society's need for continual population replacement.

WHAT IS FAMILY?

According to Rampersad Ramsawak and Ralph Umraw, a family

is a group of individuals who are intimately related, living under
Drummers of St. Andrew High School the same roof, supporting and maintaining each other socially,
entertain the audience at the press launch
of the institution's 80th anniversary
economically and emotionally.
celebrations held at the Terra Nova Hotel
on September 14. - Carlinton Wilmot Photo Within a family we can identify a conjugal pair, consisting of a
husband and a wife, and the consanguine family or blood
relatives such as father and his children or mother and her
children.

The overwhelming majority of the people throughout the world have two families:
1. The family of orientation - or the family into which they are born.

2. The family of procreation - or the families they help create through the bearing of children.

As the unit into which the individual is born and receives initial socialisation, the family is a vital
link between the individual and society.

WAYS IN WHICH A FAMILY MAY BEGIN

1. Courtship: it is the act or process whereby one tries to win the love of another.

2. Arranged marriage: parents choose a spouse for their children.

3. 'Shot gun' marriage: two people are forced to marry because of the occurrence of pregnancy.

4. Marriage of convenience: marriage because of wealth, status or position; and facilitate a

foreigner so as to obtain citizenship of a country he/she desires.

5. Family tradition: at the death of a spouse the surviving partner is married to the eligible family
member of the deceased.

6. Elope: Two persons may elope and form either a common-law relationship or a legal union.

UNIVERSAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FAMILY

There are various universal functions of the family:

(a) Reproduction/procreation: The family plays a significant role in the populating of the society
and therefore ensuring the continuation of the human species.

(b) Maintenance: The family tries to satisfy the basic needs of food, clothing, shelter, recreation,
books and medicine.

(c) Socialisation: The process whereby an individual is trained to become useful to himself and to
society.

(d) Status ascription - Status is either achieved or ascribed.

The initial statuses that an individual holds are ascribed through the family. e.g. one is either born
as a son or a daughter.

(e) Meet the needs of its members, providing emotional security and guidance.

(f) The family is also a socially accepted institution within which individuals may satisfy their sex
drives.

(g) Cultural: The passing on of traditions, beliefs, tools customs, habits, ideas, etc.

FAMILY STRUCTURE

The family is a biological unit that includes three fundamental relationships.

1. Marriage - Two or more individuals sharing a socially recognised mating relationship

2. Parenthood - parent, child relationships

3. Sibling ship - child, child relationship

VARIATIONS IN THE FAMILY STRUCTURE

All families are built upon a central core which consists of a father - husband, a mother - wife and
their children - sibling. We refer to this family type as a nuclear family.

The nuclear family may be expanded to form larger household units in any given society. We may
refer to these larger units as composite families. One type of composite family is the extended
family.

A second type of composite family is the joint family, which is formed when brothers or cousins
bring their respective nuclear families together to form a single unit.

THE BLENDED FAMILY

Residence Rule

(a) In some societies the couple takes up residence with the groom's parents, forming a patrilocal
extended family.

(b) In others the couple lives with the bride's parents, forming a matrilocal extended family.

(c) In others the independent nuclear family may prescribe neo-local residence, the married
couple living together, but separated from both sets of parents.

(d) Duo local residence, husband and wife living in separate households.

MATING PATTERN

1. Polygamy: Marriage involving either more than one man or more than one woman

a. Polygyny - one man with more than one wife

b. Polyandry - one woman with more than one husband

c. Cenogamy or group marriage - when two or more men marry the same women, two or more
women

2. Monogamy - in contrast the nuclear family unit involves only one man and one woman.

LINES OF DESCENT

Variation may be observed in regard to the locus of authority, the lines of descent, and the norms
governing inheritance and succession within the family structure.

a. Patrilineal - reckoned through the male side

b. Matrilineal - reckoned through the female line

c. Bilineal - reckoned through both parents

FAMILY DECISION MAKING

1. Authoritarian: This is the family in which one parent dominates decision making.

2. Patriarchal: The father or elder father in the case of an extended family dominates

3. Matriarchal: The mother or grandmother dominates.

4. Equalitarian: Those in which both parents, as well as the children in some case, share in
decision making.

ACTIVITIES

1. Is the family really necessary: Discuss

2. Cohabitation: is it a viable alternative to marriage in society?

Individualism: Uniqueness through experience
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

EACH PERSON is a unique individual who inherits a unique set of

biological characteristics and proceeds through a unique set of life
experiences. Differences among individuals can be explained by the
interaction of each person's unique biological capacities with his or her
environmental experiences. Both heredity and environment are,
therefore, important factors in the process of becoming human.

Individual characteristics are products of distinct units of inheritance

called genes. The organism inherits its genes from its parents. These
genes and the characteristics they produce are fixed from the moment of
Captain Horace Burrell (left),
chairman and chief executive conception and cannot be altered by acquiring other characteristics.
officer of Captain's Bakery
Ltd., presents the winning The human infant is so helpless, unlike other animals, that it requires
trophy to St. Jago High School
at the ISSA/Captain's Bakery continuous attention for an extended period of time. This helplessness is
Schoolgirl Football awards as a result of two factors, the relatively long time it takes for the infant
ceremony at the Hilton to reach a physical stage in which it can survive unaided by others, and
Kingson last year. - Rudolph
Brown Photo its relative lack of instincts. Human beings must learn their means of
survival.

The human infant, therefore, requires a great deal of attention and a relatively long time to learn
how to survive. Generally, this occurs in the social unit of the family, whose nucleus is based on
the sexual attraction and mating of an adult male and female. Human sexuality, therefore,
provides the basis for the nucleus of a social unit in which the infant learns to be human.

WHO AM I?

The life of an individual begins with the union of a sperm and an ovum, contributed respectively
by a male and a female forming the physical person. All human beings have a physical self with
flesh, bones and the various organs.

As human beings, we have a brain which helps us to think and respond to stimuli from our five
senses. We are able to learn, therefore, a variety of things. Emotionally, as human beings, we
express feelings of love, happiness, sadness, anxiety, fear and anger.
'No man is an island, no man stands alone'. As human beings, we cherish the company of others,
family, friends, relatives and our neighbours. Most of all, we possess a system of values and a
sense of right and wrong which help us to live harmoniously with others.

As human beings, we all possess different personalities. It is claimed that our environment, our
home, parents, neighbours and peers help to shape our personality. Children, in most instances,
emulate the mannerisms, attitudes and values of those with whom they are in constant contact.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

An individual may pass through three main stages during his lifetime, this depends on his/her
lifespan.

A. PRENATAL: This is the period prior to birth, where pregnant mothers visit doctors and clinics
and care for the unborn. They also, during this period, prepare for the newborn.

B. CHILDHOOD: This spans the ages from birth to 10 or 13, at this stage the individual reaches
puberty.

C. ADOLESCENCE: Usually from age 12 or 13 to 19 [Link] referred to as the most

troublesome period of human development.

D. ADULTHOOD: Usually from about 20 years to old age, this is the period when an individual
reaches maturity.

E. SENESCENCE: Old age. 'Once a man, twice a child'.

ACTIVITIES:

A. What makes a human being different from an animal?

B. Trace the stages of the growth and development of the individual:

C. Identify the characteristics of childhood and adolescence.

D. Why is the teen years referred to as the most problematic?

CONCEPTS TO DEFINE

Kinship, estates, extended family, nuclear family, monogamy, polyandry, polygyny, patriarchal,
matriarchal, patrilocal, matrilocal, matrilineal and patrilineal.

TIPS FOR TODAY:

1. You are encouraged to obtain a syllabus to guide you in your studies.

2. Learn 10 new concepts each week.

3. Read recommended text and practise answering past questions.

4. Please use the email facilities given to you by the Youthlink to make your queries, get them
answered and make your suggestions.
5. Make a glossary of terms that are essential in answering questions and are used widely in
multiple choice items.

An introduction to social studies

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

WELCOME TO another year of study. To most of the individuals

studying social studies this year, social studies will constitute a new
learning experience. The series of lesson will be devoted to
orientating the individual to study a body of knowledge which is
concerned with man's behaviour in relation to other human beings,
and with human interaction.

Social studies concentrate its study upon man's group life and the
products of his living. It emphasises interest in the customs,
Allion Hawthorne, guidance traditions, and values which emerge from group living and in the
counsellor and education officer with way group living is, in turn, affected by these customs, traditions
the Ministry of Education's Region and values. It is interested in the way groups interact with one
Three, hands out drawings of the
human body to students of the another and in the processes and institutions and why they develop.
Boscobel Primary School, St. Mary, Social Studies explores the power of society to shape our thoughts,
last Monday. The exercise was an feelings and actions.
effort to assist students with post-
traumatic stress because of the
Social studies is an attempt to discover and explain the behaviour of
recent killing of their headmaster,
56-year-old Manning Marsh. -
Ricardo Makyn Photo
people and groups of people. It is a broad field of study that
includes a variety of subject categories or disciplines such as
anthropology, psychology, sociology, economics, political science,
and international relations. All these subjects are concerned with the behaviour of people but
concentrates on a distinct aspect of human behaviour.

In this course students will gain knowledge in the following areas:

ANTHROPOLOGY

Deals with the questions related to the biological evolution of humans, the effects of physical
environment on humans, and ways of life or cultures of different social group.

Social studies looks at the individual, uniqueness of the individual, stages of development of the
individual, the family, culture and caring for the environment. (pollution, conservation, etc.)

PSYCHOLOGY

Concentrates on individual rather than groups the behavioural, emotional and cognitive aspects
of individual functioning including mental processes such as thought, perception, memory,
learning and intelligence.

Social studies looks at The individual growth and development, education and mental health.

SOCIOLOGY
Concentrates on group behaviour, focusing on large modern societies. One of the major thrust of
Sociology is the study of recurrent, patterned relationships among people within group settings
and social conditions existing.

Social studies looks at: Society and its effects on human, group formation, formation of
institutions (family, education, religious, economics and political) and social problems in society.

ECONOMICS

Studies supply and demand, saving and investment, and the production, distribution, and
consumption of goods and services.

Social studies looks at: consumer affairs and all the topics mentioned above under economics.

POLITICAL SCIENCE

Concerned with how people govern themselves. It includes the history, theory, organisation, and
administration of government.

Social studies at the institution of government in society. Its characteristics and functions.

HISTORY

The subject matter, looks at the significant past, meaning the institutions and individual actions
that affect the experience and development of whole communities. It attempts to establish the
objective truth about man and society.

Social studies looks at the effects of slavery on Caribbean societies, the development of
cooperatives, trade unions and credit unions and their effect on society.

GEOGRAPHY

Deals with the area of spatial, variations and relationships of everything on the earth's surface,
from rocks and rainfall to people and places population study, explicated the spatial patterns of
population density, distribution, composition, and change.

Social Studies looks at: Human resources, population, migration, and physical resources

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Concentrates on the behaviour of nations. It deals with international political systems, diplomacy,
international organisations and law, and the resolutions of conflicts among nations.

Social studies looks at: various organisations which have been used to promote economic
integration and functional cooperation in the Caribbean region.

THE SYLLABUS

The social studies syllabus is divided into three sections as follows:

Section A: Individual interaction

 Individual and Family
 Individual and Society

Section B: Development and use of resources

Section C: Options

 Communication
 Consumer Affairs
 Tourism

THE EXAMINATION (GENERAL PROFICIENCY)

There will be three papers.

Paper 1: 60 multiple choice items, 24 on Individual interaction and 36 on Development and Use
of Resources.

Paper 2: 9 Questions will be given and students will be required to answer five questions.
Instructions will be given in each section as to what students will be required to do.

Paper 3: 3/1 SBA. Project or special assignment drawn from either Section A or B of the syllabus.

3/2 Alternative to the SBA for private candidates. Questions will be based on research activities
(5 structured questions)

ACTIVITY

a. Is the study of Social Studies really necessary?

Population distribution and composition

By Maureen Campbell, Contributor
THIS DEALS with the geographical location/distribution of the people in a population. In some
areas there are more people than in others. In some areas there are no people at all. Such places
as swamps, forests deserts on mountaintops, and steep slopes.

FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

* These are climatic factors

* Locations surrounding mineral resources
* Topography more people tend to live on flat areas.
* Wind direction away from the force of the prevailing wind
* Urban influence best schools, cultural and recreational centres, administrative centres,
availability of jobs etc.

POPULATION DENSITY

This is the number of persons per square mile of land area. This figure is obtained by dividing
kilometers into the area's total population. Population density varies greatly throughout the
Caribbean and in individual islands. Some areas in Jamaica are thickly or densely populated for
instance the towns and cities e.g. Kingston. Other areas are thinly or sparsely populated.

Population density figures may be used for the understanding of some of the basic problems of a
country such as:

* Food provision
* Housing units
* Clothing the people of your country.

Many nations that have a high population density relative to their resources are most times faced
with the problems of poverty, hunger, lack of privacy, vermin and disease, threat to life, high rate
of criminality and lowering of the standard of living. It is therefore necessary for government or
private individuals to make decisions regarding the provision of infrastructure and the location of
facilities such as schools and hospitals.

POPULATION COMPOSITION

This refers to the make-up or characteristics of the people in a population. These characteristics
include gender, age ethnicity, and religion and occupation etc. these differences can be shown
statistically in the form of line graphs, tables, bar charts and population pyramids.

THE SEX RATIO

This is the proportion of men to women in a population, and is stated as the number of males to
100 females. From observation there seems to be a shortage of men in relation to women.

DO MALES HAVE A HIGHER DEATH RATE THAN WOMEN?

THIS MAY BE TRUE AS:

* "Females seem to be more durable physically than males." (Sociology: Thomas and Anderson

* Males have many more dangerous experiences than females. They are the majority in the army
and may fight in wars, engage in more strenuous sports.
* Men are the ones most times employed in more dangerous jobs and may have more accidents.

AGE COMPOSITION

The age composition is an important factor in the economy of a country in many ways as:

1. The age composition influences the kinds and number of products made.

2. It also shows the percent of the dependency ratio of the population:

that is how many persons are carrying the burden of supporting the rest of the members of
society.

3. The age composition suggests the type of population in a country as to whether it is a youthful
population or an elderly population. This will help the government to make decisions which will
cater to the needs of the various sectors of the population.

YOUTHFUL POPULATION

* One of the largest costs of supporting the youthful population is for education.

ELDERLY POPULATION

* This might be much easier to handle economically because they are much smaller in number,
and some have savings and investments with which they can support themselves.

ETHNIC COMPOSITION

Jamaica's motto clearly outlines the racial mixture in the Caribbean area. "Out of many one
people". Immigration whether forced or voluntary can be blamed for this in the Caribbean. There
seem to be representatives from all ethnic groups in the world living in the Caribbean.

ACTIVITY

a. Define the terms, fertility and natural population increase.

b. State two factors which are responsible for EACH of the following:

i. A rapid population increase in developing countries

ii. Stagnation in food production in developing countries.

c. Describe THREE consequences for a country whose food production cannot

keep pace with its rapid population increase.

d. Suggest THREE measures, which governments of developing countries can adopt to control
rapid population increase.

Two demographic tools

By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

DEMOGRAPHY IS the study of population statistics such as birth and death rates, immigration the
labour force and the population trends.

1. CENSUS

One of the most useful tools to a demographer is the information provided by periodic census. A
census is an official numbering of the people of a country or district embracing statistics of
nativity, age, sex, employment, possession etc. Also included, as census is the printed record. A
census is generally taken every five or ten years.

Demographers will use a census to find out about the following:

* Race distribution
* School enrolment
* Condition of residence
* Educational level
* Distribution of family income
* Dependency ratio
* Houses
* Gender ratio of population
* Marital status
* Need for health care facilities

This therefore outlines the characteristics of the population in any given society.

2. POPULATION PYRAMIDS

A population pyramid is a graph that shows the sex and age distribution of a population at a given
time.

A population pyramid gives the following information:

* The percentage of the population who are male or female, the data for males appears on the
left side of the pyramid and the data for females on the right side.

* The pyramid steps indicate what percentage of the population is in a specific age group; this is
arranged in five-year intervals.

* The pyramid can be used to deduce whether it is an ageing or a young population. If the
pyramid has a very wide base and progresses to a narrow top, we might say it has a young
population. Some population is young that is they have a large proportion of people who are in
the young age groups. The Caribbean islands have young populations. This is so as in the
majority of the islands, more than fifty per cent of the population is under fifteen years. This
situation results in more than half of the population being dependent on the other half or less
than half those who are working.

* If there are more persons in the population who are over fifteen than there are below fifteen
then the population is an ageing population. In many developed countries, at most thirty per cent
of the population is under fifteen years with about fifteen per cent being sixty-five and over.

YOUNG, AGEING AND OLD POPULATIONS

A young population

A relatively high proportion of children, adolescents and young adults, and a low median age and
thus the possibility of high birth rate characterise this. A young population is important for the
following reasons.

* Supplying the job market

* Giving dynamism to the society
* Taking care of the old
* Ensuring continuation of the family and the species.

Old population
This type of population has a relatively high proportion of middle-aged and aged persons, a high
median age and thus a lower growth potential.

Ageing population

The gradual process in which the proportions of adults and elderly people increase in a population
while the proportions of children and adolescents decrease. Ageing occurs when fertility rate
declines while life expectancy remains constant or improves at the older ages.

Activity

Demographers have indicated that in many countries more people, now than before, are living
well into old age.

Write an essay entitled, "The effects of an ageing population on society". In your essay, state
THREE factors that may increase life expectancy of a population, and explain THREE effects of
ageing on the elderly themselves. Finally, suggest THREE ways that a government can care for an
ageing population.

CONCEPTS YOU SHOULD KNOW

The fertility rate is the number of live births per thousand for women in the age group 15-45. This
age group is known as the child-bearing age. Countries with high fertility rates are the poorer
countries with limited educational facilities, low per capita income and poor medical facilities.
Countries which have low fertility rates are the more developed countries where there may be
widespread use of family planning methods, with emphasis on smaller families; and increasing
educational and computational opportunities open to women which lead them to have fewer
children.

Infant mortality rate

This refers to the number of deaths each year per thousand infants under the age of one year in a
given population.

Life expectancy

This refers to the average number of years that a new-born baby can expect to live.

Population composition

This refers to the make-up or characteristics of the people in a population. These characteristics
include gender, age, ethnicity, religion, occupation, etc.

Population distribution

This refers to the geographical location of the people in a population.

Population density

This is the concentration of population in a given unit of area, usually a square kilometre.
Migration

The permanent movement of persons from one geographical location or region to another is
described as migration.

Age dependency ratio

The ratio of dependent persons (under 15 and over 65 years) to the economically productive
persons (15 to 65 years) in a population.

Multiple choice

By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

1. The consanguine family is also known as the:

(a) conjugal family

(b) nuclear family
(c) extended family
(d) single parent family

2. A family unit composed of one or two parents and their children, and which is based on
marriage, is the:

a. nuclear family
b. consanguine
c. exogamous
d. extended

3. Exogamy and endogamy are cultural norms relating to:

a. Marriage patterns
b. Descent regulations
c. Residence patterns
d. Authority patterns
4. A marriage form that unites one woman with two or more men is terms;

a. monogamy
b. polygamy
c. polyandry
d. polygyny

5. Which of the following is not a descent pattern?

a. matrilineal
b. patrilineal
c. neolocal
d. bilateral

6. Remarriage often creates families composed of both biological parents and stepparents and
children. These are called?

a. extended families
b. blended families
c. neolocal families
d. matrifocal families

7. Through which of the following processes does the family strive to maintain the continuity of
society?

a. monogamy and polygamy

b. polygyny and polyandry
c. endogamy and exogamy
d. procreation and socialisation

8. The family form in which great power is assigned the male head is said to be:

a. matrifocal
b. the nuclear family
c. patriarchal
d. an extended family

9. All of the following constitutes the traditional roles of women EXCEPT?

a. conjugal
b. maternal
c. parental
d. wage-earning

10. Study the following statement: "Men dominate West Indian Society". The concept embodied
here is that of:

a. Patriarchy
b. polyandry
c. monogamy
d. Matriarchy

11. Which one of the following is not a major function of the family?
a. education
b. reproduction
c. socialization
d. provision of economic needs.

12. The process of learning in which children and adults take on the feelings and attitudes and
ways of behaviour of the society around them is termed.

a. communication
b. socialization
c. education
d. developmental

Development and use of resources

By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

A RESOURCE is anything natural or physical, which is useful to man and helps to maintain or
improve his standard of living.

THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF RESOURCES

Human resources

This takes in people, their skills: planting, welding, drilling, farming, their energies, talents and
knowledge. This takes in the skills, values and attitudes, which contribute to the improvement of
the quality of life.

Human resources therefore contribute both to improving and maintaining the standard of living
and ultimately the standard of life.

Physical Resources

The earth's natural resources: land, water and the atmosphere. These are our primary natural
resources. They are called 'primary' because other resources are based on these. Land, climate,
air, geology, solid, seas, energy, plant, animal, mineral and money (accumulated).

Human Resources are responsible for the utilisation of physical resources, as our varying talents
and abilities are used to harness the physical resources and convert them to useful products.

RESOURCES CAN BE RENEWABLE OR NON-RENEWABLE

Renewable Resource
Renewable Resource can be maintained with careful planning. That is if they undergo proper
management can be replenished after they have been used.

Examples of renewable resources include:

Wildlife
Forest
Soil
Grassland
Land Water
Man
Marine life

NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCE

Non-renewable resource will eventually be used up, these are resources that are present in fixed
amounts and once used up cannot be replaced.

Examples are:
Coal
Gold and silver
Uranium and iron
Bauxite
Natural gas
Petroleum

The Caribbean's greatest natural resource is its fertile soil. Its agricultural industry is based on the
fertile soil, ample rainfall during the growing season and a favourable climate. The land produces
large crops and rich pasturage year after year. Agricultural products include, forestry, sugar cane,
rice, ground provisions, fruits, vegetables and livestock.

Other major resources are mineral, especially bauxite, petroleum, natural gas, asphalt, gold,
diamond, sand, gravel gypsum and timber.

A very skilled population, doctors, lawyers, teachers, engineers, scientists, authors, musicians,
artists and many others.

WHEN WE ARE LOOKING AT HUMAN RESOURCES IT IS NECESSARY TO LOOK AT THE

FOLLOWING:

* The quantity that is the number of persons, the population

* The composition of the population (age, sex, religion, race etc.)

* The type of people, the quality, the capabilities and values of the people who make up such a
society.

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THE HUMAN RESOURCE

* Distribution in terms of sex, age, geography, health, education and movement. The health and
education of an individual will contribute to making them more efficient and will improve/increase
their enjoyment of life. The things we value will either add to or detract from our human
condition.
CONCEPTS:

Sustainable development

This is the use of our resources in a way that we can continue to have them for future
generations.

Conservation

Implies the wise use of resources for the benefit of mankind and should be sustainable.

Environment

All the natural and human surroundings that affect development and the functioning of living
things.

Demography

The study of population statistics such as birth and death rates, immigration, the labour force and
population trends.
Or
The scientific study of population.

POPULATION:

The number of people in a geographic area. That is all the people who live in a particular space.

WHAT DO DEMOGRAPHERS STUDY?

They study the births, deaths and migration of a population, which includes the following:

* Population growth
* Characteristics of a population such as its age and sex composition.
* How many people exist in a given territory.
* Where people live in a territory.
* What groups they belong to.
* Where they move.

BIRTHS

The first dimension in the study of population is the count of births and the development of
means to compare the number of births from one time to another and from one place to another.

BIRTH RATE

The birth rate is the number of births per 1,000 members of the population during a specific
period of time, usually a year.

ACTIVITIES

1. Find the meaning of the following terms: Life expectancy, migration, immigration, emigration,
net migration, urbanisation, natural increase, infant mortality rate, depopulation, population
density, population distribution, census, population pyramid, population density and population
projection.

2. Why is a census necessary?

Universal Adult Suffrage

By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

UNIVERSAL ADULT SUFFRAGE

THIS WAS the means by which all persons 21 years (later 18 years) and over was allowed to vote
in an election. It was first granted in 1944 in Jamaica. Jamaica was the first British colony to be
granted Adult Suffrage. Before 1944, only certain persons were allowed to vote. Persons qualified
on the basis of the money and property they owned/possessed.

DEMOCRACY PROMOTES UNIVERSAL ADULT SUFFRAGE

Most English speaking Caribbean countries practice democracy. In a democratic situation:

* People elect those in whom they have confidence.

* Those they think will represent their interests.
* In fact people will decide how they are governed.

Pericles of ancient Athens said:

"We are called a democracy, for the administration is in the hands of the many and not the few."

In a democratic country such as Jamaica, Trinidad

and Tobago, Barbados and other Caribbean territories,
democracy is also practiced through:

* People govern themselves

* People vote and so take part in making decisions, they are able to exercise one of their rights,
one of the greatest privileges, that of voting in an election, exercising Universal Adult Suffrage.

* There are regular and free elections

* There is a system of representative government, involving at least two parties.

* Free and just courts of law.

WHY CAN'T I VOTE?

* How old are you? The Franchise (the right to vote) is conferred by law upon a citizen who is
eighteen years and older. If you are under 18 it is felt that you do not have a maturity of
judgment.
* You were convicted and the privilege is removed during periods of confinement, therefore
convicted persons serving sentences are not allowed to vote.

* Are you an alien?

An alien is an individual who lives in a country but is a citizen of another country.

* 'Nah nuh head'?

Insane persons are deemed not mentally competent to exercise judgement.

My Dad is over 18, sane, free and a citizen of this country, he however does not exercise his
franchise, why?

There are many factors that might influence your daddy to vote or not to vote, such as:

* The mass media

* Family tradition
* Dissatisfied with party policy.
* Class system
* Religion
* Dislike of his party's candidate
* Can't be bothered it's a waste of time, they are all the same.
* Gender discrimination and bias.

Why is registration of voters' necessary? Why can't we just use our Birth Certificate to identify us
when we go to vote?

* Your Birth Certificate does not carry a picture, so therefore as a well built (physically) 16 years
old I can use someone else's birth certificate to vote.

* The voters vote is registered in the polling division in which the voter lives to promote order

* Removal of names of people who have gone away (migrated) or have died makes it known how
many voters are eligible to vote in a constituency, so making sure boundaries are equitable to an
extent.

* Every citizen has every opportunity for ensuring that he is a registered voter there are public
notices, person are paid to visit each home in the island. Also there is an office open to the public
where persons may always go to have themselves registered.

* Only genuine voters qualifly to register. This should prevent persons who are not eligible from
presenting themselves to vote.

* List is revised frequently so voters who reach the age are registered. People who move from
place to place will be registered where they are presently living.

WHY BECOME INVOLVED IN THE PARTY SYSTEM?

"A party is a body of men and women united, for promoting by their joint endeavours the national
interest, upon some particular principle on which they are all agreed." (Edmund Burke)
* Political parties help the voter to understand how to vote and whom to choose using various
means under the law.

* Political parties unite a wide cross-section of interests and people under one umbrella, therefore
they tend to cross class boundaries.

Tries to win majorities in elections in order to gain control of the government and put its policies
into effect.

* Some people enjoy the meetings, rallies, canvassing, advertisements used by political parties to
gain supporters. Some giving propaganda, some giving accomplishments, some beautiful
promises and some policies for the future,

* Many persons become involved in political parties when they read publications of party
programmes or manifesto that does attract people to its political philosophy.

PROBLEMS AT ELECTION TIME

Elections are supposed to be a free and fair means by which individuals in society choose
someone to represent them. Problems may arise such as:

* Coerced into electing certain candidates

* The process whereby these persons are chosen may be 'rigged'.

* People cannot decide for whom they should vote

* Bogus voting unauthorised persons impersonate the real elector and poll his/her vote.

* Tribal violence, leading to constituencies becoming 'garrison constituencies'.

ACTIVITIES

1. Do research and make notes on the following electoral systems:

a. First-past-the-post

b. Proportional representation

2. Arrange the following, putting the voting process in its proper sequence:

* Ballot is placed in the box

* Before being handed the ballot paper each voter must first put his/her hand under the integrity
lamp to ensure he/she has not voted already.

* Once choice is made, the voter refolds ballot paper exactly as it was given to him/her before.

* If a potential voter is in the precincts of the polling station at the time voting officially ends
he/she must be called inside and allowed to vote.

* Potential voter enters polling station

* Presiding officer asks for ID. If none is available, then the potential voter is to prepare to take
an oath and answer some questions to establish his or her identity. Poll Clerk takes his or he
thumb print.

* The voter dips index finger in ink

* Poll Clerk checks the voters list for name

* Voter goes behind the screen and marks an X beside the name of the candidate he/she
supports with pencil provided.

* Informs the Poll Clerk of name

* All details relating to the casting of a particular vote are to be recorded by the Poll Clerk in the
Poll Book.

* Presiding Officer folds the ballot paper in the specified way and hands it over to the voter. The
serial number on the ballot paper should be visible.

* Presiding Officer tears out the ballot paper from the ballot book and instructs the voter on the
procedure. Symbols are explained and so on.

* Presiding Officer checks ballot without seeing who was voted for.

3. Suggest three reasons why it is necessary to amend the voter's list periodically.

4. Under what circumstances would there be a re-count of the votes in a particular constituency?

5. Outline five possible reasons why persons may not want to vote in an election in your country.

The pattern of Government

By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

WHAT DO we mean by Government?

We mean the management of the people by various public officials and law making bodies that
represent the whole country.
Organisation of government in a democratic Caribbean country (e.g. In Jamaica)

The structure of most Caribbean governments usually reflects a division of responsibility either
between central and local government, or between Legislative, executive and judicial areas under
the theory of separation of powers.

THE SYSTEM OF JUSTICE

There needs to be a proper system of Justice so as to ensure the safety of the citizens. If there
were no laws and no court, each person would be free to take his own action.

Every citizen in Jamaica possesses certain rights such as:

* All citizens are equal before the law

* A citizen has the right to expect the law to be more powerful than any individual.

* A citizen may not be arrested and held without being brought for trial as soon as possible.

* A citizen may expect protection for himself, his family and property

* A citizen is entitled to vote.

CRIMINAL AND CIVIL OFFENCES

Criminal One morning you wake up and find that your car is missing. You go to the police and
report that your car is missing. The police pursue their enquiries and someone is found pulling
your car apart (scrapping). The offender is brought before the courts as he/she has committed a
crime. The action taken by the police is a criminal action because the act committed by the
offender is an act against the laws of the country. Most criminal cases are concerned with theft,
bodily injury, conspiracy, arson and homicide etc.

Civil Someone purchases a car from you. The person pays you two thirds of the cost of the car
and owes you the rest arranging to pay the rest over a specific period of time. He/she fails to pay
and you sue him/her. The action you took is a civil action, that is the action of any citizen whose
rights has been violated. In general most civil cases deal with disputes about money, property
and goods.
Law is preserved, administered and interpreted by the courts of any country. The courts in
Jamaica include:

* The Court of Appeal

* The Supreme Court of Judicature
* The Resident Magistrate's Court
* The Traffic Court
* The Petty Sessions Court
* The Coroner's Court, etc.

The provision of the various courts is an attempt to meet the varying needs of people for speedy
and easily secured justice concerning their complaints. Each court therefore has its own specific
function in seeing that justice reaches people who have been wronged.

THE APPEAL COURT

In the Court of Appeal, three judges hear all criminal appeals, which come there from two places
the High Court and the Resident Magistrates' Courts. All judges have equal powers to try cases
but no judge can sit in an appeal from his own judgment.

THE SUPREME COURT

All kinds of cases come before this court whether Criminal or civil. Cases such as those involving
negligence and matrimonial disputes, criminal offences such as burglary, house breaking, arson,
manslaughter, murder, etc.

THE RESIDENT MAGISTRATE'S COURT

As the name suggests the judge resides in each parish. This court is viewed as a lower court and
deals with offences of a less serious nature.

THE TRAFFIC COURT

This court deals with breaches of the Road Traffic law and other regulations in the corporate area.

THE ROLE OF THE JAMAICA CONSTABULARY FORCE OR THE POLICE FORCE

The Police Force is an organisation set up to maintain order and to bring suspected persons
forward for trial. They are to be seen as guardians of the public rather than as oppressors. The
police also exercise responsibilities for traffic control, immigration and the registration of aliens
and many other miscellaneous duties.

The police, however, deal principally with crime and are always asking citizens to come forward to
help them in the solving of crimes. People do not always find it easy or wise to come forward with
this information for many reasons.

ACTIVITIES

* Explain the following terms: Criminal actions, civil actions, tribunals or enquiries
* Find out about the following:

1. The duties of the custos

2. The duties of the Justice of the Peace
3. The role of the Coroner's Court
4. The role of the Petty Sessions Court
5. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
6. The IDT (Industrial Disputes Tribunal
7. The Family Court and all other Courts to be found in Jamaica.

The political institution

By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

GOVERNMENT

GOVERNMENT AS an institution deals with the control of the use of forces within society and the
maintenance of internal and external peace of the boundaries of the society. Definitions:

Constituency: A constituency is a portion of a country (parish in Jamaica) which is entitled to

elect one candidate to Parliament. There are sixty constituencies in Jamaica.

Constitution: These are written rules or regulations of a society, which outline the citizen's rights
and responsibilities as well as the government's powers and duties.

Elector: Person entitled to vote in an election

Electorate: the whole body of electors i.e. Persons entitled to vote in an election.
Universal Adult suffrage: All persons 21 years (later 18) and over were allowed to vote in an
election. It was first granted in 1944 in Jamaica, this also made Jamaica the first British colony to
be granted Adult Suffrage.

Alien: An individual who lives in a country but is a citizen of another country.

Budget: This is the government's estimate of revenue and expenditure for any one financial year.
Through the Budget, the government is able to indicate the programme of activities to be
undertaken and how it will be financed.

Citizen: This is a member of a state, nation or country.

Citizenship: Membership in a state, nation, country with guaranteed rights, privileges as well as
duties and responsibilities. Citizenship can be acquired in different ways including by birth and
naturalisation.

Commonwealth: this is an association of sovereign independent nations once ruled by Britain.

Gerrymandering: A term used to describe attempts to change constituency boundaries in order

to improve a candidate's chances of gaining votes to assist his/her re-election.

Legislature: The lawmaking body of any country. In Jamaica it consists of a Parliament which
comprises Her Majesty represented by the Governor General, a senate (21 Persons in Jamaica)
and a House of Representative M.P.'s (60 persons in Jamaica).

Ombudsman: The term Ombudsman is borrowed from the Swiss system of government. An
Ombudsman is a Commissioner who investigates breaches in a designated area of government's
operations and reports these to the Legislature. Through the use of the Ombudsman, a
government can try to control abuses by various sections of Government.

Unicameral Legislature: a system of law making with only one chamber in the house.

Bicameral Legislature: a system of law making decided in two chambers of parliament.

Law: rules organised or made by government to control people's behaviour and for the good of
society in general.

The Franchise: The privilege to vote in an election is seen as exercising one's franchise. Not
everyone has the right to vote, not even every citizen. The right to vote is conferred by law upon
a citizen who is eighteen years or older. There are four main groups of persons who are not
allowed to vote:

Aliens are excluded from the voting privilege.

Convicted persons serving sentences. This privilege is removed during the period of confinement.

Persons under 18 years of age. It is believed that they do not have a maturity of judgement.

Insane persons, not mentally competent to exercise judgement.

Act: A law or decree, especially one used by Parliament.

Bill: A draft of a proposed Act of Parliament.

Cabinet: A group of advisors chosen by the head of government to help in running the country.

Constitutional Monarchy: A country with a monarch as the Head of State as defined by the
constitution.

Democracy: Rule by the people, a system of government which permits some effective control to
the masses.

Democratic principles: One person, one vote

Dictatorship: Rule by a person or group who exercises absolute authority.

Federal: The joining of states or countries under one central government.

First-past-the-post: A system of vote counting used in Jamaica, Barbados and some other
Caribbean countries; where the person receiving the highest number of votes wins the election.

Hansard: Official documentation of speeches in Parliament.

Judiciary: The legal system, of courts and judges.

Oligarchy: Rule by a small minority within an organisation or society.

White paper: Government proposals for a new law (same as bill).

Proportional: An electoral system where each party receives the same percentage of seats in
Parliament as it receives of the total votes.

Republic: A government with an elected Head of state eg. Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago.

Socialist: This describes a person or system based on public control and ownership of the means
of production and distribution of goods.

Communism: A politico economic system in which there is no private property beyond strictly
private and personal possessions. All other property is owned collectively by the people through
the state.
The Road from Colonialism to Independence
By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

THE CARIBBEAN has practised/seen several forms of government in its history. The type of
government practiced reflected the particular conditions, which existed at the time. Most
Caribbean states were at one stage a colony, owned and controlled by another country. Jamaica
between 1655 and 1962 was owned and controlled by Britain.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENT IN THE 'C'BEAN'

(With special emphasis placed on Jamaica most of the time)

The English colonies were first governed under the Proprietary System, with one person the Lord
Proprietor responsible for the success or failure of the colonial initiative.

Prior to 1656, Jamaica was under Spanish Rule, they were expelled by the English in 1661

1656-1661
Military Rule: The military took Charge because of the unsettled state of affairs in the island.

1661-1664
Civil Government

First civil governor was colonial Edward D'Oyley

1664-1865
Old Representative System
This was first introduced in the 1650s and Jamaica never had the Proprietary System
THE OLD REPRESENTATIVE SYSTEM

The Government was elected by a minority of the population and ruled for the benefit of only a
few people. Only the white landowners, which formed a small number, could vote or had the
franchise. This franchise was based on the ownership of property and the payment of taxes. In
1864 out of a population of 450,000 people only 1,903 persons had the right to vote.

(Civics for Young Jamaicans)

The assembly voted very little very few positive measures for the black masses in the population
even after emancipation. The people who formed the government were out of touch with the
conditions among the common people.

Most Jamaicans in the 1830s were unhappy with colonial rule. They did not have a part in the
government of the country and were therefore unwilling to support those who governed. Poor
work and social conditions angered them further. Cost of living was rising; wages in 1840 were
low.

They could not get land and if they squatted on Government lands they got into trouble with the
law. This came to a head with the Morant Bay Rebellion in 1865.

1865-1938
Crown Colony

After 1865 Direct Colonial rule or the Crown Colony government in Jamaica and other older
colonies replaced the ORS.

No assembly as after the Morant Bay Rebellion in 1865 they dissolved and invited England to rule
the colony directly. It held great promise of reform for the colonies social welfare and political
system. The CC (Crown Colony) system was an attempt to introduce greater control by the British
authorities. It also ensured that the majority of the population, blacks still did not qualify to vote.
The black majority was still unrepresented by their own people with their particular interests in
government.
In Jamaica by the 1930s many people began to feel that only by achieving self-government could
Jamaica progress. Unstable conditions added to widespread political and social distress and
sparked off several disturbances/riots.

Arising from these riots, several recommendations for improving the social and economical life of
the people were made by the Moyne Commission such as:

* Universal Adult Suffrage (the right of all citizens over the age of 21 to vote) 1944. This age has
since then been lowered to 18 years.

* Political activities: vigorous citizenship education aimed at making the Jamaican people aware of
what they could do and believe.

ROAD TO INDEPENDENCE

* 1906: Dr. Love's election to the Legislative Council - first black man to sit there.
* 1938: Riots due to social, political and economic distress.
* 1944: New constitution recommended by Moyne Commission. Universal Adult Suffrage
introduced.
* 1953: Ministerial system introduced.
* 1957: Free internal self-government.
* 1958: Attempt at Federation.
* 1962: Independence or Dominion Status. This new constitution provided for full control over
internal and foreign affairs. Alexander Bustamante's party won the first general election of that
year and so Bustamante became the first Prime Minister of independent Jamaica.

Jamaica still remains in an association with Britain by staying within the Commonwealth of
Nations. The British Monarch, through her representative the Governor General, remains as the
Head Of State. These countries are called the Constitutional Monarchies. Constitutional Monarchy
is based on the Westminster Model (British System)

CHARACTERISTICS OF WESTMINSTER MODEL

*Separation of powers
*Two-party system
*General elections every five years
*Cabinet system of Government
*Difference between Head of State and Head of Government

CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY
Jamaica
Barbados
St. Vincent
Grenada

REPUBLICS
Trinidad and Tobago
Guyana
Dominican Republic

ASSOCIATED STATEHOOD
Montserrat
TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO AND THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
The President is Titular Head of State, having mainly ceremonial power.

GUYANA
The President is Head of State and also Head of Government. He/she is referred to as an
Executive President.

ACTIVITIES

*Make a list of the types of Government to be found in the Caribbean. (5 marks)

*Find the dates when the Caribbean territories got their independence. (5 marks)

*Define the term 'Independent State' as used with reference to the Commonwealth Caribbean
(3 marks)

*The following types of 'Heads of State' may be found in the Commonwealth Caribbean:

(i) Governor-General
(ii) Executive President
(iii) Titular President

For each of the above of the types listed above, name one territory where that type of Head of
State may be found. (3 marks)

*Explain the difference in function between a Governor-General and a President (3 marks)

*Why is a constitution necessary in a country? (3 marks)

*State three actions by which you can demonstrate your citizenship at home and/or abroad.
(3 marks)
Political Institutions: Government in the Caribbean
By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

GOVERNMENT CAN be found all over the world. As an institution it is very essential and it exist in
many forms.

To examine the essential nature of government, and the common principles underlying all of its
varying manifestations, we must consider its philosophy. To discuss the philosophy of government
we must look at why it exists, and what it can and should do.

Government should have no separate policy but should always derive its philosophy, its principles,
and its purposes from those in society. As an institution it must seek to fulfil these under
purposes and principles by helping society to achieve its social, economic and political aims.

WHY PEOPLE FORM GOVERNMENTS

What happens when people use power to do exactly as they please?

* Chaos, anarchy, they might want to step on other peoples rights.

What then keeps people from doing just as they wish?

* Social control, cohesion, norms, mores, folkways, laws, culture, sanctions, etc.

When people live together in-groups, they have rules that set limits on what they can do.

Government formal control of people through a political body.

As a social, group advances in complexity and begins to cover a wider geographical area, formal
government becomes a vital necessity. By accepting a government people will have to live up to
the vast code of laws instituted by the government. By accepting and obeying these laws, people
give up some of their freedom. They cannot do exactly what they want to. They 'must' follow the
law.

Why do people give up part of their freedom to a government? There must be good
reasons to do so.

1. All the people cannot spend all of their time making and enforcing rules. Instead, they give
leaders, or a government, the responsibility to make certain important rules and see that
everyone follows them. The rules that a government makes and enforces are called laws. The
responsibility to enforce laws gives government another responsibility to see that everyone
receives justice, or is treated fairly. This is how Malinowski, an anthropologist, experienced the
need for law.

"There must be in all societies a class of rules too practical to be backed by religious sanctions,
too burdensome to be left to mere goodwill, too personally vital to individuals to be enforced by
any abstract agency. This is the domain of "legal rules".

2. Law Enforcement and Administration

Laws without enforcement are generally meaningless. Caribbean governments give power to
separate officials to make the laws and others to enforce them.

3. Settlement of disputes

We have the complex system of courts. The decisions of the courts are final. When they rule there
is no where else to go.

4. Preservation of the State or Society

* National defence and internal security.

Government monopolises the right to engage in armed warfare.

"Man - like some species of animals - exhibits a universal tendency to protect a given territory.

* Defence may also be achieved through negotiation. Only government officials may conduct
diplomatic relations with other governments.

5. Getting Things Done

Some jobs are too big for one person. Together many people can do what one person cannot do
alone.

(a) Transportation is an area that governments are often involved in.

(b) Government help people who do not have jobs or enough to eat.

6. Taxation and Eminent domain:

Taxes are compulsory payments to meet the costs of government. Government collect taxes from
the people to pay for the countries activities.

Governments everywhere exercises the fundamental right to take private property for public use.
This is known as the right of eminent domain.

THINK ABOUT IT

1. How does a government keep order?

2. What services does a government provide for its people.
3. How does a government protect its people?
4. Why is government necessary?
5. If you were judging whether or not a government was doing a good job, what would you look
for?

LEADER

A leader is a person who is in charge of a group and whose main responsibility is to ensure that
the group achieves its goals.

LEADERSHIP

The ability to lead/guide.

Next week we will look at leadership styles, authority types, forms of government and the History
of government in the Caribbean.

* Maureen Campbell teaches Social Studies at St. Hugh's High School in Kingston. Send
your questions and comments to the CXC Study Guide, the Gleaner Company Ltd., 7
North Street, Kingston; or e-mail us at jcampbell@[Link]

--------------------------

Population control

Leethan Grandison, Contributor

HAPPY NEW Year and may your fondest dreams be realised. The topic at hand (last class) was
population control and contraceptives, however, since I had done this topic in other classes such
as Social Studies, Management and Family Life Education, I didn't give it my full attention. In
spite of that, I found it quite difficult not to participate and end up taking part. After all,
knowledge can never be too much, and it includes one of the topic I laugh a lot in --SEX! Heh-
heh! You know those quirk talks? Population is a group of animals of one species, living in a
certain area and able to inbreed; the members of a given species in a community of living things.

Population cycle - regular change ability in the size of a population as seen in lemmings, for
example. Such cycle is often caused by density-dependent mortality due to overcrowding, causing
a sudden decline in the population. This then gradually builds up again. Population cycles may
also result from an interaction between a predator and its prey. Population control measures
taken by some governments to limit the growth of their countries' populations through the
reduction of birth rates include; Propaganda, freely available contraceptives, and tax disincentives
for large families (these are among some that have been tried).

The population-control policies introduced by the Chinese government are the best known. In
1979 the government introduced a 'one child policy' that encouraged family planning and
penalised couples that have more than one children. It has been only partly successful since it
has been difficult to administer, especially in rural areas, and has in some cases led to the killing
of girls in favour of sons as heirs.

Contraceptives This is any drug, device or technique that prevents pregnancy. The contraceptives
pill-Emergency Contraceptives Pill (ECP)- contains female hormone that interfere with egg
production or the first stage of pregnancy. The 'morning-after pill' can be taken within 72 hours
after unprotected sex. Barrier contraceptive include condoms (sheaths), diaphragms, also called
Dutch caps or caps, and sponges impregnated with spermicide; they prevents the sperm entering
the cervix (neck
of womb).

Intrauterine devices (IUDs) also known as coils, cause a slight inflammation of the womb, this
prevents fertilised egg from becoming implanted.

Other methods include sterilisation (women) and men (vasectomy); these are usually non-
reversible. Natural methods include coitus interruptus (withdrawal of the penis before ejaculation)
and avoidance of intercourse at the time of ovulation (rhythm method). These methods are
unreliable and normally only used on religious grounds. The use of any contraceptive (birth
control) is part of family planning. The effectiveness of contraceptive methods is often given as a
percentage. For instance, a method has 95% effectiveness, meaning that on an average out of
100 couples using the method for a year 95 will not conceive. However, I rather go with the
common perception that out of a 100% you stand a 95% of not getting pregnant
Social cohesion in groups and society
By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Try to do the following questions before reading the lesson; then mark it after having read the
lesson.

ACTIVITIES

1. Define the following terms:

Cohesion, group, social, interaction and society.

2. Outline briefly the characteristics of your school as a social group and an institution. Identify
THREE differences between a social group and an institution. To what extent are you involved in a
social group and an institution if you belong to a company of Boy Scouts or Girl Guides?

3. ...Brian the captain tried everything, but Graheme's team lost only two wickets before the
lunch break. Everyone on the team was looking downcast.

Brian decided to consult his vice captain who suggested a new strategy. Brian tried it. He changed
the bowler. The next batsman's wicket went flying. Brian ran down the pitch and gave the bowler
a "high five"...

You are a staff advisor to the sports club of a school. Write a speech to be given to the members
of the sports club who are about to elect new officers. In your speech you must:

a. Identify the leadership style shown by Brian

b. Identify and describe another leadership style which could have been used and explain what
the results might have been.

c. Make strong recommendations about the type of persons who should be captain of a team.

4. a. Name TWO social groups to which children belong.

b. Explain FOUR ways in which children may benefit from membership in these groups.

c. Name FOUR institutions in Society.

d. Explain why institutions are regarded as being permanent features of society.

Why do we need to be cohesive?

Groups are the essential agents of humanity. Without groups we would find it difficult to develop a
truly human response in the world and to maintain that response over our entire life. No person is
an island; being human is being part of a group. Every society and groups in society require some
methods to achieve social cohesion, this is necessary to make sure members follow the
guidelines/rules. This is to ensure social order, made possible through cohesion and conformity to
society's norms and values.

What are the factors that promote group cohesion?

Group cohesion or the survival of any group is dependent on all of the following factors,
leadership style, control, authority, co-operation, loyalty and commitment.

1. Loyalty and Commitment

(Firm is one's allegiance, obligation pledge and or involvement)

Effective groups develop strong commitment to a common goal, they must feel a part of the
group and be willing to become involved in its activities and show dedication and allegiance.
Members must agree on who will do particular jobs, schedules, membership requirement and the
making of an execution of decisions.

2. Co-operation
(Working or acting together)

Co-operation occurs when two or more persons or groups work together to achieve a goal from
which all the members will benefit. The opposite of competition where persons oppose each other
to achieve a goal that only one can attain. When people work together toward a common
objective, trust and commitment follow. For example the members of a football team cooperate in
order to win the game but they compete against another team.

1. Leadership

All groups have some form of leadership. Leaders make sure that the members of the group work
together to achieve their goals and objectives. It is argued that without the input of leadership in
a group, this may cause chaos since there is no one to guide, direct, counsel or inspire members
towards the stated goals of the group. Leaders may adopt several styles to function effectively in
different situations. This style is how the leader shares decision making with others.

Examples of leadership styles

Laissez-faire

Leader involvement is minimal as the leader has very little influence on the other members. It is
therefore interpreted that the leader does not show much concern for the achievement of group
goals and for the other members.

Authoritarian/autocratic

This type of leadership style leaves no room for group discussion. The leadership makes all the
decisions and informs the rest of the members. There is a belief by this leader that getting the job
done is the major priority.

Democratic/Participatory

Practising this style a leader acts as merely a guide, interacts a lot with the other members.
Shares decision making, is open for suggestion and utilises talents and experiences of all
members.

2. Authority

The power and right to enforce obedience and delegate power.

Authority is personal power that commands influence, respect, or confidence. Leaders have
varying degrees of power and authority to give directives and to enforce sanctions. Individuals
have authority because of the positions they hold and their expertise. There are three basic types
of authority. Traditional, Charismatic and Rational/legal.

3. Control

Every group and society in general have devised methods of making its members adhere to the
laws of society. Groups therefore develop procedures
to ensure that members conform to expected patterns of behaviour. For groups to function
properly its members must learn the social norms and values of the group.

Forms of social control exist in the wider society, in institutions, in groups and in families, they
are status, roles, values, goals, rules, norms, laws, mores and folkways.

Status: The numerous socially defined positions that we hold in society.

Roles: The behavioural expectations of society for the various positions we hold.

Values: Whatever a group of people defines as good, worthwhile, and important.

Goals: What is good and desirable to pursue during our lives.

Rules: These may be written or unwritten, it prescribes how people should behave in varying
situations.

Norms: Ways of behaving shared by most members of a group, class or culture.

Laws: These are formalised norms regulating human conduct. They are officially stated and
enforced by some form of government.

Mores: These involve a sense of morality. It deals with respect for life and property. Caribbean
laws prohibit murder, incest, rape, child abuse etc.

Folkways: These are habits and customs that guide our daily lives. They are the informal,
unwritten but understood, socially defined norms that guide our daily behaviour. For example
folkways include expectations about what we should eat, how and when we should eat, how we
should dress and how our breath and body should smell, etc.

Sanction: This is either rewards or punishments for conforming to or violating norms. Those who
violate folkways often encounter teasing, laughter, raised eyebrows, or alienation from others,
these reactions are examples of informal negative sanctions.

INSTITUTIONS IN SOCIETY

What is an Institution?

An institution is an enduring cultural structure through which certain fundamental needs of the
society are met and social control is established. It is a formalised group, which is established
with a definite organisation, identity and place in a society.
Institutions have widely shared beliefs, norms that satisfy basic needs. It is also looked on as
arrangements by which individuals groups and organisations resolve problems of living.
Institutions may be of a social, political, economic, educational or religious nature.

HOW MAY WE IDENTIFY AN INSTITUTION?

Characteristics of Institutions

* Serves specific functions in society

E.g. The replacement of members

The socialisation of new members
A sense of purpose
The production and distribution of goods and services
The maintenance of law and security

* Have a body of rules, which define relations between members and also with other institutions.

* A hierarchical structure is a feature of institutions. (bureaucracy)

* There is a system of reward and punishment; this is evident in the school system, as sanctions
are imposed on members who get out of line.

Keeping society in control

By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

SOCIAL CONTROL

THIS IS the process by which order is established and maintained in society. Social control hopes
to achieve obedience to the norms of the group or society by almost all the people, whether by
internalisation or by the use of sanctions, which includes rewards or punishments.

THE NEED FOR SOCIAL ORDER IN SOCIETY

In order or society to exist there must be order and predictability. Any group of people living
together must have common expectations if they are to engage in any form of social life
activities. People in society must/should share a common set of values and beliefs about expected
social behaviour. It has been said that man needs to live in a world of social control for protection
from his own impulses and from being preyed upon by others. He needs to feel secure,
appreciated and feel that he is free.

According to a philosopher "A man's troubles begin when he is free to do as he pleases." It is also
said that the world would be in a state of hopelessness if we were allowed to do exactly as we
please. Mans biological drives must be contained/restricted; if he cannot regard the property
rights of others, observe the etiquette and manners of his group, he must be subjected to social
control, to sanctions to keep him on the right path.

FORMS OF SOCIAL CONTROL

In order to persuade people to behave in an accepted manner, societies have developed two main
methods of ensuring conformity: informal and formal control.

INFORMAL CONTROL

This is seen as the most common form of social control and is based upon the socialisation
process, which we experience as we live day by day. We know that socialisation consists of
learning the values of society, while social control consists of reinforcing those values once
learned. Social order may be maintained by informal methods such as gossip, publicly-voiced
complaints against someone in order to bring shame upon him or her or people refusing to talk to
someone else.

FORMAL CONTROL

Formal control refers to the public, legal forms of controlling the population. Formal controls are
enforced by special agents appointed for that purpose, the most formal are the police, courts and
prisons, who judge and punish anyone who break the law; they attempt to deter others from
doing the same thing.

WAYS IN WHICH SOCIAL CONTROL IS CARRIED OUT

Social control is carried out in various ways, such as:

Laws, norms, mores, folkways and customs

LAWS: BEHAVING OFFICIALLY

Laws are formalised norms. These are rules that have been enacted by the legislature of a
country. They are officially stated usually in a constitution and enforced by some form of
government. Specific penalties are drawn up to punish people who break the law. Breaches of the
law are of three main kinds:

* Civil offence: This is an offence against an individual e.g. allowing your cattle to trample your
neighbour's garden.

* Criminal offence: This is an offence against the social order, for instance, defrauding the mail,
murder.
* Traffic laws: This takes in the non-observance of traffic rules, such as the non-observance of
the traffic signs, driving defective vehicles and driving without a license or under the influence of
alcohol.

WHY DO WE NEED LAWS

* Victims of crime need to be compensated for acts against them.

* When giving sanctions the penalties attached to crime serves to defer person from committing
or re-committing crimes.

* When crime is prevented law and order will reign in society, as some form of social control is
necessary in order to ensure that people conform to the rules of society.

NORMS: IDEAS ABOUT HOW TO BEHAVE

Norms are quite simply, rules for behaviour. These are unwritten rules which exist in a society.
They are standards for conduct that prevail within a group, and they range from expectations
concerning proper clothing to commandments that one should not kill.

MORES: BEHAVING MORALLY

Mores involve a sense of morality. Many mores have become laws of our country. Examples of
mores, which are also laws, are: it is wrong to steal, kill or injure, obscene language must not be
used especially in public. We react to the violation of mores with horror, anger and revulsion.

FOLKWAYS: BEHAVING IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Folkways are defined as the habits and customs that guide our everyday lives. These are types of
norms generally kept by society, but breaking them is not considered to be morally wrong.
Folkways tell about the way of life of a society.

Examples are celebrating birthdays and wakes, festivals like carnival, wedding ceremonies, the
way we should dress, how our breath or body should smell and forming a queue. Those who
violate folkways often encounter teasing, laughter, raised eyebrows, or alienation from others.

CUSTOMS

This is an established way of doing something, which is recognised by society. These are
folkways, which have existed for a long time. An example is the way we greet each other, eating
rice and peas and chicken on Sundays.

SOME AGENTS OF SOCIAL CONTROL

RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIAL CONTROL

This is possibly the most important of the forms of social control. Usually the basic values of
society are contained in the religion of the society and failure to observe religious instruction may
lead to eternal damnation.

The church has a common agreement on areas such as decency, honesty, unselfishness and the
list goes on. In the Christian world, the belief in a hereafter encourages people to behave orderly
and in accordance with the Word of God.
THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN SOCIAL CONTROL

The education system operates at two levels; first there is the material that is taught in school,
the curriculum, this usually reinforces the values of society. Through orientation and the instilling
of respect for our national symbols, this is coupled with the teaching of respect for law and order.
Education serves also to gear children and adults to become useful and responsible citizens.

Second there are the comments and expectations of teachers, the hidden-curriculum. Teachers
may have expectations of students based on their own values.

ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS/SYSTEM

These institutions keep introducing new habits and new ways of doing things. Advertising is the
main control device, as it influences our patterns of consumption and our acceptance of the latest
fashions.

Rules and code of conduct are developed in the workplace to regulate behaviour. Rewards are
given to stimulate good behaviour such as a raise in salary, or a promotion among other things.
On the other hand, penalties are given for wrong conduct, such as suspensions, a wage cut or the
firing of employees.

CONTROL BY GOVERNMENT

The institution of government is the supreme authority which devotes much of its attention to
social regulation as the legislature is responsible to pass the laws necessary for social control.
Citizens must co-operate and be reasonably law-abiding for effective control in a country.

OTHER MEANS OF SOCIAL CONTROL IN SOCIETY

* The mass media portray a version of events in the world, which strongly supports accepted
values, while criticising the activities of criminals and political extremists. The mass media is a
means of social control as it helps in the communication of values, beliefs and attitudes. It
includes the television, the radio and the newspaper.

* Cultural groups, clubs and other social activities, provide a vent to get rid of frustration which
could lead to violence.

* Socialisation is the process of learning the values of society directly from contact with people
around us who are very close to us, such as family and friends.

* Expectations of other social groups, friends, classmates, co-workers and employers. We are
social beings and we strive on the approval of those around us.

* Approval of your clique, such as a teenager needs the approval of his/her peers.

* Advertisers, rulers and fashion designers tell us what to do, with or without us knowing it.

* Gossip this brings on the fear of being looked down upon by others being ignored, thrown out
of a group.

* To be ridiculed by friends, associates and worst our peers, forces us to obey the laws. To be
frowned upon or a snicker in our direction is enough to make most of us think twice.
* As children, being given the 'stare' or the warning finger is enough for us to sit through a
'boring' sermon or talk 'without moving a muscle'.

* Flattery and praise, 'Praise is the greatest medicine the discourage knows'. The praise of our
friends makes life complete and worth living.

ACTIVITIES

1. The police and the law courts work together to maintain law and order in society.

(a) Identify two ways in which the police help to maintain law and order.

(b) Explain three ways in which the police help the court to do its work.

(c) Suggest two ways in which your community may co-operate with the police in maintaining
social control in your neighbourhood.

(d) State three ways in which the law help society to function smoothly.

2. You are a law enforcement officer and you have been asked to speak to a youth group in your
community

Outline three categories of criminal offences in which some young people become involved and
the possible consequences of their actions. Give reasons why you think they become involved in
crime. Suggest ways in which the youth group could assist in preventing young people from
becoming involved in criminal activities.

Social Groups
By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

A SOCIAL group refers to two or more people who identify and interact with one another. Human
beings continually come together to form couples, families, circles of friends, neighbourhoods,
churches, business, clubs, communities and numerous large organisations.

No person is an island; being human is being part of a group. Sociologists argue that the human
being is totally dependent upon the group for anything approaching human-like behaviour and
life. The group is truly the 'agent of cultural transmission' (Wilson 1971). Through the agency of
the group, the preferences, norms, values, and the role behaviours characteristic of the group are
transmitted to the individual members. Whatever the form, groups encompass people with shared
experiences, loyalties and interests.

NON GROUPS

1. Category a set of people who happen to share some common characteristics.

A category can be all the females in Jamaica who got married before age 30. Members of a
category do not necessarily know one another or interact with one another in any way.

2. Aggregate The crowd at the bus stop is an example of an aggregate, people who happen to be
in the same theatre watching a play or movie. They come together temporarily but lack any
organisation or lasting pattern of relationship.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL GROUPS

1. Regular and usually sustained interaction between members

2. a sense of common identity
3. shared interests
4. some patterns for organisation of behaviour on a regular basis.

A group is made up of individuals who have contacts, through not necessarily direct contact, with
one another, who take each other into account in making decisions, and who have some sense of
common identity as well as shared goals or interests.

All groups are not the same. They vary in terms of their size, the intensity of relationships
between members, standards for membership, and the importance of the groups to its members.

SOME EXAMPLES OF GROUPS

In-groups and Out-groups

Everyone favours some groups over others, sometimes based on physical outlook, social prestige,
or simply manner or dress. We think of some groups as 'we' and of others as 'they'. Groups we
refer to as 'we' are in-groups, the others are seen as out-groups. An In-group is a social group
commanding member's esteem and loyalty. An In-group is a social group towards which one feels
competition or opposition. In-groups and Out-groups may foster loyalty as well as general tension
and conflict.

PRIMARY GROUPS

An association based on ongoing, personal, intimate relationships and strong feelings of mutual
identification.

(1) face-to-face association

(2) common sense of identity
(3) responsible for the most basic shaping of human character
(4) it is primary in time, intimacy and in belonging
(5) the sense of group identity and loyalty is strong

The most concrete example of the primary group is the family. This group has had the earliest
and most fundamental impact upon the individual's development.

The primary group's importance is seen in the maintenance of the human character as it aids in
forming it, and it continues to form and reform that character throughout life through socialisation
and individual sustenance.

The strength of primary relationships gives people a comforting sense of security. People feel they
can 'be themselves' without constantly worrying about the impressions they are making. In
addition, the family and early play groups also hold primary importance in the socialisation
process, shaping attitudes, behaviour and social identity.

SECONDARY

This is a large and impersonal social group whose members pursue a specific interest or activity.
Secondary relationships usually involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one
another.
CHARACTERISTICS

1. Relatively larger than the primary group

2. The objectives of the secondary group are generally instrumental: that is they have specific
goals to be obtained, and the efforts of the group are directed at obtaining these.

3. Relationships within this group are partial, in that members tend to see only one or a few
segments of their fellow members.

4. Relationships are basically contractual, members are expected to give something, perform
some duty, or pay in some way for the privilege of membership.

It therefore lacks strong loyalties and emotions because members look to one another only to
achieve limited ends.

FUNCTIONS

1. Survival
2. a sense of belonging and companionship
3. security
4. shared expenses that may be passed on to others.

REFEREE GROUPS

A social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations or decisions.

e.g. A young man who imagines his family's response to a woman he is dating is using his family
as a reference group.

PEER GROUP

Informal, social groups whose members have the same social status, are usually about the same
age and interact frequently.

There are usually sharing loyal bonds in this group. Attitudes and expectation and behaviours are
carefully monitored. This group sometimes has to make choices that may conflict with what is
expected at home or at school.

Peer groups usually develop their symbols, jargon, heroes and values. The Peer group is seen as
an agent of socialisation and may be described as an 'extended family'.

Not all peer groups pursue positive goals and interest. Some may pursue negative activities, for
example, violence, drug abuse and general delinquency.

FORMAL

Include membership requirements or appointment of leaders conduct division of labour and

specific objectives.

Formal groups are organised with clear-clear-cut structures which govern the interaction of
members.
E.g. Sports clip, service groups, Trade Unions, Political parties.

INFORMAL

Do not have set rules controlling membership and organisation

Activities may change suddenly.

Informal groups have no written rules regarding behaviour of members

These groups are formed through constant face-to-face interaction, similarity in jobs, interests.

MEMBERSHIP IN GROUPS

Involuntary

Members of these groups are forced to belong because they have no alternative. E.g. compulsory
service when they reach a specific age in the military.

Voluntary

These are formed to provide some service to the community or to support a good cause. E.g. Red
Cross, Kiwanis Club.

ACTIVITIES

1. Read up on the following interest groups, and negative groups.

2. Name the type of groups to which the members of the football team belong
3. Why do we need groups?
4. Why is a school considered as a formal group?

Please complete the following table

Primary groups Vs. Secondary groups
Quality of relationships personal orientation ____________________
Duration of relationship __________________ variable, may often be short
term
Breath of relationship __________________ Narrow, usually involving few
activities
Subjective perception of ends in themselves ______________________

relationship
Examples are __________________ ______________________
Practice questions
By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Instructions: Write the letter corresponding to the answer chosen on your answer sheet.

1. Unwanted pregnancy among young unmarried teenagers causes all of the following except.

(a) The intellectual development of the mother may be hindered.

(b) The children may be born retarded.
(c) It creates economic problems for the girls and their families.
(d) It could lead to an increase in the abortion rate.

2. Which of the following is MOST likely to be regarded as domestic violence?

(a) incest
(b) abuse occurring in the home
(c) carnal abuse
(d) carnal knowledge

3. Which one of the following describes the act of a spouse abandoning his/her responsibilities in
a marriage?

(a) Separation
(b) Desertion
(c) Annulment
(d) Interference

4. Persons who abuse marijuana are MOST likely to suffer from

(a) cancer of the mouth

(b) heart disease
(c) cirrhoses of the liver
(d) loss of memory

5. All of the following are grounds for divorce EXCEPT

(a) irreconcilable differences

(b) independence
(c) infidelity
(d) abuse

6. Which of the following is NOT a curable sexually transmitted infection?

(a) Chlamydia
(b) Gonorrhea
(c) Syphilis
(d) Herpes

7. Which is a probable cause of teenage pregnancy?

(a) role models

(b) abstinence
(c) lack of religious and moral education
(d) pressure of the nuclear family

8. Street children are MOST likely to engage in which activity.

(a) cleaning windscreen

(b) working in stores
(c) begging for money and food
(d) sweeping the street

9. Which of the following are legal drugs in the Caribbean?

(a) alcohol and heroine

(b) tobacco and ecstasy
(c) alcohol and tobacco
(d) alcohol and marijuana

10. HIV is the acronym for which of the following?

(a) Human Immunity Virus

(b) Human Immune Deficiency Virus
(c) Humanity Immune Virus
(d) Human Immunity Deficiency Virus

11. Which one of the following always hinders a good family life

(a) education of women

(b) religion
(c) alcoholism
(d) wealth

12. Which of the following statements describe how alcohol is regarded in the Caribbean?

Ian illegal substance

ii a substance that is sometimes abused
iii a substance that is tolerated in certain social institutions

(a) i and ii only

(b) i and iii only
(c) ii and iii only
(d) i, ii, iii

13. A person is most likely to commit suicide in which of the following case?

(a) prolonged and incurable illness

(b) loss of loved one
(c) peer pressure
(d) quarrel with a friend

14. Abortion is a method of

(a) preventing conception

(b) breaking up an unhappy love affair
(c) ending pregnancy
(d) procreation

15. Which of the following is not a reason why the crime of incest between parent and child is
seldom reported to the police?

(a) the child is ashamed and embarrassed by its experience

(b) the child still wants the love of its parents
(c) it does not affect the child
(d) other family members do not believe the child

16. Which of the actions listed below are effective and legally correct ways of dealing with incest
between parent and child? The child could...

[Link] the crime to the police

ii. avoid the parent at home
iii. seek help from a teacher, social worker or relative
iv. go to a psychiatrist for treatment

(a) i and iii

(b) I and iv
(c) ii and iii
(d) ii and iv

17. Excessive beating of a child will not affect its

(a) self images

(b) physical development
(c) material well-being
(d) behaviour and manners

18. Family conflicts can lead to these types of behaviour among children, except.

(a) nervousness
(b) emotional stability
(c) a negative concept of the adult
(d) eloquence

19. Which of the following is least desired among family members?

(a) supported
(b) competition
(c) commitment
(d) co-operation

20. Which of the following practices would MOST likely increase the risk of a person contracting
AIDS?

i having sexual intercourse with many partners

ii donating blood to a blood bank
iii sharing needles to use illegal drugs
iv touching someone who has the disease

(a) I and iii only

(b) I, ii and iii only
(c) I, iii and iv only
(d) I, ii, iii, and iv

Question 2.

the rate of divorce for 1000, marriages rose from 40.8 in 1980 to 14.5 in 1984.

N. Abdullah, (ed), Trinidad & Tobago 1985

A Demographic Analysis. CARICOM Secretariat

(a) define the term "divorce". (2 marks)

(b) (i) Name the institution that deals with matters of divorce. (1 mark)
(c) (ii) State THREE legally acceptable grounds of divorce. (3 marks)
(d) Explain TWO effects of divorce on EACH of the following:

(i) parents
(ii) children (4 marks)

(e) Assume that role of marriage counsellor and prepare a brief talk to a parents' group on THREE
family practices which would help lessen divorce rates (3 marks)

Total 15 marks

Question 3

Read the statement below then use the following guidelines to write your essay:

"There is a need for a breakthrough which will not only destroy prejudice and eliminate unfair
discrimination against disabled people in employment, but will also set in motion a positive
approach to their real problems as workers."

* What is prejudice and how does it develop?

* Describe THREE forms that prejudice can take.
* Discuss ways in which a "break through" can come to reduce prejudice.

Total 15 Marks.
Concern for the aged/elderly
By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

MORE THAN ever before the elderly are becoming a significant proportion of our society, from
various means, and their numbers are expected to grow. The Caribbean seems to be a Youth
oriented society as it has a young population. In this type of society the elderly might often find
themselves ignored or pushed aside. It seems as if there exists ambivalence toward ageing and
the elderly.

The common age in the Caribbean used to define one as elderly is sixty-five (65). This is so
because it has become convenient socially and is used by demographers and census takers. In
Jamaica sixty-five is the official retirement age for males and sixty for females. These ages
determine when one receives social security and other financial benefits.

REASONS FOR INCREASING PROPORTION OF THE ELDERLY IN THE CARIBBEAN AND

ELSEWHERE

1. Technology is allowing us to control infectious diseases especially through clean water and
sewage control.

2. We have localised famines by the fast systems in the distribution of food.

3. Life expectancy has thus increased as modern medicine introduced vaccines and antibiotics
which have helped to control diseases that could devastate large numbers of the population.

4. It is also felt that birth rates fall as some of us consider children an economic liability rather
than an economic asset.

5. In some Caribbean countries emigration has been the major factor accounting for an ageing
population, also a crude birth rate facilitates an
ageing population. (This is true of Montserrat).

BE CAREFUL HOW YOU TREAT THE ELDERLY!

Prejudice and discrimination against the elderly are referred to as ageism. This may take various
forms such as:

* Mandatory retirement laws

* Verbal slurs such as old fogies, geezers, old maids, and 'granny'.

This results in an uneasiness and fear on the part of the young and middle aged. They may
develop a fear and dislike of growing old and the aged (gerontophobia). There is distaste for
growing old, contracting disease, becoming disabled, and a great fear of powerlessness,
'uselessness' and ultimate death.
Ageism is created and institutionalised by Historical, cultural, and social forces, it is not created
by the elderly or their behaviour. Stereotypes about the aged tend to emphasise negative images
such as wrinkled, slow, helpless, dependent, sickly, thin, deformed, stoop-shouldered, and
dentured.

SOME PROBLEMS FACED BY THE ELDERLY

The association of old age with 'problems' is itself problematic. There is evidence that others tend
to see the elderly as having more problems than they do themselves. However for some 'old
people' real issues of poverty, status, power and isolation occur.

1. Retirement This is tied to the decreasing demand for labour in industrialised society and the
increase in life expectancy. A large portion of the elderly live on pensions, savings, and social
security. This will depend on the type of job they held prior to retirement. Retirement in most
cases demands self-sufficiency and can be difficult to accept. Retired persons after a while may
have financial problems, miss their jobs and work associates, experience health problems and
have a hatred of retirement.

2. Dependency Being dependent on others for financial support or physical needs, can be
humiliating and excruciatingly painful. Dependency means to be no longer in control of your life.
Older people who have to rely on their children often experience resentment and anger followed
by guilt. Their children may also find it difficult when they must rearrange life styles and finances
to accommodate ageing parents. In many cases however the elderly help their children
financially.

3. Widowhood Widowed individuals must contend with loneliness and the loss of sexual
involvement. According to (Schulz 1978) research shows that widowed individuals must
eventually break with the past, readjust to a new environment, and form new relationships if they
are to overcome their grief.

4. Health problems Health problems can be severe for the aged but many older people are in
good health and lead full, creative, and satisfying lives. Eyesight and hearing begin to decline.
Various organs no longer operate as efficiently as in youth, and it takes longer for the body to
recover from illness or trauma. The body's immune system is not as effective as before. The skin
wrinkles, the body tires more easily and quickly, it becomes less erect, and the bones weaken.

5. Economic Finance remains a significant problem for the aged. Many just live above the poverty
level and do not qualify for certain public assistance programs. Retired minority workers and
women are more likely to be poor in old age. High rates of unemployment during prime years,
lack of private pension plans, and lower than average wages when thy did work leave them with
few financial resources.

6. Death - Everyone will die but the aged see their friends and family die, as they enter seventies,
they know life could end soon.

STOP AND THINK: WHY?

* Neglected old people often die alone in hospitals or nursing homes far away from family and
friends. In our 'youth-conscious' society, why are so many in the over 65 group, condemned to
loneliness and idleness.

* We have not developed new ways of using their skills and experience after they have left the
labour force.
* Some elderly persons who remain in the work world often experience a degrading of
occupational status.

* Physical disabilities and new developments in technology often make them unable to compete
with younger men and women for the jobs they once held.

* Most of our elderly are institutionalised in homes far distant from friends and families.

WHAT CAN WE DO?

HERE ARE SOME SUGGESTIONS TO WHICH MANY MORE MAY BE ADDED

As people live longer, finding useful and satisfying roles for the aged will become a greater
problem in our society. New ways must be found to make the later years of life a productive and
enjoyable as youth and adulthood.

The immediate issue is to help the elderly to deal with their material and human problems without
patronising them, or seeming to regard them as a 'problem' in themselves.

1. Jobs could be redesigned to make the maximum use of older workers.

2. Training programs, which utilise the older workers skills and experience to teach younger
workers as a possibility as not, all they know will eventually become outdated.

3. Senior Citizens, Golden Age Clubs, and other organisations for the elderly should be developed
as places to socialise and meet others, as the elderly it is argued seem to prefer the company of
their own generation.

4. Older women can be used as volunteer teachers and helpers in preschool programs for all
sectors of society.

5. Make health care affordable or where possible give discount or free service to those who are
indigent in our society.

6. Government should at all times increase social welfare and pension in relation to inflation in
the society.

7. One American argues that nothing but a reordering of work, education, the family and other
major institutions will bring the old out of their redundancy and isolation back into the
mainstream of society. We need to believe that it is valuable for the old to be involved with us and
we with them. This would have to include a willingness to face with them the problem that
ultimately comes to all our own deaths.

ACTIVITIES

1. Describe some of the problems of the elderly in our society.

2. What types of programs and activities are provided especially for the
elderly in your community?

3. Demographers have indicated that in many countries, more people now than before are living
into old age.
Write an essay entitled, "The effects of an ageing population on society." In your essay, state
THREE factors that may increase life expectancy of a population, and explain THREE effects of
ageing on the elderly themselves. Finally, suggest THREE ways that a government can care for an
ageing
population.

Source
Understanding People and Social Life, H. Paul Chalfant and Emily Labett Sociology, Paul H. Landis

Social studies - exploring child abuse

By Leetham Grandison, Youth Link Club Writer

I ENTERED the classroom, rather studio, with enthusiasm beyond description: again this was
social studies class and you had to use your imagination. Well, we were on WZY 98 FM (Tacky's
Radio Station) with host Esmeralada (our teacher) conducting a discussion on 'child abuse'. She
had two of the upper fourth form classes blazing. Of course I was not to be left out as I was
among the panel as a parent, a classmate as an abuse victim, Guidance Counsellors posing as
Inspector Crawford and Doctor Icilida McDonald from the Child Guidance Clinic. The main aim of
the discussion was to complete one of the elements of social problems and issues associated with
the syllabus.

Dr. McDonald in her opening speech stated that child abuse takes the following forms: Sexual
abuse adults making sexual comments, fondling and even having sexual intercourse with a minor
a person under the age of full legal responsibility which is 18 years old. Physical abuse defined
as assaults on children that produce pain, burns, laceration and other signs of harsh beatings.
Emotional neglect where caregivers fail to meet children's needs for affection and emotional
support. Psychological such actions as ridicule, humiliation, these damage one's ego and the
social esteem that individuals place on themselves. Physical neglect often times children are
deprived, they do not receive enough food, clothing, medical care or supervision.

Inspector Crawford in his speech described psychological and sexual abuse as the most
destructive forms. In these cases, he stated, children feel frightened, confused and guilty and are
usually pressured into silence. Additionally the Inspector stated that when adults are on the
wrong side of the law, they usually have reasons to say why it happened. Some of which are: 1)
History of abuse as a child.

2) Unmanageable parental stress usually caused from lack of finance.

3) The belief in harsh, physical discipline 'don't spare the rod and spoil the child'.
4) They were under the influence of drugs.
5) Psychological disturbance.
6) Low income employment, marital conflict, overcrowded living conditions.

We were notified of some of the signs of child abuse; although I doubt that any victim of abuse
would want to be discovered. Imagine being sexually abused by your stepfather and uncle in a
locked room and living with it for about 7 years!

Among the signs of child abuse are: poor attendance at school, unhappiness most of the time, the
fear of being too close to other people (physical contact). Emotionally abused children may
become very aggressive, unnaturally shy, and develop more slowly than other children. A child
who is physically abused may have cuts, bruises, sores, scars, welts and even broken bones.
A listener called the programme and asked "What so wrong with hitting children? After all that's
how myself and most of you learn." The answer to that was long, but worth it. "A whack on the
bottom may stop children for that moment, but it won't stop them from doing the something later
on because being hit does not teach them to please you. And that research has shown is that
children who have been slapped or hit are usually so overwhelmed with anger and hurt that they
cannot remember what they were punished for."

Question: What were some of the methods used to ensure a stable family relationship with
children?

Answer: We ensure that there is effective communication between our children and us by
respecting them and their views. We seek their ideas or opinion on matters of family concern. We
meet as family every week or have a little fun and if they need something or ask to go
somewhere it is rewarded based on exam results. Question: What would you say to a parent who
says about his/her child, "Mi caan badda with him ya, mi a go tek stone and lick him down"?

Answer: That will not be the right thing, because you don't know what can happen; you can end
up killing that child although that was not your intention, which could result in your being charged
and sentenced. First of all you have to get that individual or child to be seated. Explain to him, as
many parents would have, that they know he/she is developing and that they need to assert their
independence, but they still need to depend on you for support. Find a way to calm or take away
some of the anger. Then you can begin asking why they did that and so on. In this conversation
you need to let them know that you are always there for them and that you may be angry at
times but you are open to them and you as parent need to listen to your child, what they could be
saying might be true. Don't give them nicknames such as: the 'absentminded-professor',
'worthless', 'good fi nuttin', these don't motivate them they only down grade their intelligence.

Yes, child abuse can be prevented. Successful prevention of child abuse requires effort at the
family and societal levels. For example you are a social worker you could go around in the school
in your area informing parents about this issue at P.T.A meetings. If you are not a social worker
you could try seeking someone who will come and speak at one of your meetings; it could be
P.T.A., community. Promoting public awareness of child abuse through publication and media
campaigns. Groups such as the Child Guidance Clinic, Counsellor/ Social Workers, Rape Unit,
Children Service Division, Ministry of Education and Culture, Police, VOUCH are available to help.
It is said that these groups are dedicated to the prevention and treatment of abused children and
provide support to abusive parents.

The programme could not conclude without stating the consequences of child abuse on the child.
These of course are; 1) low self-esteem, high anxiety, self-blame and attempts to escape; usually
the escape route is suicide. 2) Poor behaviour in school, discipline problems, non-compliance and
low motivation interfere with academic achievement. 3) The child has a low self-esteem, mistrust
of adults, sleeping difficulty, loss of appetite, fearfulness and depression. 4) It can impair the
development of empathy and sympathy, self-concept and use of social skills. 5) It can lead
overtime to learning and adjustment problems such as academic failure, severe depression and
difficulties with peers, substance abuse and delinquency.
Contemporary social issues
By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

TRY ALL these questions that will cover aspects of contemporary social issues

1. Violence against women creates degrading images of women in society.

(a). State two roles of women in the home (2 marks)

State two roles of women in the society (2 marks)

(b). State two family life situations, which may promote violence against women. (2 marks)

(c). Explain three ways in which violence may promote degrading images of women in society (6
marks)

(d). Suggest two strategies that the media may adopt, and one strategy that the government
may adopt, to help minimise the problem of violence against women. (6 marks)

2. The increase in substance abuse reflects society's failure to care for its young people.

(a). List three types of drugs/substances that some young people in the Caribbean abuse. (3
marks)
(b). State three causes of the abuse of drugs among young people. (3 marks)

(c). Explain three effects that drugs abuse among young people may have on the society. (6
marks)

(d). Suggest, with reference to the Caribbean, three measures that can be taken to stop the
increase in drug abuse. (6 marks)

3. Drugs, terrorism, AIDS Plagues of the jet age

Name any three illegal drugs used in your country and state three negative effects these drugs
have on people.

Explain how the drug problem can be related to crime and infectious diseases. Describe the
measures that your country can adopt to fight these 'Plagues of the jet age'.

4. 'A Plea From The Heart'

Why do they hate us so?
I see their sneers and jeers
I hear them laugh and call
Us awful names...
Anonymous

(a). Name three ways in which prejudice may be shown other than by sneers, jeers and laughter.
(3 marks)

(b). State three ways in which we can assist in reducing or eliminating prejudice. (6 marks)

c. Suggest three forms of prejudice, other than racial prejudice, that exists in society. (3 marks)

d. Explain how apartheid is a form of prejudice. (3 marks)

e. What happens to a victim of prejudice when the prejudice is not addressed? (5 marks)

5. You are a law enforcement officer and you have been asked to speak to a youth group in your
community.

Outline three categories of criminal offences in which some young people become involved and
the possible consequences of their actions. Give reasons why you think they become involved in
crime. Suggest ways in which the youth group could assist in preventing young people from
becoming involved in criminal activities.

6. (a). Identify three types of child abuse in the Caribbean. (3 marks)

(b). State four social conditions in some homes, which may bring about abuse of the child. (4
marks)

(c). Explain three reasons why it is often difficult to take corrective action in cases of child abuse.
(6 marks)

(d). As an officer of the Child Welfare Department, suggest three realistic measures, which may
be instituted to protect children from abuse. (6 marks)
7. As a Social Welfare Officer, you have been invited to speak to parents on the topic 'Family
Relationship'. Write a speech identifying the factors that can lead to a breakdown in family
relationships. Explain fully what would be the results for the family of such a breakdown and
suggest what should be done to reduce family conflicts.

8. Read the statement below, and then use the following guidelines to write your essay.

'Development faces us with difficulties, and sets new conditions on motherhood'.

Name at least three of the various tasks that 'motherhood' demands.

Describe three problems, which confront a woman who is wife, mother, and who works.

Suggest three possible solutions to the difficulties in motherhood, brought on by development in

society.

9. Non-legal unions have always been a part of the West Indian Society; a significant number of
children are born out of wedlock.

Name and define two non-legal unions/relationships. Examine three issues that may affect the
children of non-legal unions/relationships and suggest three ways in which government and other
organisations can seek solutions to these issues.

Source: Drug Abuse Survey: Singh, et al 1988, Trinidad and Tobago

(a). Name one disease caused by the abuse of tobacco. (1 mark)

(b). Name three alcoholic drinks commonly abused by students. (3 marks)
(c). Which of the substances/drugs in the table above are legal in the Caribbean? (2 marks)

(d). (i) Based on the figures in the table above, name the substance/drug most widely abused by
secondary school students. (1 mark)

(ii) Which of the substances/drugs in the table above is abused by the smallest number of
secondary school students? (1 mark)

(e). Describe two ways in which the abuse of alcohol and illegal drugs may have a bad effect on
secondary schools students. (4 marks)

(f). Suggest three ways in which a government Minister responsible for substance and drug abuse
may try to reduce the abuse of illegal drugs and alcohol among secondary school students. (6
marks)
Examining the issue of prejudice
By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

AN PREJUDICE formed before examination of the facts, a bias; a perception.

For example, one may think of race prejudice as a fixed idea that some other race than one's own
is inferior or possesses undesirable qualities. (racial ethno-centrism)

Race Persons differing from other peoples by distinct physical traits.

Anti-semitism Opposition to, or hatred of, Jews.

Apartheid The South African name for the government policy of racial segregation and political
and economic discrimination against non-Europeans.

Minority group A group subject to low status and discrimination from the group or groups with
higher status. Minority groups may be the numerical majority as is the native African in South
Africa.

Propaganda The spreading of certain opinion or beliefs with the intent of persuading others to
accept them.

Racism A belief that one's race is by nature superior to all others and should be treated more
favourably. It refers to all aspects of prejudice and discrimination based on racial differences.

Segregation Isolating; setting apart, as applied to racial adjustment, the setting apart of one
group from another e.g. making negroes live in a certain part of a city and ride in different
railway coaches.

Stereotype A mental picture that regards one member of a group as having most or all of the
characteristics of other members; any mental picture that fails to consider that members of a
group differ from each other in many important ways.

Any person or groups holding an opinion not arrived at objectively or openly, but rather through
stereotype is said to be prejudiced. An individual may be good, noble, generous, kind, and
helpful, but may be rated by the image of his particular race, religion or nationality rather than by
an assessment of his individual characteristics.
The dominant group treats members of minority differently because of a variety of fears. For
example:

* intermarriage
* job competition
* loss of political power
* special privileges
* decline of social status

Prejudice may become evident by association in any of a number of forms.

* Occupational
* Economical
* Legal
* Political
* Social

Prejudice is acquired, not inborn, prejudice is not inherited; it is 'taught'.

Parents may instil prejudice acquired to their children. Refuse to let their children play with
youngsters of another race. Tell their children about the inferiority and peculiarity of the other
groups.

Children do not have the chance to judge for themselves, for they are sheltered from contacts
and indoctrinated with their parents' prejudices.

Prejudice, however, is unlearned as individuals come to know each other as persons instead of
stereotypes.

How may causes of prejudice be shown?

* Discrimination
* Bias
* Unequal power
* Racist attitude

DELINQUENCY

Delinquent One who does not conform to the laws of a society. The word commonly refers to a
juvenile offender, 18 years of age or under.

In legal terms a juvenile delinquent is a young person under a stated age who has been judged
delinquent by some court for illegal or offensive conduct.

To a psychologist and social worker, the delinquent is a youngster who habitually meets his/her
seasonal social problems through open and aggressive behaviour not approved by society
generally.

Juvenile delinquency may begin in pranks which seem innocent to boys and girls also:

* Criticism of teachers and excuses for poor performance in school

* Inferiority and insecurity
* Values of ones peer groups desired to be accepted by peers
* Broken or unhappy homes
* Rigid parents
* Tense emotional conflict within the family
* Assertion of independence may in some cases bring individuals into conflict with others.

ACTIVITIES

Question 1

Read the statement below then use the following guidelines to write your essay.

"There is a need for a breakthrough which will not only destroy prejudice and eliminate unfair
discrimination against disabled people in employment, but will also set in motion a positive
approach to their real problems."

* What is prejudice and how does it develop?

* Describe three forms that prejudice can take.
* Discuss ways in which a "breakthrough" can come to reduce prejudice.

Question no. 2

"A plea from the heart"

Why do they hate us so?
I see their sneers and jeers
I hear them laugh and call
Us awful names...

Anonymous

(a) Name three ways in which prejudice may be shown other than by sneers, jeers and laughter.

(b) State three ways in which we can assist in reducing or eliminating prejudice.

(c) Suggest three forms of prejudice, other than racial prejudice that exist in society.

(d) Explain how apartheid is a form of prejudice.

(e) What happens to a victim of prejudice when the prejudice is not addressed?
The scourge of social problems
By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Objective: Examine the influence of contemporary social issues on Caribbean family life.

THE SYLLABUS requires that we look at the following social problems and issues such as teenage
pregnancy, street children, alternative life styles, substance abuse, juvenile delinquency, sexually
transmitted diseases, child abuse, poverty, desertion, suicide, promiscuity, incest, domestic
violence, care and concern for the aged and those with special needs.

We should be able to state the reasons why they occur; problems encountered and suggest ways
in which they may be solved.

Undoubtedly we are all aware of the many problems faced by the members of our society daily.
These glare at us daily, as every day the newspapers print stories about such problems and the
TV stations are not in all cases discriminating against what it shows to us. They make it clear that
we have problems, which might be causing them in some cases and if possible may even give
suggestions.

We see and hear of child abuse, domestic violence, neglect of our elderly and handicapped,
discrimination of all sorts, drug abuse and exportation, crime and delinquency, poverty and
promiscuity. The media also try to highlight through advertisement the effects of these social
problems on society.

WHY STUDY SOCIAL PROBLEMS?

To develop an awareness of social problems. As citizens we should be aware of the social

problems facing our society. Any mention of a social problem in the mass media or public
conversation should quickly catch your attention.

To gain factual knowledge of social problems. We are to be aware of the facts as if we are to
make an intelligent analysis of the problem and to make suggestions to solve them.

To develop a proper perspective toward social problems. Such a person will be calm and be able
to view the situation comprehensively, knowing that the history of mankind has always been
plagued with social problems.

Societies are constantly changing. Enlightened persons should take social problems in stride and
attempt to do what they can to alleviate the situation.

To develop a personal orientation toward social problems. An individual, it is argued, is extremely

important in bringing about social changes. The individual can discuss, campaign, vote and act.
Each individual must determine the part they play in society as each indivi dual has a part to play
in social affairs.

POVERTY
Poverty refers to any situation in which an individual or group possesses less than some standard
of living which has been defined as acceptable. This standard may be determined on the basis of
the material condition of other persons or groups in society, or it may be based on a measure of
the gap between what is possessed and some objective indicator of basic human need. In Jamaica
assessment of the extent of poverty is based on an absolute rather than relative measure of
poverty. This means that a person is considered poor if he/she cannot meet his/her basic
requirements rather than whether or not he/she has as much as someone else.

Source: 'Jamaica's Policy Towards Poverty Eradication', Planning Institute of Jamaica (October
1995)

CAUSES OF POVERTY

In many parts of the world poverty is caused by a scarcity of food and goods

Many persons in the society do not have the financial resources to purchases goods.

The stratification system (institutionalised inequality). Our society is divided into social classes
and statuses in which some people receive a great deal of respect and prestige and others receive
very little.

Many upper and middle-class people receive subsidies from the government far in excess of
anything paid out to the poor in welfare payments, and the vicious cycle of poverty continues.

CAUSES OF POVERTY

It is believed that certain social categories appear to have a greater risk being poorer than others
are. Those that seem more vulnerable to poverty in Caribbean societies are the old, the sick and
disabled; large families and single parent; the unemployed and the insecurely employed low-wage
earner.

In the Caribbean the prolonged unemployment of the main breadwinners of families is thrusting
more and more of these families into poverty and with the economic problems pervading our
islands many will remain poor for many years to come. With early retirement on the increase, the
increase in life expectancy, the elderly are becoming susceptible to poverty. The addition of more
mouths to feed in a family leaves large families vulnerable to poverty.

Single parent families, whether caused by desertion, death, divorce or choice seems to form a
major part of those in poverty. Studies have shown that many of our poor are those families
without a male breadwinner.

Sickness and disablement of one parent, in an era where medical care can be financially
demanding, this can have very serious implications for families near the poverty margin/line.

There are also other circumstances through which a person may become poor such as famine,
disease, outbreaks of war, too many people living in the urban areas, fewer jobs, hurricanes and
other natural causes. Outbreak of crime in the country or even taxation burdens are other
concerns.

People argue that individuals can bring poverty on themselves because they lack initiative and are
lazy. Many persons have adopted/created a culture of dependency and the number of the people
in our population who expect the state and taxpayers to support them may have increased over
the years.
DID YOU KNOW?

1. That many person living in poverty do want to work, but are unable to get jobs because of
physical disabilities, discrimination in hiring practices, or a lack of adequate training or education?

2. That the movement of people from rural to urban areas in search of economic settlements is
strongly responsible for urban poverty?

3. That urban poverty is manifested in overcrowding, in low-income housing settlements, and the
mushrooming of dilapidated squatter communities?

4. That there are more poor persons in Kingston and St. Andrew, than there are in other parishes
in Jamaica?

Source: 2, 3, 4 Planning Institute of Jamaica.

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR SOLUTIONS TO POVERTY

* Efficient, equitable and flexible human development strategies and employment creation.

* A sound welfare system, with a greater coverage for the needy.

* Establish an efficient, de-mand-driven and complimentary mechanism to deliver basic services

and added infrastructure to the poor.

* Family planning is integral to the goal of poverty eradication. The reduction in population growth
is of fundamental importance to any attempt at poverty eradication. This is so as the measure of
poverty most frequently used is the level of income or expenditure capable of sustaining a
minimum standard of living.

SECTION INDIVIDUAL INTERACTION

Answer TWO questions from this section. All answers MUST be in complete sentences.

1. Diagram

a) i) What is meant by the term "poverty"?

ii) State TWO factors that may be responsible for a family's condition of poverty? (3 marks)

b) State THREE patterns of behaviour that may be related to poverty (3 marks)

c) Refer to the diagram above. Write TWO statements for Stage 2, TWO statements for stage 3
and TWO statements for stage 4, that would explain how 'poverty is a vicious circle'. (6 marks).
d) As a community worker, suggest THREE self-help activities a group of poor families can
undertake to improve their living conditions. (5 marks)

The scourge of social problems

By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Objective: Examine the influence of contemporary social issues on Caribbean family life.

THE SYLLABUS requires that we look at the following social problems and issues such as teenage
pregnancy, street children, alternative life styles, substance abuse, juvenile delinquency, sexually
transmitted diseases, child abuse, poverty, desertion, suicide, promiscuity, incest, domestic
violence, care and concern for the aged and those with special needs.
We should be able to state the reasons why they occur; problems encountered and suggest ways
in which they may be solved.

Undoubtedly we are all aware of the many problems faced by the members of our society daily.
These glare at us daily, as every day the newspapers print stories about such problems and the
TV stations are not in all cases discriminating against what it shows to us. They make it clear that
we have problems, which might be causing them in some cases and if possible may even give
suggestions.

We see and hear of child abuse, domestic violence, neglect of our elderly and handicapped,
discrimination of all sorts, drug abuse and exportation, crime and delinquency, poverty and
promiscuity. The media also try to highlight through advertisement the effects of these social
problems on society.

WHY STUDY SOCIAL PROBLEMS?

To develop an awareness of social problems. As citizens we should be aware of the social

problems facing our society. Any mention of a social problem in the mass media or public
conversation should quickly catch your attention.

To gain factual knowledge of social problems. We are to be aware of the facts as if we are to
make an intelligent analysis of the problem and to make suggestions to solve them.

To develop a proper perspective toward social problems. Such a person will be calm and be able
to view the situation comprehensively, knowing that the history of mankind has always been
plagued with social problems.

Societies are constantly changing. Enlightened persons should take social problems in stride and
attempt to do what they can to alleviate the situation.

To develop a personal orientation toward social problems. An individual, it is argued, is extremely

important in bringing about social changes. The individual can discuss, campaign, vote and act.
Each individual must determine the part they play in society as each indivi dual has a part to play
in social affairs.

POVERTY

Poverty refers to any situation in which an individual or group possesses less than some standard
of living which has been defined as acceptable. This standard may be determined on the basis of
the material condition of other persons or groups in society, or it may be based on a measure of
the gap between what is possessed and some objective indicator of basic human need. In Jamaica
assessment of the extent of poverty is based on an absolute rather than relative measure of
poverty. This means that a person is considered poor if he/she cannot meet his/her basic
requirements rather than whether or not he/she has as much as someone else.

Source: 'Jamaica's Policy Towards Poverty Eradication', Planning Institute of Jamaica (October
1995)

CAUSES OF POVERTY

In many parts of the world poverty is caused by a scarcity of food and goods

Many persons in the society do not have the financial resources to purchases goods.
The stratification system (institutionalised inequality). Our society is divided into social classes
and statuses in which some people receive a great deal of respect and prestige and others receive
very little.

Many upper and middle-class people receive subsidies from the government far in excess of
anything paid out to the poor in welfare payments, and the vicious cycle of poverty continues.

CAUSES OF POVERTY

It is believed that certain social categories appear to have a greater risk being poorer than others
are. Those that seem more vulnerable to poverty in Caribbean societies are the old, the sick and
disabled; large families and single parent; the unemployed and the insecurely employed low-wage
earner.

In the Caribbean the prolonged unemployment of the main breadwinners of families is thrusting
more and more of these families into poverty and with the economic problems pervading our
islands many will remain poor for many years to come. With early retirement on the increase, the
increase in life expectancy, the elderly are becoming susceptible to poverty. The addition of more
mouths to feed in a family leaves large families vulnerable to poverty.

Single parent families, whether caused by desertion, death, divorce or choice seems to form a
major part of those in poverty. Studies have shown that many of our poor are those families
without a male breadwinner.

Sickness and disablement of one parent, in an era where medical care can be financially
demanding, this can have very serious implications for families near the poverty margin/line.

There are also other circumstances through which a person may become poor such as famine,
disease, outbreaks of war, too many people living in the urban areas, fewer jobs, hurricanes and
other natural causes. Outbreak of crime in the country or even taxation burdens are other
concerns.

People argue that individuals can bring poverty on themselves because they lack initiative and are
lazy. Many persons have adopted/created a culture of dependency and the number of the people
in our population who expect the state and taxpayers to support them may have increased over
the years.

DID YOU KNOW?

1. That many person living in poverty do want to work, but are unable to get jobs because of
physical disabilities, discrimination in hiring practices, or a lack of adequate training or education?

2. That the movement of people from rural to urban areas in search of economic settlements is
strongly responsible for urban poverty?

3. That urban poverty is manifested in overcrowding, in low-income housing settlements, and the
mushrooming of dilapidated squatter communities?

4. That there are more poor persons in Kingston and St. Andrew, than there are in other parishes
in Jamaica?

Source: 2, 3, 4 Planning Institute of Jamaica.

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR SOLUTIONS TO POVERTY

* Efficient, equitable and flexible human development strategies and employment creation.

* A sound welfare system, with a greater coverage for the needy.

* Establish an efficient, de-mand-driven and complimentary mechanism to deliver basic services

and added infrastructure to the poor.

* Family planning is integral to the goal of poverty eradication. The reduction in population growth
is of fundamental importance to any attempt at poverty eradication. This is so as the measure of
poverty most frequently used is the level of income or expenditure capable of sustaining a
minimum standard of living.

SECTION INDIVIDUAL INTERACTION

Answer TWO questions from this section. All answers MUST be in complete sentences.

1. Diagram

a) i) What is meant by the term "poverty"?

ii) State TWO factors that may be responsible for a family's condition of poverty? (3 marks)

b) State THREE patterns of behaviour that may be related to poverty (3 marks)

c) Refer to the diagram above. Write TWO statements for Stage 2, TWO statements for stage 3
and TWO statements for stage 4, that would explain how 'poverty is a vicious circle'. (6 marks).

d) As a community worker, suggest THREE self-help activities a group of poor families can
undertake to improve their living conditions. (5 marks)
The sad reality of drug addiction
By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Drug addiction: A state of dependence on a habit forming drug or drugs. It includes an

overwhelming desire to continue taking the drug, dependence on the effects of the drug and a
tendency to increase the dosage.

THE HABITUAL use of drugs is a threat to the individual, chiefly because of the way they affect
the nervous system and interfere with perception. The arrests for drug violations have seemingly
increased more than any other single violation over the past few years. The kinds of drugs
commonly used today are - opiates, hallucinogens, barbiturates and amphetamines.

There are a number of drugs that produce a state of addiction, which include heroin, opium and
morphine. The body develops a need for this drug after repeated dosages. The body begins to
require increased quantities in order to experience the same effects, until eventually it needs the
drug or is withdrawn at this point an acute illness "may" occur.

Not all drugs, however, are addictive, Marijuana, for instance, is not a physiologically addictive
drug, although it can produce a psychological dependency.

Nicotine is the active ingredient (drug) in tobacco. Again, it affects the central nervous system,
first exciting then depressing it. This drug causes changes in moods.

Cigarette smoke contains many irritants in addition to nicotine, which affect lung tissue. These
irritants stimulate cells in the lung to produce an excess of mucous, which then interfere with
gaseous exchange, particularly the update of oxygen from inspired air.
ALCOHOL

Alcohol (ethanol) is the drug found in popular alcoholic drinks. It has many effects on the body
both in the short and in the long term. In large quantities alcohol passes directly into the
bloodstream. It circulates around the body and affects the thinking and learning areas of the
brain that control activities that require alertness and concentration. Some activities, for example,
driving, are carried out less effectively.

The parts of the brain that control the functioning of the kidney and blood vessels are also
affected. The blood vessels near the skin expand and the person feels warmer, actually the body
temperature falls. Alcohol impairs muscle co-ordination and the effect on the brain function could
certainly affect judgement.

PHENOBARBITONE

Barbiturates - these are used as sedatives to induce sleep and to counteract the effect of over-
stimulation from other drugs. These are depressant which affect the central nervous system,
peripheral nerves, muscles including heart muscles and various tissues. By relaxing the nervous
system it slows down the heart rate and lowers the blood pressure. Large doses can produce
slurred irritability. An overdose results in death.

OPIATES

Opium, morphine, and heroin. They can be characterised by their depressant nature. Opiates
depress the nervous system, slowing down bodily processes, relieving physical pain, relaxing the
muscles, inducing drowsiness and producing a sense of well being and contentment. It tends to
attract people who are under psychological tensions and anxieties. It slows down reaction and
allows the individual to temporarily escape present problems.

HALLUCINOGENS PSYCHEDELICS-

This drug induces subjective changes in the user sense of space, time and self example. Are LSD,
DMT, STP, DET and Mescaline. Hallucinogens affect the

* Dilation of the pupils

* Increase in blood pressure, temperature and pulse rate.

* Nausea and feelings of numbness or being cold may also occur.

* Alters individuals perceptions, colours seem more brilliant and objects take on increased depth.

* Visual cues may be elaborated into illusions or hallucinations.

* Emotional effects ranging from an impassive calm to rage. He/she may laugh and cry in rapid
succession.

* Feeling of bliss, or panic, anxiety and depression.

A mild hallucinogen most widely used is marijuana. Part of the hemp plant, marijuana is usually
smoked. The physical effects include a slight increase in the heartbeat and a reddening of the
whites of the eyes. Its main effects are to the perception, memory and thought processes. It
distorts perceptions of time and space, producing a relaxed state, heightened sensory awareness
and a loss of inhibitions.

AMPHETAMINES

These are stimulants. They provide relief from fatigue produce feelings of elation and bring on
both mental and physical alertness. The heart and metabolism speed up. As it wears off the user
feels restless, tired and depressed. Known as "pep pills", "diet pills" or "bennies", the drug is
usually taken in pill form. Methamphetamine "speed" is often injected for a quick powerful boost.

DRUGS AND PREGNANCY

Some drugs that the mother takes can easily travel from her blood into the foetus. This is
especially dangerous in the first three months of pregnancy while the blood system is just starting
to develop.

Mothers who smoke are more likely than non-smokers to lose their babies in a miscarriage, have
abnormalities of the placenta and produce smaller babies. Alcohol may also damage the
developing baby if the mother drinks during pregnancy. The best advice to a mother to be is do
not drink, smoke or use drugs, especially in the first three months of pregnancy.

SOME REASONS WHY PERSONS TAKE DRUGS

* Close association with people who take drugs.

* When person's friends take drugs, the person is put in a position where it is very likely that
he/she will try what is seemingly doing his/her friends no harm.

* To be accepted and be a part of particular groups

* Experimentation

* Availability

* Introduced by parents and close relatives.

* Relief, freedom from the sense of alienation and

disapproval of prevailing values.

SOCIETY AND DRUGS

Our society permits the use of alcohol for general consumption for persons over the age of
eighteen. One also needs a license to sell alcohol. This is done although it is known to be habit
forming and can be dangerous if abused.

Negative social attitudes toward drugs tend to alienate from society the person using them. Users
and sellers are branded as criminals and arrested if caught in possession of banned
substances/drugs.

ACTIVITIES

* What are the four kinds of drugs and how does each affect the user?
* Discuss the tendency today for teenagers to "experiment" with various drugs. What are the
basic reasons why teenagers try drugs? What are the dangers involved?

The dark face of SUICIDE

By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

AS CARIBBEAN citizens we are all aware of the many problems in our society. Every day
newspapers print stories about rape, abuse, drug-related crimes, delinquency, suicide, among
other topics.

A social problem is seen as a condition involving human relationships that is considered

undesirable by a large number of people in society.

CRITERIA FOR SOCIAL PROBLEMS

1. There is a conflict between what people think 'should' be and what 'is'.

2. The condition affects a substantial number of persons negatively. A substantial number of

people define the condition as a problem.

3. People feel that something can be done about the problem through collective social action.

WHAT IS SUICIDE?

Suicide is taking one's life, the intentional taking of one's life, committing 'self-murder'. Suicide
represents a problem - not only for the relatives and friends of the victims, but also the society.

Questions that we would want to get answers to are:

1. Why do people commit suicide, what is there to gain?

2. Why don't some people do it when faced with similar problems that may have pushed others to
commit suicide?

3. Why does the rate of suicide vary from place to place, group to group and among age groups?

Emil Durkheim, a sociologist who studied suicide, its causes, effects and the statistics, concluded
that there are varying elements in society that causes suicide such as:

* Religion He found that suicide was higher amongst Protestants than among Catholics.
* The extent of social attachment or social integration. In the book Sociology: the Study of
Human Relationships, by Thomas and Anderson, it is explained that the less integrated into
society the individual is and the more he is thrust into his own ego or self, the more likely he or
she is to commit suicide.

* Age groups varied in suicide rates.

* Single people, older people and people without a strong involvement in a religious group had
higher rates of suicide.

* Durkheim concluded that single people had higher suicide rates than married ones.

* That married but childless people had higher rates than those did with children, that city people
had higher rates than those living in the rural areas.

* Men had higher suicide rates than women; and that soldiers had a higher suicide rate than
civilians.

(See text for further information on the kinds of suicide)

In the Caribbean, according to I.B. Beddoe et al in Social Studies for the Caribbean, the number
of recorded and attempted suicides has grown rapidly in the last decades.

What are some of the causes why individuals commit suicide?

The main point about suicide is that because the victim is dead it is difficult to get first-hand
information. Of course, you can try to interview potential suicides, or relatives and friends of
suicides, or based your information on attempted (failed) suicides. Potential suicides are difficult
to identify relatives and friends are often reluctant to co-operate and the population of attempted
(failed) suicides is markedly different from the population of actual suicides.

It is believed that the following listed factors might be some of the causes of suicide, as we
cannot be sure that any one specific factor was the cause of a person committing suicide.

* A broken love affair, jilted, deserted and embarrassed.

* Increasing age, and loss of position and status.
* Being childless, feeling unfulfilled.
* Economic crises and dependency for support on others.
* A history of mental disorder and physical illness such as terminal diseases or prolonged
illnesses. I can remember well one elderly person, who with all the physical suffering he was
experiencing, said that probably it would be better off dead.
* A history of broken homes in childhood.
* Neglect abuse, infidelity and other family problems.
* Living in big towns and their associated problems.
* High density of population which leaves little scope for survival for some individuals.
* Loss of employment;
* Alcoholism and drug abuse;
* Parental rejection;
* Loneliness;
* Pressured by parents/superiors to meet goals that may seem unattainable;
* The relatively high suicide rate among teenagers may be an indication of the potential
difficulties young people
experience at that age.
FOR YOUR INFORMATION

Studies have revealed that:

1. Suicide is seen to many as a preventable 'disease'.

2. People who attempt suicide maybe experiencing intense emotional problems.
3. Many people who attempt suicide do not want to die; they do so as a means of getting
attention and really hope that they may be saved.
4. The majority of people who threaten to commit suicide actually do so.
5. Most people who commit suicide do so after spending a lot of time contemplating the act.
6. Suicide crosses all boundaries with regards to occupation, status, education, race, sex, age and
or religion.

PREVENTATIVE STRATEGIES

* When a person with suicidal tendencies is found/discovered, counselling should be provided,

using the church, community centres and any other media available.
* Suggest possible courses of action.
* Those who have survived suicidal attempts may be used as a deterrent by telling of their
experiences and discouraging others from committing this act.
* Provide facts about the problem. Education in schools and through the mass media on all
aspects of suicide and its effects on those who are left behind.
* Bringing up children in the Christian virtues and reminding them of the importance of
preserving life. (Thou shalt not kill)

ACTIVITIES

1. Conduct a survey in your community to determine the conditions and situations in the society
that the people consider being social problems.

2. Do a content analysis of the mass media to determine which social problems are discussed
most.

3. As a social welfare officer you have been invited to speak to parents on the topic 'Suicide and
the Family'. Write a speech, giving the meaning of the terms social problems and suicide. Identify
the factors that may/can lead to suicidal tendencies. Explain the problems associated with
suicides and suggest what should be done to reduce the suicide rate in our society.
Revision on the family
By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

* Traditionally, the daughters in the family were expected to help with the housework and with
looking after the younger children because of all the following reasons, except

a. It was believed that girls were by nature better than boys at cleaning, cooking and childcare.

b. It was felt that girls may have a family in the future and so needed to learn these skills.

c. They were considered inferior by the males.

d. The sons had to learn to earn a living outside the home.

* In the modern world it is becoming more common for

a. men to work and women to stay at home.

b. women to work and men to stay at home.
c. both men and women to go out to work.

* All the following except one are responsible for the changing role of the husband in the modern
family.

a. greater job opportunities for women

b. more educational opportunities for women
c. less working hours for men
d. higher wages for men.

* The nuclear family is increasingly replacing the extended family as the predominant Caribbean
family structure because

1. of growing industrialisation
2. of improved transportation and communication.
3. old people no longer want to live in extended family households.
4. of the rising divorce rate.

a. (1) only
b. (3) only
c. (1) and (2)
d. (2) and (4)

* Caribbean parents are having fewer children today because

1. the divorce rate is high

2. family planning has become more acceptable and is more available.
3. grandparents are no longer willing to help look after the children.
4. standards of living are rising.

a. (2) and (3)

b. (2) only
c. (1), (2) and (3)
d. (2) and (4)

* A study of many societies around the world shows that rules for sexual relations

a. are the same everywhere

b. Vary in different cultures
c. Do not exist in some countries
d. Are all written in the laws of the state

* An engagement announces a couple's intention to

a. engage in pre-marital sex

b. Pool their finances
c. Get to know each other better
d. Get married

*. Which is a stage of life through which everyone usually passes?

a. Adultery
b. Marriage
c. Puberty
d. Infanticide

* An illegitimate child is one who

a. has broken the law

b. has no father
c. Is a result of an illegal sex act.
d. Was born out of wedlock.

* All of the following are normal characteristics of the teenage years except

a. a need to conform to the peer group.

b. A tendency to form cliques, gangs or clubs.
c. A tendency to be introverted.
d. A tendency to develop high ideals.

* All of the following may lead to 'the generation gap' except

a. unwillingness by parents to understand the ideas and values of the child

b. peer group values being different from values in the home.
c. Lack of proper communication between parent and child.
d. Difference in looks between children and parents

* If there are problems between husband and wife, the first step they should take should be to

a. write to the problem page of a newspaper for advice

b. discuss their problems together in a spirit of compromise
c. tell their friends and relatives about their problems and ask their advice
d. buy presents for each other to show they each care.

* An individual can marry again only after one of the following

a. divorce
b. separation
c. desertion
d. legal separation

* Maintenance awarded to a woman divorced is called

a. reward
b. alimony
c. compensation
d. salary

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

* "Eh, eh, but yuh eh hear 'bout Doris? She gorn and shack up with Joe up the hill. But she is
something else, oui! Why, she doh go an' marry the man one time an' done?" said Wilma to
Jennifer, her next door neighbour.

"But Wilma, wha' wrong wid you, an' you have a friend who does visit you?" replied Jennifer.

"You alright, yes jenny," said Wilma, "you married in church an' ting au' have a nice husband and
family. People does respect you. But that man I have! He eh want to married. He like too much
woman, an' he eh minin' other man children."

a. Name the different types of family arrangements mentioned in the story

b. Which type of family does Wilma prefer?
c. Which institution in West Indian
history is usually blamed for the type of family arrangements of Wilma and Doris? Explain why.
e. State three problems that Wilma is faced with
f. Suggest three ways in which she can deal with these problems.

* Ramesh, aged 46, married but living apart from his wife, had an affair in 1976 with his
secretary, Lynette, aged 19. Out of this relationship a child was born and the couple, Ramesh and
Lynette, got married in 1979.

Ramesh is a wealthy businessman and the couple took up residence on one of his estates. Lynette
was left alone with the child during the day and sometimes until late at night.

After a stormy period and much quarrelling, Lynette started going out with other men, the
marriage broke down and they were divorced in 1983.

Ramesh had also been seeing Michele, the daughter of a friend, since she was 14, and she bore
him a child in 1983 before he was divorced the second time, when she was 18.

a. Give the legal terms used to describe

(i) the relationship between Ramesh and Lynette in 1976

(ii) the child born to them

b. What legally accepted action would Ramesh have had to take in order to marry Lynette?

c. Give three reasons why you think Lynette started going out with other men?
d. What reason can you deduce from the story which suggests the cause of the breakdown of
Ramesh's first marriage?

e. Give a brief description of Ramesh's character.

f. Who do you think was responsible for the break up of the marriage, Ramesh or Lynette? Give
reasons for your answer.

Family 'disorganisation'
By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

ACCORDING TO Thomas and Anderson in Sociology: The Study of

Human Relationships, there are three basic kinds of family
disorganisation... the uncompleted family, the broken family and
the incompatible family.

THE UNCOMPLETED FAMILY

This refers to illegitimacy, or the situation in which a child is born

to unmarried parents. Becoming an unwed mother or father may
be a traumatic emotional experience. Women seem to suffer most.
For a woman, there is a certain stigma involved, for pregnancy is absolute proof that the woman
has engaged in premarital sexual relations. In our country today, we find that persons are not
being forced to marry on a large scale when they discover that they are pregnant and unwed.
(Shotgun marriage)

The child may be branded illegitimate. However, problems will not be as great as in the past as
laws have been made to help those who are illegitimate and so we sing the song.

No bastard nuh deh agen

Everyone lawful

Most times, single households are formed from this situation, with the pressure of rearing this
child falling to the mother.

THE BROKEN FAMILY

A broken family is one in which either the husband or wife is not present. A family maybe broken
because of death, separation, desertion, annulment or divorce.

SEPARATION
This is a situation in which the husband and wife are legally married but are not living together by
common consent. In such a situation, the couple is still legally married, so cannot remarry
without a divorce, if such a person marries, he or she commits bigamy.

DESERTION
This is a situation in which one spouse simply abandons the other. Desertion has been called the
'poor man's divorce' because it costs nothing and involves no financial obligations. In this
situation, the couple are still legally married and is, therefore, not free to remarry.

ANNULMENT
This is a court decision that declares a marriage null and void because of some legal flaw. This
flaw might consist of coercion, being under age, bigamy, fraud, a marriage performed by an
unauthorised person or unwillingness to consummate the union.

After an annulment, each partner returns to his/her

original status before the wedding took place, since an annulment is legal recognition that no
marriage existed.

DIVORCE
Divorce is the legal dissolution of an officially recognised marriage. It may be granted only after
litigation. Divorce has become a common experience in the Caribbean in all social classes, age
categories and ethnic groups. While divorce is common among all types of people, it is felt to be
more common within certain categories within society. It is also felt that women who marry early
are more likely to get divorced than those who marry in their 20s.

Like many aspects of social life divorce can be viewed both positively and negatively:

* Divorce is now an available option for those who do not wish to stay in unhappy, restrictive or
dangerous relationships.

* It allows a man or woman to leave spouse who abuses him or her or their children.

* Divorce may, however, bring with it considerable emotional impact and disruption. Many are
divorced without wanting to be.
* Some people even complain that the availability of divorce undermines our willingness to make
a complete commitment or try to reconcile a relationship and to a family.

* Children may have difficulty adjusting to, when parents split up.

* The burdens of single parents can be overwhelming.

SOME CAUSES OF DIVORCE

* Changes in the status of women, women have become less dependent on their husbands.
Women are freer to leave men and vice-versa.

* Economic problems are among the most significant sources of stress in marriage.

* Divorces are now relatively easy and maybe inexpensive to obtain.

* Divorce has become more sociable accepted. Divorce persons no longer suffer the stigma of
failure from society.

* Many people have come to support the idea that one should not be trapped in a relationship
that does not offer personal fulfilment, intimacy and love.

In granting divorce, the judge decides how the property will be divided, who will have custody of
the children, and how much alimony and child support the ex-husband will pay.

THE INCOMPATIBLE FAMILY

Many couples refuse to divorce and or separate even though they are incompatible:

* Husband and wife no longer love each other.

* Feel any obligation to each other or co-operate with each other, they merely co-exist in the
same house.

* They may want to stay together.

1. For the sake of the children

2. Fear losing face in the neighbourhood or among relatives.

3. Husband's or wife's status maybe at stake.

4. Their religion may prohibit divorce or they may continue their unsatisfying married relationship
from sheer habit.

Some studies of the effects on children have suggest that spouses who remain together and for
the sake of the children, actually may not be helping the children.

ACTIVITIES

* What do you think more harmful to the children incompatible parents or a broken home? Why?
* What are some problems related to illegitimacy, for both mother and children.

* What are the various ways in which families are broken?

* Do a research to find out what grounds are legal for divorce in Jamaica. Which grounds are
most commonly used in obtaining a divorce?

* Many people are of the opinion that divorce can have both positive and negative effects on
family life.

Define the following terms

i. Divorce
ii. Legal separation - 2 marks

Outline two actions of a spouse for which the courts may grant a divorce. 4 marks

Explain one positive effect and two negative effects of divorce. 6 marks

As a marriage counsellor, suggest to a newly-wed couple three ways in which they may avoid
divorce. - 5 marks

The family
By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

ALEX INKLES stated that "if society is to continue it must

periodically find new members". The family is the institution which
"acts" for society to ensure fulfilment in the function of sexual
reproduction, of early care of the dependable infant, and his initial
training in the ways of the society in which he will live.

The family contributes to social order. By performing its functions,

the family therefore helps to maintain social equilibrium. It forms the basic organising principles
of social life. The family has traditionally been regarded as the most fundamental of all social
institutions and its health and strength have been interpreted as crucial to social order.

FAMILY

The social institution whose basic function is the regulation of the replacement of the members of
a society through sexual reproduction.

A group of two or more individuals directly linked by kinship ties,

the adult members assuming responsibility for caring for children.

FUNCTIONS OF THE FAMILY

Reproduction

In the Caribbean, each territory has norms that establish the family as the unit for reproduction of
offspring, which procreates/reproduces the species
thereby enabling the continuation of the human race.

Socialisation
The process by which we are taught and by which we learn the acceptable patterns of behaviour
and the culture of society is known as socialisation. This is an ongoing life experience which
structures the child's personality, not just in general terms, but according to the particular culture
of its society. The family transmits the culture to the new generation. The child learns the values
and norms of the society. Roles and sanctions are clearly identified and learnt. The individual
becomes a "functional" member of society.

Cultural
The family transmits the traditions, ways of life, customs and beliefs from one generation to the
other. Our links to the past are maintained, family heritage is passed on orally, especially by
grandparents.

Economic/Financial
Father and mother have been regarded as the breadwinners of the family. They, in most
situations, provide income to obtain the basic necessities such as food, clothing and shelter for
themselves and for other members who are unable to provide for themselves. However, every
member of the household performs some duty that provides for the economic well-being in the
family. The father might tend to the farm, the mother might make clothes and prepare food for
the family and the children might help out in the fields or in the home.

Educational
Before a child enters a formal educational system, he/she receives some aspects of education
from parents/family. This assistance continues throughout the period the child attends school.

Emotional and Psychological

The family provides the love, care and attention so necessary for all of society. Human beings are
"social animals" and we tend to love the company of others. Members of the family need to know
there is someone who cares about them and love them.

Ascribed status
When a baby enters this world, he/she receives a status from his parents. This is ascribed for the
child, since he/she had no choice, opportunity to choose his/her parents.

Social Control
Children are influenced to conform to the norms of the society because they do not want the
disapproval of parents. Parents are influenced to conform to the social norms because they do not
want to bring scandal and disgrace to their family.

Roles
The specific behaviour expected of an individual because of his/her status/position. We might say
that a person's role is the part he plays in the group or the society. Every individual plays
different roles in different groups and situations.

There has always been a difference in roles between men and women. In our society (industrial)
we find male dominated roles and female dominated roles.
 All the world's a stage
And all the men and women merely players.
They have their exits and their entrances,
And one man in his time plays many parts...
(Adapted)

We might say that we are all actors in the drama of life. Our stage is the society in which we live;
we play a particular role based upon our status in the society. Each individual will carry out his
role in a specific way related to his own personality.

SOME ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Grandparents
* Assist parents in the upbringing of the children.
* Sometimes acts as babysitters
* Orally pass on family traditions
* Help with the financial needs of the family.

Parents
* Pass on traditions
* Provide emotional security
* Provide for basic economic needs of the children
* Socialise children to conform to the values of society.

Children
* Respect their parents and those in authority
* Help with chores around the home.
* Helps with decision making in some instances.

ACTIVITIES

* Draw concept maps to show the roles of the following persons:

1. Your father
2. Your mother
3. Your younger sister

* Make a list of chores that a male and female may do in the home.

* Name the functions of the family in Caribbean society.

* Which of the functions of the family discussed do you think is the most important in today's
Caribbean society?

* Do you think that Jamaican sex norms are fair to everyone? How would you like to see them
changed?

* Contrast family life on a farm with family life in the city.

Next week we will look at Family Disorganisation in the Caribbean

Individual interaction - Concepts Individual and Family

By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

OBJECTIVE:

Student should be able to:

Explain concepts and terms associated with the family.

Questions are always included in this section, which seeks to define, explain concepts and terms.

EXAMPLES OF PAST QUESTIONS

What is meant by the term conjugal?

Give the meaning of the term environment.
Define the terms monogamy and neolocal.
Give the meaning of each of the following words/terms

* Nuclear family
* Sibling
* Extended family

This format of asking for definitions of terms are used both in the basic and general proficiency
examinations. You will therefore need to start a glossary of all the concepts used in each section
of the syllabus. When writing an essay it may become necessary for you to use these to help in
answering questions, therefore making your knowledge of the subject obvious to the markers.

The following are some of the concepts you must know and be able to explain:

STATUS
* The individual's position in the society. This position may be based on income, education and/or
power.

KINSHIP
* The connection or relationship between individuals established either through marriage
(conjugal) or through the lines of descent that connect blood relatives (consanguine)

* Kin People related by birth or marriage

FAMILY
* A group of two or more persons directly linked by kinship ties, the adult members assuming
responsibility for caring for children.

* The social institution whose basic function is the regulation of the replacement of the members
of a society through sexual reproduction

* A group of individuals who are intimately related, living under the same roof.

FAMILY ORGANISATION

Family Tree
* A family tree is a genealogical chart or diagram showing ancestry relationships and descent of
all the members of a family.

Extended family
* A type of family organisation in which several generations of blood relatives lives together. Also
called a consanguine family.

* Several generations living together or in nearby households. Also called "multigenerational

household."

Family Tree of an Extended Family

Nuclear Family

* A household consisting of father, mother and children.

Family Tree of an Extended Family

* A type of family organisation, in which family membership consists only of the married couple
and their dependent children, also called the conjugal family.

* Parents and own or adopted children generally living in the same household.

FAMILY STRUCTURES

Forms of Marriage
MONOGAMY

* The marriage of one man to one woman practised in Jamaica and the rest of the Caribbean
territories.
POLYGAMY
* Marriage to more than one partner at the same time.

POLYGYNY
* A form of polygamy, that is the form of marriage in which a man is permitted to have more than
one wife at a time.

POLYANDRY
* Another form of polygamy, a form of marriage in which a woman is permitted to have more
than one husband at a time.

IT'S AGAINST THE LAW

Bigamy
* This is when someone has two or more wives or two or more husbands at the same time.
Bigamy is a criminal offence in countries where monogamy is practised, e.g. Jamaica.

Incest
* Sexual relations between two people who are closely related by blood. In Jamaica committing
incest is a crime punishable by imprisonment.

MARRIAGE RESTRICTIONS
* Where one finds or choose partners for marriage is described as either:

Endogamy

* A marriage restriction that a person marry someone within the tribe, race, social class or
religion, etc.

Exogamy
* A marriage restriction that requires a person to marry someone outside his or her immediate
family, clan, village or tribe. Highly practised in Jamaica.

HOME
Where will you live/reside after marriage?
Is it with your husbands parents Patrilocal?
Will it be with your wife's parents matrilocal?

Or will you test the waters for yourself, branch out, be independent and have a neolocal residence
where husband and wife reside by themselves, set up a new home.

AUTHORITY

Who is or will be the authority figure in your household. Will it be matriarchal, where
mother/female has dominant authority? She is head of the household or will it be patriarchal
where the father/male has dominant
authority. He is head of the household.

Some of us on the other hand believe the equalitarian authority is desirous, where there is equal
sharing of authority between mother and father.

DETERMINATION OF KINSHIP
Matrilineal
* A method of determining kinship in which the descent is traced through the mother's line.

Patrilineal
* A method of determining kinship in which the descent is traced through the father's line.

Bilineal/bilateral
* A method of determining kinship in which the descent is traced on both the father's and
mother's sides.

ACTIVITIES

1. Draw a family tree showing four generations of your family.

2. Why would you practise or not practise polygamy?
3. Why is equalitarian authority practised or not practised in households in Jamaica? Discuss.
Who am I?
By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

INDIVIDUAL

What do you understand by the term 'individual'?

Characteristic of or meant for a single person or thing. Separate,

distinct and unique.

Every individual has distinctive qualities, and even very unusual

characteristics, they possess individuality and most practise
individualism, the principal of living one's life in one's own way.

INDIVIDUALISM

Family loyalty is at the heart of most Caribbean countries systems of value. Children in the
Caribbean are usually taught to honour and obey their parents even after they are grown and
have children of their own. Success is usually measured in terms of contributing to family
harmony and well-being, not only individual achievement. The family's interest seems to most
times work in
harmony with private needs and ambitions.

Individualism is a common theme in Caribbean culture. One of the goals in socialisation is to raise
children who are independent and self-sufficient. We maintain ties with our relatives but 'live our
own lives'. We are judge and we judge others on the basis of individual effort and personal
achievement. We spend a great deal of time and effort on self-improvement, through exercise or
education. The elderly say they prefer to be independent and refuse to move in with younger
relatives.

As an individual in society in order to participate fully in family groups and society at large we
must know and understand ourselves as individuals. It has been noted that there are various
characteristics of self that must be developed for an individual to be well adjusted.

* The biological self, which takes in, the different stages in an individual's life cycle.

* The religious self. How does religious teachings affect/influence the individual.

* The rational self. Man possesses the ability to think he/she has perceptions, and must make
decisions at some time or another.

* The emotional self. As individuals we respond differently to various stimulus, we express the
following differently and under different conditions love, joy, hate, fear, anger, disappointment and
frustration.

WHY DO WE REACT TO CIRCUMSTANCES IN DIFFERENT WAYS?

Because we are unique, we are one of a kind, we are individuals.

* The social self: Throughout life, individuals become member of various

groups and organisations. He/she is born into a family, a community and a
society.
* Self-esteem is the individual's good opinion of his/her own worth. It is developed through a
person's activities and experiences in the family, school, church and community. Self-esteem is
important in developing positive attitudes and good relationships with others.

THE HUMAN LIFE CYCLE

All societies divide the life course into stages. Stages of the life cycle are institutionalised in
formal rules defining the ages at which people are allowed to participate in different social
institutions and to engage in different social relationships. Not all persons will go through all the
stages of the life cycle. This cycle creates opportunities for, and limitations on, individual actions.

The life cycle: Where are you, where do you want to stop? (WHY?)

Prenatal the period prior to birth

Childhood the period from birth to about the age of 10 to 13

Adolescence the period between puberty and adulthood (12 to 13 to 19 years)

Adulthood usually from about 20 to old age

Senescence (old age)

PRENATAL/BIRTH

Pregnancy occurs as a result of the fertilisation of the female's egg by the male's sperm. Prenatal
care takes place over the nine months of pregnancy, a woman's physical and emotional well-being
are important during pregnancy, as the mother nurtures her unborn child, she attends clinic,
seminars and exercise class waiting for the birth of her child.

CHILDHOOD

The first year of life, infants are totally dependent on adult caretakers. He/she must be given the
proper love, care and attention in order to develop into a healthy, well-adjusted individual. Soon
they begin to explore but have at first no sense of the possibilities of danger. They soon want to
do everything on their own. At age six they enter school full-time.

ADOLESCENCE

This is a period of growth and change during which a child develops into an adult. This is an
ambiguous stage in the life cycle. They are not quite adults; they are not expected to support
themselves. They cannot vote or drive an automobile until age 16 or 18. They are discouraged
from getting married and starting a family.

Some adolescents experience an identity crisis, they are unable to reconcile the image they have
of themselves with their actual skills, potential, and activities or with the image of themselves
they see reflected in other people's eyes. Lacking a firm identity, adolescents may over identify
with athletes, movie stars, rock musicians and other celebrities, or they may fall desperately in
love, hoping to find an identity in their connection to another person.

Conventional wisdom holds that adolescence is a period of "storm and stress" for both males and
females. Many believe that the typical adolescents tend to be moody, rebellious, self-centred and
reckless. They will try anything to impress their peers and upset their parents. Young adolescents
often quarrel with their parents about little things such as dress style, neatness, chores, curfews,
friends, freedom, courtship, television and schoolwork. This is referred to as the generation gap
where parents and their children concerning matters of everyday life hold divergent views.

Adolescence is a time of rapid physical, emotional, and intellectual change. Finding out who you
are is not easy, but neither is it inevitable and always an ordeal.

ADULTHOOD

Adulthood is the period in which individuals live the majority of their lives. This stage may be
divided into three phases: young adult, middle age and old age. This is a period where individuals
become independent of parents, assume responsibilities, get rooted in a career and begin
intimate relationships and may eventually marry. (Tie the knot).

During middle age individuals usually advance in their careers or change careers. This is also a
period when physical changes begin to again appear. By this time individuals should be very
independent and satisfied with what life is offering.

During senescence a decline in physical strength and stamina occurs. Most individuals by now
have retired, may be unable to take care of themselves physically or may even become senile.
During this time it is important that we take care of our elderly with the dignity they so truly
deserve, remembering that we who are young may one day become old.

NOTE

As an individual we are members in society and member of a group or groups. We want to

belong, we love the company of others. We belongs to a family, community, sports team, political
party and whatever group we can find ourselves accepted in. We become involved because of the
following reasons:

* Belonging and identity

* Physical companionship
* Emotional security
* Avenues for leadership and decision making
* Status and importance.

Next week we will look at SOCIAL GROUPS

ACTIVITIES

* Identify some of the problems experienced by the elderly?

* Describe ways in which a senior citizen can still assist in the building of our economy and
culture.

* Identify the physical and social/psychological needs of a child.

* Adolescence is described as a period of 'storm and stress'. Discuss.

* Why does an individual need the company of others?

Organisation of the Syllabus
By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

ACCORDING TO Webster's Comprehensive Dictionary, Social Studies as a branch of Social Science

is a body of knowledge that relates man as a member of society, or of any component part of
society, as the state, family or any systematised human institution. A field of knowledge dealing
with human society, and embraces most other Social Science subjects. That is Social Studies is an
interdisciplinary subject that combines material from several other social science disciplines.

The main focus of the Social Studies syllabus is the Caribbean, international issues which have a
bearing on the Caribbean development is also included. It helps one to understand how people
adapt to their environment and use the physical resources available to meet their needs. It is
intended to increase personal and social awareness and places emphasis on values as well as on
social and interpersonal relationships.
BRANCHES COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL STUDIES

Philosophy
Sociology
History
Geography
Economics
Politics
Anthropology
Psychology

The above subjects have been blended into this single course called Social Studies. Social Studies
therefore combines the above branches of learning that deals with the origins and activities of
human groups, the individual, family, tribe, nations, their existence and relationships.

Since there are no single science of society or science of humanity, the purpose therefore of
Social Studies is to provide a comprehensive survey of the whole range of human life, existence,
and role in all periods of history and the environment.

As mentioned before Social gives the idea of being an interdisciplinary subject, as it seeks to
combine material from the various branches shown. It relates these courses to one another.

* Why do people act the way they do?

* Where human institutions come from and how they function. Its main aim in the Caribbean is to
cultivate good citizens.

HOW THE DIFFERENT BRANCHES FORM A PART OF THE SOCIAL STUDIES SYLLABUS

PSYCHOLOGY

This is the study of individual thought and motivation in group situations. It seeks to learn the
basis of personality, how judgements and attitudes are formed. In focusing on the individual and
studying the way individuals mind works it seeks to determine the individual's emotions,
thoughts, beliefs and actions, and what is the individual's experiences in life and how the
individual has coped with these experiences. For example, response to social problems such as
poverty, and sickness. (The first section of the syllabus).

ANTHROPOLOGY

This literally means the Science of Man, concerned itself primarily with primitive, or preliterate
societies. It is especially interested in the non-biological learned behaviours that create culture.
(Culture in the Caribbean).

GEOGRAPHY

This is concerned with people in various places, movements, settlement patterns etc. It seeks to
answer:

* How and why do social characteristics vary from place to place?

* How do people adapt to a particular environment?

(Migration, Urbanisation, Physical and Human Resources).

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

This deals with diplomatic history, foreign policy, international and regional laws and treaties,
peace movements, agreements bilateral and multilateral (e.g., CARICOM, OECS and ACS, etc.)

POLITICS

Studies the kinds and distribution of power in society. Students learn democratic and other
principles concerned with election procedure, government, its types and forms, structure and
function. Evaluation is stressed in the selection and nomination of representatives in the
Caribbean. The rights and responsibilities as a citizen are also dealt with (Government).

ECONOMICS

The science that studies production, trade, distribution and consumption patterns and of wealth
this looks at wealth in relation to the individual, countries and economic regions. It also looks at
the institutions and systems societies create to manage these (Consumer Affairs).

HISTORY

A recorded narrative of past events, especially those concerning a particular period, for example,
the impact of slavery on modern day society, nation and individual.

PHILOSOPHY

The love of wisdom as leading to the search for it, hence, knowledge of general principles,
elements, powers, or causes and laws explaining facts and existences.

SOCIOLOGY

The science that treats the origin and evolution of human social existence and social phenomena,
the progress of civilisation and the laws controlling human and institutions and functions.

Social Studies therefore integrates all these branches and allows the individual to get a
meaningful picture of where a particular discipline fits into the framework of human existence.
Throughout this series of lecture you will see various aspects of these disciplines forming the
Social Studies requirement for the CSEC, CXC examination examined.

Get ready and stay focused.

ORGANISATION OF THE SYLLABUS

The content of this syllabus is divided/organised into three major sections.

SECTION A INDIVIDUAL INTERACTION

1. Individual and Family

2. Individual and Society

SECTION B DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF RESOURCES

SECTION C OPTIONS

1. Communication
2. Consumer Affairs
3. Tourism

FORM OF EXAMINATION

Social Studies is offered in both Basic and General Proficiencies

Paper 1 Basic General

Sixty multiple choice, consisting of 24 items on Individual Interaction
and 36 on Development and Use of Resources, for a total of 60 marks.

Paper 2

Basic
Three questions on Section A (Individual Interaction) Four on Section B (Development and Use of
Resources) which is divided into two sections, Part A and Part B, each with two questions.

General
Three Questions on Section A (Individual Interaction). Four on Section B (Development and Use
of Resources) which is also divided into two sections, Part A and Part B, each with two questions.

There are two questions for each option in Section C.

Candidates will answer five questions, two from Section A, Two from Section B and one from
Section C.

Section A will require responses in the form of short answers. Written in complete sentences.
Section C questions will require response to Stimulus materials. This must be answered in an
essay format.

Total 80 marks

3/1 SBA for General Proficiency candidates only

3/2 Alternative to the SBA, for private candidates only.

Total 35 marks

This subject is graded on a six-point scale 1 6 and a letter grade A, B, C,... for each of the three
profile dimensions, Knowledge, Interpretation and Application.

Candidates wishing to sit this examination are encouraged to buy a syllabus, which will help you
in following your teacher or the information to be found in the Youth Link. It will also help you to
read ahead and to be prepared for your classes.
Questions and Answers On Social Problems

Maureen Campbell
Contributor

WHAT IS MEANT BY DRUG DEPENDENCY?

Drug dependence is a situation where an addict feels he/she must have drugs
in order to live; this is the term to describe psychological dependence.
Physical dependence occurs when the body metabolism adapts to the
presence of the drugs, when the drug is removed strong withdrawal
symptoms are produced. This withdrawal syndrome is experienced as
sickness, stomach upset and muscular pain. Hallucinations and convulsions
may also occur.

EXPLAIN WHY ALCOHOL IS A DRUG

Alcohol is a drug because it affects the body tissues and as a result influences behaviour.

BRIEFLY OUTLINE THREE REASONS WHY PEOPLE BECOME DEPENDENT ON DRUGS

People become dependent on drugs because of curiosity, believing drugs will improve mental
processes. Fashionable. Thinking they are not addictive and following friends and in an attempt to
escape from reality.

LIST FIVE WAYS IN WHICH EXCESSIVE ALCOHOL DRINKING MAY DAMAGE HEALTH

Heavy drinking may enlarge the liver and passage of blood through it is slowed down. This
increases the blood pressure putting extra stress on the heart muscle, which may also be
damaged directly by the alcohol.

* Cirrhosis of the liver The liver swells with fatty tissue, cells are destroyed and connective tissue
is deposited.

* Vitamin B1 is frequently deficient in alcoholics.

* Bleeding from the stomach lining may occur.

* Alcoholics frequently experience memory loss. The rate of reaction time is slowed down as the
brain and nerve impulse transmission is affected.

* Kidney increases excretion of water.

* Speech becomes slurred.

HOW CAN YOU TELL IF SOMEONE IS AN ALCOHOLIC?

You may be able to tell if someone is an alcoholic by observing violent behaviour, criminal
activities performed by individuals, car accidents, depression, illness, unhappy family life, poor
work habits and absenteeism from work.

EXPLAIN THREE WAYS IN WHICH THE SPREAD OF VENEREAL DISEASE COULD BE

CONTROLLED

* Attend special clinics set up to provide treatment at the first suggestion of any infection,
treatment may be more effective if detected at an early stage.

* Trace all the sexual contacts and inform them of the likelihood of infection. This will help to
minimise the spread of the infection.

* Early treatment as we have seen is essential both to prevent serious damage to the patient and
to reduce the chances of spreading the disease.

* Infections in most cases is caused by close body contact through sexual relations, control is in
the hands of each individual adult.

* Do not have sexual relationships with an infected person. Avoid all contact with blood from
other people. This is why experiments with human blood is no longer allowed in school courses.

SUGGEST REASONS WHY IT IS

NECESSARY TO DISCOURAGE PEOPLE
FROM SMOKING.

Surveys have shown that deaths from

bronchitis and emphysema are twenty
times more common among middle-aged
men who smoke heavily, than among
non-smokers.

* Coronary heart disease is three times

more likely among smokers than non-
smokers.

* Heavy cigarette smokers are thirty times more likely to die from lung cancer than non-smokers.
Only ten per cent of all deaths from lung cancer occur in non-smokers.

* All types of smoking are responsible for the increase in cancers of the mouth, including the lips,
tongue, pharynx and larynx.
* Smoking also harms the digestion, because nicotine decreases the production of gastric juices.

* Many non-smokers find tobacco smoke unpleasant.

* Lighted cigarette ends thrown away carelessly commonly cause fires.

* Women who smoke have more abortion, stillbirths and premature births, than non-smoking
mothers do. Babies born to mothers who smoke are smaller in size. Nicotine may cross the
placental barrier to harm the foetus. P. Gadd Human and Sociology, pg. 214

WHAT IS PREJUDICE?

Prejudice is an attitude, a rigid emotional predisposition to respond negatively toward all

members of a particular group or social category. To be prejudiced is to have a preconceived
opinion about others. An individual may be good, noble, generous, kind, and helpful, but may be
rated by the image of his race, religion, and nationality rather than by an assessment of his
individual characteristics. Prejudice is acquired, not inborn, prejudice is not inherited: it is
'taught'. Prejudice is unlearned as members of various groups come to know each other as
persons instead of stereotypes.

WHAT DO YOU UNDERSTAND BY THE TERM DISCRIMINATION?

Discrimination is overt behaviour toward another person that is different from the individual's
usual behaviour toward others. It is differential treatment towards others. In our society,
discrimination may take place in various forms such as in education, voting, employment, group
membership, legal, occupational, political and social. It has been seen as unfair treatment or
injurious distinctions, especially unfair treatment. The dominant group treats members of the
minority group differently because of a variety of fears, fear of intermarriage, fear of job
competition, fear of loss of political power and special privileges, fear of decline of their own social
status should they associate with them.

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME

Signs and symptoms

Weakened body resistance/immunity, hence death from other diseases e.g. Pneumonia. Lack of
white blood cells.

Method of spread

Homosexual and heterosexual intercourse. Drug addicts, infected needles. Blood

contact/transfusion.
Child Abuse As A Social Problem

Maureen Campbell
Contributor

CHILD ABUSE

CHILD ABUSE may be as old as human history. In many circumstances, what we now term as
child abuse was not seen as this. Children were overworked, maybe even underfed, in many
circumstances. Child labour was common and appeared useful. However, it is now seen as a social
problem. Many persons are trying to find the motive and consequences of/for child abuse.

According to the Webster Comprehensive Dictionary, a child is an offspring of either sex of human
parents, a son or daughter; a young person at any age less than maturity but most commonly
one between infancy and youth. Child abuse can be seen as child maltreatment, or the ill
treatment of a minor, anyone below the age of 18.

Child abuse may take the following forms.

* Psychological such actions as ridicule, humiliation, 'You are good for nothing', "yuh behave
just like your wutless pupa" and many such verbal abuse are hurled at children constantly. These
damage one's ego and the social esteem that that individual places on him/herself.

* Emotional neglect This is where caregivers fail to meet children's needs for affection and
emotional support. No time or not enough time is spent socialising with children, showing them
love, understanding and the support everyone needs, that of knowing that someone loves and
cares for you.

* Physical neglect Often times children are deprived; they do not receive enough food,
clothing, medical care or supervision. They spend hours alone at home and at times, this
loneliness causes them to search for friendship in the wrong places. Many parents have to leave
home each working day to 'make ends meet', obviously gambling with the safety of their children.
Children may also, on the other hand, be left with persons ill-equipped to deal with the needs of
somebody else's child. Some mothers may even abandon their children because they have
become a hindrance. According to B.A. Rohlehr and K. Seepersad, most women who abandon
their children are often unmarried, unemployed mothers between the ages of 16 and 25.

* Sexual abuse Adults make sexual comments,

fondles and might even have sexual intercourse with a minor. (In Jamaica sexual consent can be
given at the age of sixteen (16). Stories/tales have been told of parents wanting to be the first to
have sexual intercourse with their children.

* Physical abuse This is defined as assaults on children that produces pain, cuts, welts, bruises,
burns, broken bones and other injuries. Some parents may inflict severe punishment and wounds
on their young children because of emotional stress, frustration with life or simply because they
are unable to cope with the problems of child rearing. Some examples from Trinidad in 1975
include:

a. A four-year-old boy had his head dipped in a pot of boiling water by his father.
b. An eight-year-old boy was severely burnt with a hot iron on the buttocks for stealing milk and
sugar.

CAUSES OF CHILD MALTREATMENT

Some reasons given are:

* Psychological disturbance of parents.

* Alcohol and drug abuse as this need must be satisfied.

* History of abuse as a child, it has been said that a person who grows up with abuse will in turn
abuse his or her children.

* The belief in harsh, physical discipline "Don't spare the rod and spoil the child". So the rod of
correction may be used mercilessly, as a corrective disciplinary measure.

* Not being able to satisfy unmet emotional needs because of the child.

* Unreasonable expectations from child and for child behaviour.

* Young immature 'misguided' parent.

* Low educational attainment.

* Unmanageable parental stress usually caused from lack of finance.

* Low income, unemployment, marital conflict, overcrowded living conditions; extreme household
disorganisation can cause abusive homes.

SOME SIGNS OF CHILD ABUSE

* A child's behaviour can cause him/her to be abused, such as a child with difficult temperament,
inattentiveness and over-activity, and also developmental problems.

* Poor attendance at school, unhappiness most of the time, the fear of being too close to other
people so causing physical contact. Withdrawn and afraid to take part in some discussions.

* Signs of physical abuse, cuts, bruises, welts and child suffering from excessive pains when
touched by someone.

CONSEQUENCES OF CHILD ABUSE (ON THE CHILD)

* It can lead over time to learning and adjustment problems, such as academic failure, severe
depression and difficulties with peers, substance abuse, and delinquency.

* It can impair the development of empathy and sympathy, self-concept and use of social skills.

* Low self esteem, high anxiety, self-blame and attempts to escape; usually the escape route is
suicide.
* Poor behaviour in schools, discipline problems, non-compliance and poor motivation interfere
with academic achievement.

CAN CHILD ABUSE BE PREVENTED?

* To minimise the possibility of child abuse occurring, it is vital that young people understand the
importance of building a positive self-concept, selecting a career and developing a stable
relationship before choosing a partner in marriage.

* Successful prevention of child abuse requires efforts of the family, community and societal
levels.

* It is also necessary to promote public awareness of child abuse. This can be accomplished
through publications and media campaigns.

* There are groups such as the Child Guidance Clinic, Counsellors/Social Workers, British save the
Children Fund, The Rape Unit, VOUCH, Children Services Division: Ministry of Education and
Culture and the police. These groups are dedicated to the prevention and treatment of abused
children. These groups also provide support to child abusing parents.

* The Family Court is involved in all sorts of problems which may arise in a family and which need
expert attention. Other projects to meet children's needs include day-care centre, children's
homes, local sponsorship for needy children, children's libraries, theatres, playgrounds and
holiday camps.

A CLOSER LOOK AT SEXUAL ABUSE

Sexual abuse is committed against children of both sexes, generally the abuser is a male, a
parent or someone the child or parents know well. Abusers usually choose children who are
unlikely to defend themselves, physically weak, emotionally deprived and socially isolated. The
child is made through deception, bribery, intimidation or physical force to take part in vaginal or
anal intercourse (buggery), oral genital contact, fondling and the stimulation of the adult genitals.

CONSEQUENCES:

The child has a low esteem, mistrust of adults, sleeping difficulty, loss of appetite, fearfulness and
depression.

TEENAGE PREGNANCY

Early childbearing imposes hardships on two generations, adolescent and the new-born baby.
Teenage parents have not yet established a clear sense of direction for their own lives; therefore
the following problems may develop for teenage parent.

* Giving birth before age eighteen reduces the likelihood of finishing high school.

* They tend to have marital problems and often have additional out-of-wedlock births in quick
succession hoping to get a better chance next time. Many of these parents find themselves with
children for even five different fathers. They may tend to abuse whose father is not 'minding'
them.
* If teenage mothers are employed, their limited education restricts them to unsatisfying low-paid
jobs. Adolescent fathers obtain less education if they work, they become economically
disadvantaged.

* Children of teenagers are believed to be at risk of receiving very poor parenting, as teenagers
are children themselves, being thrust into responsibility when they themselves need care and
attention.

* Teenagers' babies, because of not receiving early prenatal care, might have complications and
low birth weight. Some teenagers tend to hide their pregnancy as long as possible for fear and so
do not get the first months of prenatal care. It is also evident that some refuse to attend clinic
because of the comments, sneers and poor attitudes they experience from others.

* Many teenage pregnancies end up in abortion or miscarriages, bodies not ready, poor care of
the bodies, or parents or the baby father might be willing, influential and able financially to
terminate an unwanted pregnancy.

PREVENTING TEENAGE PREGNANCY

* Sex education In schools and via the media, creative discussions and role-playing. This should
start at an early age, so as to curb the mind against sexual indulgence at too early an age.

* Promoting the value of abstinence. A phrase I often use in my class, "If you don't indulge you
won't bulge."

* Providing ready access or information of/to contraceptives. We know that there will be some
persons we cannot reach easily, they will indulge in sexual activity, so we should be willing to help
them to have protected sex.

* By expanding educational, vocational and employment opportunities, giving young people good
reasons to postpone procreation.

JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

These are children or adolescent under the age of 18 who engage in illegal acts. Delinquency
takes place when a person under 18 years old commits a felony or
misdemeanour.

SOME CAUSES

* Poor temperament

* Low intelligence, poor school performance,

* Peer rejection or acceptance is linked to delinquency.

* Although many factors are related to delinquency, one of the most consistent is a family
environment low in warmth, high in conflict and characterised by inconsistent discipline.

* Poverty stricken neighbourhoods with high crime rates also can promote adolescent law
breaking.

PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF DELINQUENTS

Parental supervision, counselling, reform centres and media and school influence.

ACTIVITY

Write a letter to the Prime Minister of your country listing ten social problems that you are
acquainted with, outline to him the cause of three of these problems and inform him of some of
the consequences of these social problems. Finally, make three practicable suggestions that could
be implemented to reduce these social problems in our society.

The Business of Drug Abuse

* Legal: Any substance, other than food, intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation,
treatment, prevention of disease in man or other animals.

* Illegal: Any narcotic: also any substance or chemical agent, exclusive of food, employed for
other than medical reasons to obtain a given physiological effect or to satisfy a craving.

Drug Addict: One addicted to a habit-forming drug.

ABUSE

* To use improperly or injuriously; misuse.

* To hurt by treating wrongly; injure, vicious conduct, practices or act.

(Webster Comprehensive Dictionary)

DRUG ADDICTION

A state of dependence on a habit forming drug or drugs. It includes an overwhelming desire to

continue taking the drug, dependence on the effects of the drug and a tendency to increase the
dosage.

The body begins to require increased quantities in order to experience the same effects, until
eventually it needs the drug merely to feel 'normal'.

There are a number of drugs that produce the state of addiction

NARCOTICS

* Opiates: which includes heroin, codeine, opium and morphine. Opiates depress the nervous
system slowing down bodily processes, relieving physical pain, relaxing the muscles, inducing
drowsiness and producing a sense of well-being and contentment.

* Hallucinogens

LSD, PCP, mescaline, DMT, STP and DET. The physical effects of these drugs include dilation of the
pupils and an increase in blood pressure, temperature and pulse rate. Nausea and feelings of
numbness or being cold may also occur. These drugs alter the individual perceptions. A mild form
of this drug is marijuana. This drug causes a slight increase in heartbeat and reddening of the
whites of the eyes. It affects the perception, memory and thought processes.

* Depressants

Barbiturate; these are sedatives, such as seconal and nembutal, sleeping pills, tranquilisers, and
alcohol use to induce sleep, relieve anxiety or produce a feeling of drunkenness. These drugs
relax the nervous system, slow down the heart rate and lower the blood pressure. Large doses
can produce slurred speech, lack of co-ordination, confusion and sometimes anger and irritability.
An overdose results in death.

* Stimulants

Amphetamines (diet pills, cocaine, pep pills and ganja). These are stimulants, they provide relief
from fatigue, produces feelings of elation and bring on both mental and physical alertness. The
heart and metabolism speed up. Examples are caffeine found in coffee, tea, and Cola drinks and
nicotine found in tobacco.

USES OF DRUGS

* Drugs may be used for medical purposes. When this is done, drugs can be very beneficial to
such users. Drugs are beneficial in ways such as:

a. To prevent infection

b. To prevent premature death and epidemics

c. To ease pain and suffering

d. To aid in surgery

e. For sleep and relaxation

f. For the control of chronic disorders and disease such as cancer, diabetes, heart disease and
epilepsy.

* Drugs may also be used for social purposes, such as to be accepted into certain groups.

* Drugs may be used as an attempt to escape from personal problems, and even from reality.

* Drugs may at times be presented as a means of defying authority, whether societal or parental
or both in a lot of cases.

DRUG ABUSE OR MISUSE

* Drug abuse or substance abuse is the misuse of various

substances by individuals either because of ignorance of
the possible effects or because they wish to experience a
special feel a high

* Abuse happens when substances are used for the wrong

reason e.g. sniffing gasoline or cocaine to feel high.

* When some substances are used in large quantities and

maybe too often e.g. alcohol

* Mixing substances, e.g. drinking alcohol and sniffing cocaine.

According to United Nations publications 1982:

* The individual individuals who abuse drugs have been found to be in poor physical health, to be
poorly adjusted psychologically, and to be exposed to illegal drugs:

* The drug drug abuse is highest in societies in which abusable drugs are readily available,
attitudes toward drugs are lenient and medical personnel are lax in prescription habits.

* The environment certain environment conditions which are thought to relate to drug abuse are
poverty, poor nutrition, inadequate living conditions, social unrest, illiteracy, migration and high
level of competition between and within social classes.

"Resource Book on Measures to

reduce Illicit demand for Drugs."

REASONS WHY THERE IS DRUG ABUSE (TEENAGERS AND ADOLESCENTS)

* curiosity

* peer influence
* curiosity and experimenting

* acting on a dare

* boredom

* imitating an adult (role modelling)

* accidental use

* persuasive advertisement (tobacco and cigarette)

* Enhancement of performance in sports.

* To camouflage personal weakness and to assist in coping with life's problems.

Available data on drug abuse in the Caribbean indicate that the drug abuse problem is growing.
One indicator of the growth is the increase in quantity of illegal drugs reported seized, especially
marijuana and cocaine in Jamaica.

SOME IMPLICATIONS OF DRUG ABUSE

* Psychological or physiological dependence, requiring rehabilitation or

treatment.

* The drug may cause damage to the heart, liver, brain and chromosomes.

* A shortening of life expectancy or death.

* Taking drugs may lead to accidents, crime, prostitution and suicide.

* Drug users may lose incentive for work, school or play, companionship of friends.

* This may result in family relationship problems, work absenteeism, loss of job.

* Drug abuse inevitably leads to economic problems since the drugs abused can be very
expensive.

* Rehabilitation and treatment services are also an economic drain on any

community.

WHAT CAN/HAS BE/BEEN DONE TO REDUCE THE ABUSE OF DRUGS

* The community has established laws and law enforcement agencies and provides educational
programmes to prevent and reduce the abuse of drugs. In many Caribbean countries public and
private agencies and organisations are set up to establish campaign, educate the public and
rehabilitate and treat drug users. In Jamaica examples are "Alcoholics Anonymous" and
"National Council on Drug Abuse".

* Sources available to help people with drug problems include school guidance counsellors,
nurses, doctors, psychiatrist, priest.
* Individuals should establish realistic goals, accept responsibilities, develop a variety of interests
and participate in leisure time activities and hobbies.

* It is important that teenagers resist peer pressure and acquire appropriate social relationship.

* Compulsory warnings about the dangers of smoking on cigarette packs.

* Advertisements encouraging people to 'say no to drugs'.

* Educational programmes on the dangers of drugs.

* Those who have already started using drugs you need to seek help, those who want to start
take this advice:

Drugs can kill

Drugs can make you ill,
And it can make you kill
Drugs can destroy your brain
And it can make you feel pain.
Drugs will make you thin,
It will make you feel pain within.
Drugs will make you die,
It will make your parents cry

Orpheil Dennis

ACTIVITY

1. "The increase in substance abuse reflects society's failure to care for its young."

a. List three types of drugs/substances that some young people in the Caribbean abuse. 3 marks

b. State three causes of the abuse of drugs among young people. 3 marks

c. Explain three effects that drug abuse among young people may have on the society. 6 marks

d. Suggest, with reference to the Caribbean, three measures that can be taken to stop the
increase in drug use.
5 marks

e. Name one disease caused by the abuse of tobacco.

1 mark

f. Name two legal substances in the Caribbean. 2 marks

Total 20 marks
Understanding Social Problems

OBJECTIVE: EXAMINE the influence of contemporary social issues on Caribbean family life.

(NB. This will be looked at over a two-week period: issues such as teenage pregnancy,
street children, alternative lifestyles, substance abuse, juvenile delinquency, sexually
transmitted diseases, child abuse, poverty, desertion, suicide, promiscuity, incest,
domestic violence, care and concern for the aged and those
with special needs).

Poverty Index is a social concept that is defined as an income level

below which a person or family is said to be in poverty, that, is to
be unable to afford basic necessities, such as providing a home.

* What makes a situation a social problem?

* What can be done to solve social problems?

Undoubtedly we are all aware of the problem areas in our society.

These glare at us daily, as every day the newspapers print stories
about such problems and the TV stations are not in all cases
discriminating against what they shows to us. We see and hear of
child abuse, domestic violence, neglect of our elderly and handicapped, discrimination of all sorts,
drug abuse and exportation, crime and delinquency, poverty and promiscuity.

The word 'social' pertains to human relationships and the word 'problem' has been defined as a
perplexing question for which we seek an answer. If we should, therefore, put these two words
together, we see a social problem as undesirable; we do not want them. A social problem can,
therefore, be defined as a condition involving human relationships that is considered undesirable
by a large number of people.

WHAT MAKES A SITUATION OR CONDITION A SOCIAL PROBLEM?

* The existing situation or condition is in conflict with one or more of the values and norms of the
society. It is therefore considered undesirable according to the values of that society. There is a
difference between what 'should' be and what 'is'.

* The problem must be large enough to affect the entire community or society, directly or
indirectly. Enough people are involved for the problem to disrupt the normal functioning of the
social system in some way.

* For it to become a social problem a large amount of persons would have to be aware of it and
regard it as a social problem. Conditions may exist for many years before they become social
problems, simply because people are not aware that there is a problem. Slavery existed for many
years before it was widely considered a social problem. It became a social problem when people
began to regard slavery as unjust and inhumane, that it came to be defined as a social problem.

* People must believe, feel that something can be done and that the situation requires collective
social action. Usually this belief in collective social action and its effectiveness results in the
development of some social movement. We have seen in history such movements as the abolition
of slavery. People organised for collective action because they felt that something could be done
about the problem.

In summary, for a particular condition to be a social problem, then there must be a conflict about
what 'ought' to be and what 'is'; the condition must affect a substantial number of people; a
substantial number of people must define the condition as a problem and people must feel that
something can be done about the problem through collective action.

'PROBLEM WITH SOCIAL PROBLEMS'

There are various attitudes displayed about social problems such as:

* Some persons feel strongly about the problem and work hard to alleviate it.

* Some are indifferent to the problem because it does not affect them directly.

* Some persons are strongly opposed to doing anything about the problem. They like the
situation the way it is and feels no real problem or threat exists. Many view slums as a social
problem, but others see slums as a profitable business.

* People believe that in reality, few social problems can be completely solved. Some of us want
the problem solved, but we do not want the solution to affect our customary habits and
relationship. A woman complains to the police that her husband is physically abusing her, the
police ask her if she wanted to press charges, she said 'no, I only want you to talk to him'.

* Then there are those who believe that the problem will go away if people will just leave it alone.

ACTIVITIES

* Make a list of some situations and conditions that you consider to be social problems:

* Discuss a particular social problem in terms of whether everyone wants to see it solved. What
are the major existing attitudes toward finding a solution to the problem? What is your attitude?

WHY THEN DO WE STUDY SOCIAL PROBLEMS?

* To develop an awareness of social problems. As citizens we should be aware of the social
problems of our society. Any mention of a social problem in the mass media or public
conversation should quickly catch your attention.

* To gain factual knowledge of social problems. We are to be aware of the facts if we are to make
an intelligent analysis of the problem.

* To develop a proper perspective toward social problems. Such a person will be calm and be able
to view the situation comprehensively, knowing that the history of mankind has always been
plagued with social problems. Societies are constantly changing. Enlightened persons take social
problems in stride and attempt to do what they can to alleviate the situation.

* To develop a personal orientation toward social problems. An individual, it is argued, is

extremely important in bringing about social changes. The individual can discuss, campaign, vote
and act. Each individual must determine the part they play in society as each individual has a part
to play in social affairs.

ACTIVITIES

* What are some reasons for studying social problems?

* In what ways do you think that you might benefit from the study of the social problems of your
society?

* Do a content analysis of the mass media to determine which social problems are discussed the
most, and what collective action is taking place to help solve the problem. What action would you
recommend?

SOME CONCEPTS YOU SHOULD KNOW

* Crime: Any act prohibited by law and punishable by the state.

* Discrimination: Overt behaviour toward another person that is different from the individuals
usual behaviour toward others.

* Drug addiction: A state of dependence on a habit-forming drug or drugs. It includes an

overwhelming desire to continue taking the drug, dependence on the effects of the drug and a
tendency to increase the dosage.

* Incest: Sexual relations between persons who are closely related by blood.

* Prejudice: An attitude, a rigid emotional predisposition to respond negatively toward all

members of a particular group or social category.

* Alcoholism: A 'diseased' condition caused by the excessive use of alcoholic liquors. The true
alcoholic cannot control his use of liquor.

* Delinquent: One who does not conform to the laws of a society. The word commonly refers to
a juvenile offender, eighteen years of age or under.

* Poverty index: An income level below which a person or family is said to be in poverty, that,
is, to be unable to afford basic necessities.
Make an effort to start looking at the various social problems referred to in the objective.

Family Life In The Caribbean

OBJECTIVES:

* COMPARE THE different family unions in the Caribbean.

* Describe the roles, relationship, and responsibilities of adult and sibling members of Caribbean
families.

* Explain the persistence and/or influence of some aspects of African, European, Amerindian and
Asian family patterns in the Caribbean.

SOME UNIONS IN THE CARIBBEAN

Visiting Relationship

Women are usually the people being visited. It is otherwise termed as "friending relationship".
There is no permanent father figure as the man visits the woman at intervals. This type of
relationship is easily and often broken, but can also end in marriage. It may also in many cases
lead to serial monogamy where a person keeps going through several of these relationships.

Consensual or Common Law Union

This term is used to describe the sharing (cohabitation) of a household by an unmarried couple.
Studies tend to indicate that the economic status systems of the society are very important in
determining family forms. Cohabitation without marriage and various degrees of union instability
have become the expected and accepted pattern for low status group. There are those who refuse
to get married unless they can have an elaborate wedding, inviting many friends and relatives to
witness, eat and be merry.

Monogamy

The norms of the Caribbean society permit only one marriage partner at a time. The marriage of
one man to one woman is called monogamy. Monogamy is the most common form of marriage
and is to be found all over the world.

Roles, relationship and responsibilities of family members

Once a Man Twice a Child

Man begins life as a dependent and often returns to a dependent stage in old age. Roles keep
changing because the capabilities and roles of people differ at various ages. The child is
dependent upon adults for food, shelter, and other necessities because he has yet to develop
physical or social skills of his own.

The very young

The young, therefore, has to be cared for by loving parents or older siblings, protected,
disciplined and guided. Their major tasks are to learn the patterns of behaviour and the skills,
which the culture provides through the socialisation process.
Adolescent

The adolescent is still financially dependent on his parents and also for support and guidance.
However, he is able to help out in the home, guiding, protecting and helping with chores around
the home.

Role of Men and Woman

Studies done at UWI indicate that traditional ascription for men and women are still very strong in
the Caribbean. The role of providing for the family is ascribed as the first and foremost
responsibility of men. A man who cannot provide for his family is not a man. According to studies
conducted when persons were asked particular questions they responded that "even when a
female partner is working, provision is never seen as her major responsibility; her 'baby father' is
expected to provide financial support for his offspring."

Man is also seen as the protector of his family and must therefore be aggressive, tough and
strong. Manhood also seems to imply authority, over women and offspring, which have been
given by biblical authority they argue.

Some literature indicates that role shifts are taking place that men are participating more in the
care and nurturing of their children and sharing domestic duties with their female partners. On
the other hand studies still suggest that women remain the major caregivers of children and
homemakers for families. (Olmsted and Wakart 1995). Indoor duties are generally seen as
female, outdoor as male, women's work is seen as light, men's work as heavy. There are many
that see men who help in the home as soft or as a "maama man".

Father Mother

Disciplinarian Caregiver

Provider/breadwinner/financial provider Nurturer Counsellor Homemaker

Protector Entertainer

Inculcates moral values The shopper

Siblings

The goals of parents for their children are similar, but the way it is achieved is different. Boys and
girls therefore are given roles based on their gender in the homes. Boys are geared to fit them as
later providers and protectors of the family and as inheritors of family name/property. Girls will
help in the home and care parents in old age.

Boys are therefore assigned outdoor "heavy" work while girls do household and child care tasks
inside the home. "Light work". It is felt that when boys are given indoor work such as washing
their clothes or cooking, it is to enable them to care for themselves until they get married or for
when their wives are sick.

Girls tend to receive closer monitoring, but boys generally receive heavier punishment. Boys are
not suppose to receive too much petting as they must grow "tough". Girls are expected to cry but
boys are not to be "cry, cry baby".
AFRICAN, EUROPEAN, AMERINDIAN AND ASIAN INFLUENCE ON CARIBBEAN FAMILY
LIFE

Caribbean family life has been greatly affected by the "People who came" and settled, and
conquered the indigenous peoples. Several critical historical/social factors such as colonisation,
slavery and indentureship, Indian, Amerindian, and African cultural retention's interwoven with
European forms of family life have greatly affected the context of the Caribbean family life.

One of the most striking features of Caribbean family is the dominant position of women, both in
relation to children and in relation to its structure, and conversely the apparently marginal
presence or sometimes complete absence of men. Few other places in the world claim over 30 per
cent of female-headed households as exist throughout the Caribbean. (Brown, Anderson and
Chevannes 1993 Readings on the Family).

This is a reminder that the matrifocality of Afro-Caribbean majority is well documented historical
fact. That is the dominance of mother in family life. Edith Clarke (1957) gave prominence to
economic conditions which affect family forms, the higher the income the more likely it was that
families mirrored European style of marriage/patriarchal form. European family life puts emphasis
on the nuclear family as the basic, norm for family life. They form nuclear families with a man and
a woman united through Christian marriage, they try to sustain a steady relationship with each
other and who also will produce children. Children are seen as essential to the idea of family.

Low income families were more likely to be female headed dominated, within visiting or common-
law unions and with lower male participation in the home, a result of poor family life structure
from the plantation era. One major handicap which slavery forced upon blacks was an unstable
family structure. Wives were separated from husbands and children from their parents. The white
masters, rather than the black father, was considered the authority in the slave quarter.

In this situation, males had to sneak out to visit their loved ones. Even when slaves fathered
children on the plantation where they were, they could not assume responsibility as they were
property so their children belonged in economic terms to another man the planter who owned
them. We might conclude that these men might have carried on the concept, 'get children
someone else must support them', a trend still in use in the Caribbean where some males refuse
to support their offsprings.

The historical influences are undeniable; there is some doubt as to the survival of some aspects of
African family forms, but they have affected the patterns set up during slavery. Slavery has
produced particular types of family relationships, it has been argued that plantation conditions
encouraged these types of family
patterns.

The Caribbean family structure has been affected by the masses of displaced persons from Africa
and Asia in particular. These people have tried to create viable family lives under constitutions
that were extremely difficult. But social conditions on plantations made marital formalities
increasingly irrelevant, and even today, the predominant family type in some Caribbean lower
class might be the common-law union.

Indians in the Caribbean, especially in Guyana, have tried to maintain family customs such as
early marriage, marriage within their tribe and a patriarchial household, but they also to some
extent have been affected by the cultural conditions surrounding them although not to a great
extent as is evident in the lives of the Africans.

According to RT Smith and others, in Guyana the early traditional East Indian marriages often
break down and are replaced by "legal marriages" or common-law unions. However, many
Chinese and Indians have refused to intermarry with other ethnic groups. They believe in family
life, the kinship group, procreation and the function of the family in society.

In the Amerindian world women were seen as homemakers, cooks, good mothers and dutiful
wives. Work was gender related, Amerindians believed that girls should be taught to be replicas of
their mother and boys to grow up in the footsteps of their father. Family life was centred around
an entire tribe.

ACTIVITY

Rock My Baby

...Over bush tea

in the morning

the mother begs

the child

no thief

mi pickney

no thief...

Using the mother's advice in the poem above, suggest an incident which could cause the child to
value this advice. In your description you should explain the function which this Caribbean mother
is
performing.

* Explain also, how the wider society complements this role of the mother and state what other
functions/roles a mother performs for her
children.

Family: 'The Backbone Of Society'

Maureen Campbell
Contributor

OBJECTIVES:

* Evaluate the major functions of the family in contemporary Caribbean society.

* Compare different family types and unions in the Caribbean.

FUNCTIONS OF THE FAMILY

Functions of the family are never exhaustive, vary and are not provided by all families. These
functions mentioned below might be ideally what is expected of families but as mentioned not
practised by all families.

1. REPRODUCTION/PROCREATION:

Although family patterns vary from society to society, as do the norms for premarital sexual
relations, in all societies the family performs the function of reproduction and seems to be the
main unit for child rearing. Procreation is therefore necessary, if a society is to persist, there must
be replacement for the members who die.

2. ECONOMIC:

The family is the basic economic unit as it serves as both a unit of production and consumption.
Family requires items such as housing, holidays, television, and cars or as most people say it
provides the basic necessities of life which involves food, shelter and clothing.

3. PROTECTION:

In some societies protection is still a major function of the family. Care of the sick, elderly,
disabled or unemployed are all ways in which families have protected their members.

4. SOCIALISATION AND CULTURAL TRANSMISSION:

The family has emerged as the basic social unit, handing on the norms and
values of society from generation to generation. Families are taking a major role in socialising
younger ones to play their part in society. As a group the family is characterised by closeness,
warmth, love, empathy, trust and interdependence and as such it is the major social institution
that is largely responsible for the socialisation of the child.

It is the family that the child develops the skills of the inter-group life. He/she learns the language
and other communication skills through the family and acquires an understanding for the likes
and dislikes of his/her community and culture. The attitude, mores, norms and values of the
family become those of the child, and equipped with such the child begins to interpret and
understand the world outside.

5. COMPANIONSHIP, AFFECTION AND INTIMACY:

It is quite sad, but not all family provides this type of environment, but norms in most societies
suggest that they should. An individual needs companionship, affection and intimacy with another
human being or beings for physical and psychological well
being. It is in the family that an individual first finds love
and affection and a sense of belonging without having to
prove his/her worth.

6. CONFERRING ASCRIBED STATUSES:

The family gives the child status. When a baby enters the
world he receives a status from his parents. This is called
an ascribed status as the child had no opportunity to chose
his parents.
7. EDUCATION:

Parents lay the foundation and provide opportunities for the education of the child. Even though
the school is responsible for the formal education of the child, the parents still plays their role by
contributing to the informal education of the child.

FAMILY TYPES

Nuclear

Mother, father and children living together.

This type of family is small, made up of two generations or persons adopted, more flexible.
Usually found in modern industrial societies. May have emerged out of industrialisation, where
persons had to move to find employment, this made it difficult or impossible to move with a lot of
persons to a new location in a time when housing was scarce. In this family type the father is
regarded in most societies as the head of the family, the 'breadwinner', the provider. There is
greater independence in childcare and home management. If there is a problem between husband
and wife, they may find little consolation or comfort within the family itself. A sense of
individualism and insularity can develop in the nuclear family.

If divorce, death or separation occurs in a nuclear family, there are extensive readjustments
necessary, in economic arrangements, care of children, social participation, and emotional
involvement.

In this type of family women seems to have the responsibility for childcare and domestic chores.

Extended

This consists of a large number of people, typically three or more generations, grandparents,
parents, children, aunts, uncles and cousins living together.

According to sociologists the extended family was common in pre-industrial societies. This type is
also known as the consanguine family (based on blood ties).

Loss of an adult in this family may only require minor adjustments; all adults serve to some
degree as parents. There tends to be less disruption in the life of a divorcee who has a regular
pattern of sociability and close co-operation with kin.

The old, the disabled and the sick are regarded as a family responsibility and become less
'burdensome' when care can be administered by more persons. Cultural traditions are handed
down more easily, through direct contact with older members of the family. Conflict may arise
between members of the extended family over such things as, financial obligation, use of
equipment, chores, responsibilities and 'who is the boss'.

Single Parent

This family consists of only one parent living with his or her child or children.

The single parent family is an observable pattern, although seldom preferred in the Caribbean. It
occurs in many cases under conditions that are uncongenial to male responsibility. Example, when
men do not have a steady job, are 'playing around trying to find 'Mrs. Right', promiscuous, refuse
to marry or cannot marry because they are already married. The entry of women in large
numbers into the labour force has also helped to encourage women who are financially capable of
caring for their children alone to form single parent households. It is felt and observed in many
cases, however, that the lone parenthood, especially if it is a woman, increases the risks of
poverty, as it might limit the woman's ability to work and to further her education. (This may be
true for men but to a lesser extent). Some studies advocate that a father and a mother each
make a distinctive contribution to a child's social development, so it is unrealistic to expect one
parent alone to do as good a job as two working together. There is a possible absence of love and
affection of both parents. If there are financial problems children may develop anxiety and stress
because of the financial and emotional burden placed on one parent. Other need that may suffer
includes health, education and recreation. Children may be over-indulged or overprotected.
However we must haste to note that children reared in single parent household can be well
adjusted, financially secure and very happy.

Sibling

This household is formed where both parents are absent from the home. Older brothers/sisters
take care of the younger ones in the home.

These type of families has some disadvantages such as: Sibling in charge tends to become
mature very quickly to suit the role he/she is performing, enters the labour force to financially
care for his/her younger siblings. These children tend to lose out on their childhood experience
and social entertainment as thy are taken up with household duties. If parents are abroad
children live on the hope that, soon they will be migrating; this has affected in many case
children's schoolwork and behaviour. There are those children who are supported by the 'barrel'
and if this is not forthcoming will find life very
difficult.

ACTIVITIES:

1. How has the post-industrial economy affected family life in the Caribbean?

2. What factors are responsible for the changing family patterns in the Caribbean?

3. Why do persons describe the family as the 'backbone of society'?

4. Do you think that single parent families do as good a job as the nuclear families in rearing
children? Give reasons for your answer.
Concepts And Terms Relating To Family

Section A
Individual Interaction
A1: Individual and Family

Specific Objective:

THE STUDENTS should be able to:

Explain concepts and terms associated with the family.

Kinship, status, extended family, nuclear family, monogamy, polyandry, patriarchal, matriarchal,
patrilocal, matrilocal, matrilineal, patrilineal, bigamy, incest, marriage, legal separation, divorce,
annulment, alimony and sibling.

In nearly all cultures the family is the most important social group, although its functions will vary
according to customs and cultural practices.

Burgess and Locke in their book The Family (1953) gave the following definition of a family.

"The family is a group of persons united by the ties of marriage, blood,

or adoption; constituting a single household, interacting and
intercommunicating with each other in their respective social role of
husband and wife, mother and father, brother and sister; creating a
common culture."
However, this definition, along with others, may not sufficiently cover all types of family. We
should therefore look at other definitions:

* The social institution whose basic function is the regulation of the replacement of the members
of a society through sexual reproduction Thomas/Anderson 1972.

* A group of individuals who are intimately related, living under the same roof. Ramsawak/Umraw
2001.

* Some Sociologist look on the family as a group of people living together, who are generally
related by blood or marriage ties, and who support each other economically and emotionally.

From the above definitions one can identify Different Family Patterns

Marriage: This relationship is based on some form of religious or cultural ceremony, which marks
them as married. Marriage can take two main basic forms:

* Monogamy

Marriage of one man and one woman only

* Polygamy

This word describes the situation where one of the partners has more than one partner from the
opposite sex.

There are two ways in which a polygamous family may be constituted:

* Polygyny: This is the marriage of one man with a number of wives. Polygyny is practised in the
Muslim, Arab states of the Middle East and in Senegal in

Africa.

* Polyandry: This is marriage of one woman with a number of husbands at the same time.
Polyandry is very rare and much more unusual than polygyny.

To what family type do you belong?

There are varying aspects of the family co-existing in all societies, there are spouses (husband
and wife) and their child/children. This family type consists of few people, typically two
generations (parents and children) that live together. This group is called the Nuclear Family. In
a polygamous society there will be several nuclear families each having one parents in common.

Each nuclear family will usually be related to many other people including aunts, uncles,
grandparents, nephews and nieces, all these people forming a kin, is termed the extended
family. It is usually a large number of people typically three or more generation, grandparents,
parents, children and grandchildren etc. who live together.

Kin: a group of people who are related by blood, and who extend beyond the immediate family.

In some societies many nuclear families, forming the extended family may all live together, share
their property and operate as a unit, in this case they are known as "Joint Family."
The Sibling Household where both parents are absent from the home and an older brother or
sister takes care of the younger ones in the home. This has become quite common in our society,
when parents, breadwinners are migrating to "greener pastures" from where they believe they
will be able to take better care of their children's financial and material needs.

The reorganised or blended family: "The Brady Bunch". This is where one or both of the
spouses may have had an earlier relationship, this relationship could have been terminated
because of death or divorce. These spouses bring child or children from the former relationships.
In such a family there may be half sisters and half brothers.

Single parent family; a common feature in many Caribbean islands, where child/children live with
only one parent. This happens when:

* death of one parent

* divorce or separation of spouse

* by choice not willing to marry but adopt or where a person is unable to marry for varying
reasons, such as;

a. because it was an unadulterous affair and the other partner usually the male is already
married.

b. They refuse to marry and live with each other, as they might not be really in love.

* one partner is in jail

Who exercises control in the family?

Status:

The social position or rank of a person

Is your family practising equalitarian authority, where authority is more or less equally divided
between mother and father? Do you instead have matriarchal authority, where mother controls
the family or is tradition lingering at your home where patriarchal authority is at work? This is a
situation where wealth and prestige come from the father who controls the family.

What kind of society are we living in?

Who do we get our inheritance rights from? Is it matrilineal, which is descent through the
female line? Patrilineal on the other hand is decent through the male line and bilineal is shared
descent through both the female and male lines.

Where do you live?

Is your home patrilocal, where families settle in or near the home of the husband's parents, or is
it matrilocal, settling in or near the home of the wife's parents? Many person, however, are not
willing to put up with the "Mother-in-law syndrome" and therefore prefer a new home, neolocal,
where families live away from the locality of both the husband's and wife's parents.

Who did you marry?

Did you marry someone outside of your immediate circle of relative or immediate community?
Then you are practising Exogamy or did you marry within your kinship group or social group?
This is termed Endogamy.

MARITAL BREAKDOWN

Divorce

This terms refers to the legal dissolution of an officially recognised marriage.

Legal separation

Where spouses agree to live apart but remain legally married.

Desertion

A partner walks out on the family. A situation in which one spouse abandons the other.

Annulment

Court decision that declares a marriage null and void, because of some legal reasons, such as
coercion, underage or bigamy.

Alimony

An allowance that is due to a wife from husbands estate upon divorce.

The following are criminal acts in the Caribbean region and elsewhere.

Bigamy

This is a situation where someone has two wives or two husbands at the same time. This is a
crime where Monogamy is practised.

Incest

Unlawful sexual relationship between people who are closely related.

ACTIVITIES:

a. Identify and explain the functions of the family in contemporary Caribbean society.

b. Compare the different family types and unions in the Caribbean

c. For Discussion: "Gender differentiation between the roles of female and male in the modern
family structure."
A Synopsis Of The Syllabus

Maureen Campbell
Contributor

ONCE AGAIN we are using this medium to help you prepare for your Social Studies examination,
this time for exams June 2003. This medium seeks to provide an overall guide to all studying this
subject whether at the Basic or General proficiency level.

This guide will give an outline of essential information for the Core topics as listed in the syllabus.
It will therefore provide our readers with a 'detailed' summary of information and sample
examination question, other stimulus to help you grasp concepts or certain topics, multiple choice
questions and a glossary of terms and concepts at the beginning of each unit.

It is imperative, however, that you buy a syllabus as this will help you to follow the presentations
and may even motivate, help you to want to read ahead. It is also necessary that you have a
clear knowledge of the Social Studies Syllabus and what is expected of you.

Here is a synopsis of the syllabus

Organisation of the syllabus

The syllabus content is organised into three major sections as follows:

Section A Individual interaction

1. Individual and family

2. Individual and society

Section B Development and Use of Resources

Section C Options

1. Communication

2. Consumer Affairs

3. Tourism

You are required only to do, know one of the options in detail for the exam.

The syllabus is offered for both General and Basic proficiency.

There are three papers. However the papers you do will depend on whether you are doing Basic
or General, whether you are a private candidate resitting or a private candidate

PLEASE NOTE THE FOLLOWING

Paper One

Both basic and general have a common Paper One; this comprises of 60 multiple-choice items. 24
items from Section A Individual Interaction and 36 from Section B, Development and Use of
Resources. This last for one and a quarter hours.

Paper Two

This will last for two and a half-hours for both General and Basic. The format of the questions
however varies according to proficiency. Five questions must however be answered for both
proficiency. This will come from all three sections of the syllabus.

Paper Three or SBA

For general proficiency candidates only. This covers an assessment of inquiry, communication,
critical thinking and decision-making skills by means of a project or special assignments drawn
from Section A or B of the Syllabus.

Paper 3/2

Alternative to the SBA for private candidates only. Questions are based on research activities.
Make sure you ask about this research activity when you pay your examination fee at the
Overseas Examination Office on Picadilly Road. You may be required to attend a seminar where
you will receive a booklet and information on the requirements for this paper.

For your information:

The syllabus emphasises profile points and this will be noted on your certificate.

Knowledge: This recognises your ability to recall facts and recognise terms, concepts and
principles and overall summaries of information relating to it. This brings home the need for a
glossary.

Interpretation: This is your ability to show your understanding of concepts, deduce and present
information in different forms and express its meaning in different ways.

Application: This measures your ability to apply material previously learned in new situations and
to show competence in evaluating information, organising ideas and making decisions based on
the facts, stimulus given.

While you are practising, writing your essays, please note carefully how a question is worded, and
do what it requires. The marks for questions will be given based on your ability to do precisely
what the question is asking.

The following definitions of terms used in CSEC examinations should help you to answer your
Social Studies Questions. (Adapted)
HOW TO DECODE A QUESTION

Generally a question on an exam paper has three parts:

1. a key verb that tells you what you are supposed to do

2. an object which tells you on what you are to perform your task

3. a limiting factor (or factors) that tells you how to go about it

HERE IS AN EXAMPLE

Explain the methods used to create humour in "The Champion of the World", by referring to
events at the climax of the story.

The key verb is - "explain"

The object is "the methods used to create humour"

The limiting factor is "refer to a specific part of the story" in this case - the events at the climax

Notice how the question ties you down fairly specifically. Obviously it would do you no good to
refer to a part of the story other than the climax. You would be wasting your time if you did. So
before beginning your answer, make sure that you read the question carefully and don't do more
or less than it tells you to do.

1. The Key Verb: The verb is the most important part of the question since it tells you what you
must do. Here is a list of the verbs which examiners often use. Beside each one is an explanation
of its meaning and a suggestion concerning the length of response required.

State: means "make your answer as clear and concise as possible".

Explain: means "go into some detail that shows a logical continuity in what

you are saying".

Evaluate: means "appraise the worth of" something. This verb asks you to judge something, to
give your opinion.

Point Out: means "look specifically at some aspect". It implies that you should be precise.

Summarise: means "take a larger work or concept and reduce it to its main ideas"

Describe: means "go into some detail about the object".

Illustrate: means go directly to the work in question and by means of short, key quotations
and/or specific reference to come up with support for your point.

Note: Unless writing an essay, do not use lengthy quotations. Often a word or a sentence is
sufficient to illustrate a point. If the question has two key verbs from example, "Describe and
illustrate..., "remember to do both."
List: (without any modifying expression, such as "in order")

Trace: means "arrange the items in a meaningful sequence". This might be chronological order,
cause-and-effect relationship, or order of importance.

Outline: means "sketch a plan for a fully developed essay", perhaps with headings and sub-
headings.

Define: means "explain the meaning" of a particular expression. A definition should be illustrated
with at least one specific example.

Compare: means "make an idea clear by calling attention to similarities and differences". To be
convincing, comparison requires specific examples.

Contrast: means much the same as compare, except that it focuses attention on the difference
between items rather than on the similarities.

It too, requires specific examples.

Analyse: means "break down into parts and examine each part critically". To an analyse a
character, you might consider two or three important personality traits; then you would give
concrete examples to illustrate each trait; finally, you would show the relationship between the
person's actions and personality.

Discuss: means "formulate an idea or thesis" about something. This requires

a longer answer since you are expected to go into some detail

2. The Object: The question always asks to perform a task on something, such as theme,
character, method, etc. Thus the object that here, too, you don't do more or less than is required.
For example, if the question asks you to explain the method... "don't deal with only one method
or you will not be answering the question fully". You might have to define or explain, if you were
asked to "discuss the mental qualities", of a certain character, you would have to name those
qualities so that your reader would know what you are discussing.

3. Limiting Factor: "Explain the methods" or "Evaluate" a character is a broad task, suited to a
long essay. Usually included in question is what is called a limiting factor". In the following
question the limiting factor has parentheses placed around it.

Discuss Bessie Organ's contribution to the humour of the story (by referring to her social position
and to her relationship with Claude and Gordon).

The limiting factor is very important because it tells you how much work you have to do.

Pay particular attention to it Adapted from:

Designing and Making English Examinations A Resource Booklet for Scarborough English Teacher
Neil Graham - Scarborough Board Education
What is communication?
By Debbie Harris, Contributor

THIS WEEK we will be attempting to increase our knowledge of

the communication concept. There are no questions which will
require you to define communication. however, you will need to
understand and analyse the process of communication and apply
these to any communicative event.

There are a number of definitions which have been suggested by

several communication specialists.

Communication has been defined as the process of people interacting through the use of
messages [Zeuschner: 1997]. Also it has been referred to as the process of human beings
responding to the symbolic behaviour of other persons [Alder & Rodman: 2000]. These by no
means exhaust the various ways in which it can be defined but they do provide us with some idea
of what
characterises the concept of communication which is relevant to the communication studies
course.

A close observation of them reveals that communication is a process [not an event], it involves
people, it involves interaction among people and it involves the use of messages.

As a process, communication is dynamic, continuous, irreversible and contextual. It is inevitable,

that is, it is sure to happen and cannot be altered or revoked. All communicative events involve
content and relationship. Content refers to the substance of the message while relationship tells
of the receiver and sender and how they perceive their interaction. Finally, communication
happens in a setting or context and it is from such that much meaning is derived. Context may be
defined as a culture, location or a relationship.

Within the process of communication there are six

primary elements.

They include the following:

* Context
* Messages
* Channels
* Senders/Sources/Encoders
* Receivers/ Decoders
* Integration and Feedback/Interference/Noise

ELEMENTS OF THE PROCESS

DESCRIPTION OF THE ELEMENTS OF THE PROCESS

1. Context
Setting/environment: place, time, surrounding events, physical and psychological climates.

2. Sources/senders
Human originators of the message or definers of the purpose of the message.

3. Messages
Content, that is, verbal [written/spoken] and non-verbal [gestures, movements, smells or
objects].

4. Channels
Means through which messages are transmitted, e.g., sound waves, light waves or other sense-
stimulating means.

5. Receivers/decoders
Ultimate goal or destination of a message; translators of messages.
6. Interaction
The back-and-forth nature of communication [sometimes called transaction]. All parties in the
communication event influence and are influenced by the event.

7. Interference/feedback/noise
Responses, interruptions or blockages to interaction. A response maybe to give an answer to a
question, to think about it, or to try to respond even without full understanding.

DESCRIBING THE PROCESS

The process is both cyclical and transactional. The event begins with the conceptualisation of the
message and this is the sender's role as the originator of the message.

In addition, it is the sender's task to codify the contents of the message and to select its medium
and channel. These parts of the process are called encoding and selection of channels
respectively. The receiver's role is chiefly decoding and interpreting the message sent to him/her
and then providing some feedback for the sender. It is very important for you to understand that
both the sender and the receiver conceptualise, encode, select medium and channel, decode,
interpret and provide feedback in all communicative events.

Often during communicative events there is some sort of interference or blockage to interaction.
These are commonly referred to as barriers to communication and may be internal or external in
nature.

Some examples of internal barriers are daydreaming, anxiety and hunger while external barriers
would be noise from a lawn mower, gestures, attire, posture, chatting, spilled beverage on a page
and choice of words.

Social stratification and mobility

By A. Swaby-Burton, Contributor

IN THIS week's lesson, I would like you to focus your attention on a few
questions that relate to social stratification and social mobility. See if you
can come up with relevant answers separate from what I will give you to
these questions.

(a) What is meant by the term 'ethnic group'?

(b) Explain the difference between 'ethnicity' and 'race'.

(c) 'Ethnicity becomes activated in different social and historical situations

and often have meaning only for those situations'.

Explain how race and ethnicity are both socially constructed.

(a) From a sociological viewpoint, an ethnic group is a large number of people who, as a result of
their shared cultural traits and high level of mutual interaction, come to regard themselves, and
to be regarded, as a cultural unity. What you need to bear in mind is that members of ethnic
groups see themselves as culturally distinct from the other groupings in society. According to
Anthony Giddens, many different characteristics may serve to distinguish ethnic groups from one
another, but the most usual are language, history or ancestry (real or imagined), religion, and
styles of dress or adornment. Ethnic differences are wholly learned.

(b) Before we can identify and explain the differences between 'ethnicity' and 'race' we must first
define each concept.

THE CONCEPT OF RACE

Whereas race refers only to physical characteristics, ethnicity refers to cultural feature or
practices. These features, as stated earlier, include language religion, national origin, dietary
practices and a sense of common historical heritage or any other distinctive cultural traits. Many
groups, such as blacks and Indians (American), are both racially and ethnically different or
distinct).

Looking at both definition it is not hard to arrive at the conclusion that 'ethnicity' is culturally
defined, whereas 'race' is usually distinguished by common genetically transmitted, physical
characteristics, as a biological concept, the word 'race' is almost meaningless'. "There are billions
of people in the world, and they display a wide variety of skin colours, hair textures, limb-to-trunk
ratios, and other characteristics, such as distinctive nose, lip and eyelid forms" (Robertson, 1984).
As discussed by many, it is the belief that these physical differences have resulted from
adaptations that human groups have made to the environments in which they live. For example,
populations in tropical and sub-tropical areas tend to have dark skins which protects them against
harmful rays from the sun.

PHYSICAL DIFFERENCES

There are clear physical difference between human beings, and some of these differences are
inherited. Confronted with this vast range of physical types anthropologists have tried for decades
to create some kind of conceptual order by dividing the human species into races and subraces.
The physical differences between human groups, are therefore a biological fact. The intense
sociological interest in race derives from its significance as a 'social fact' because people attach
meanings to the physical differences real or imagined, between human groups.

As stated by Robertson (1984); from a sociological point of view, a race is a large number of
people who, for social or geographical reasons, have interbred over a long period of time, as such
they have developed identifiable physical characteristics and regard themselves, and are regarded
by others as a biological unity. It is people's beliefs about race rather that the facts about race
that influence race relations, for better or worse. Racial differences should, therefore, by
understood as physical variations singled out by the members of a community or a society as
ethnically significant.

(c) Both ethnicity and race are socially constructed, their meanings are negotiated overtime in
specific socio-cultural contexts. Race and ethnic relations may follow many different patterns,
ranging from harmonious co-existence to outright conflict. George Simpson and Milton Yinger
(1972) identified six basic patterns of intergroup hostility or co-operation. All of these cover
virtually all the possible patterns of race and ethnic relations. They include assimilation, pluralism,
legal protection of minorities, population transfer continued subjugation and extermination. So it
is obvious that some racial and ethnic groups are able to live together in conditions of equality
and mutual respect, but others are in a state of constant inequality and conflict. There is
therefore no inherent reason why different groups should be hostile to one another. Poor relations
among racial and ethnic groups have social causes.

Thus, race and ethnic relations are the patterns of interaction among groups whose members
share distinctive physical characteristics or cultural traits. People who have similar physical
characteristics are socially defined as race, and people who share similar cultural characteristics
are socially defined as an ethnic group. So, basically whatever the angle we look at or study race
and ethnicity, they are both socially constructed.

Population studies
By A. Swaby-Burton, Contributor

THE GENERAL objectives for this module are as follows.

1. To develop in students an understanding of population issues with specific reference to the

Caribbean.

2. To enable students to apply sociological concepts and simple statistical procedures to an

understanding of population issues.

In this week's lesson, I will be introducing you to some basic concepts used in the study of
population.

Crude birth rate, fertility rate; crude death rate; natural increase; infant mortality rate; life
expectancy internal and international migration (immigration and emigration); population growth
rate; dependency ratio.

Before addressing the terms above let me first define the term population. Population refers to
the number of people who live in a given area. It is important to note that the student who
studies population is concerned not only with the number of people in an area but also with the
factors that may be causing their number to increase or decrease. These include such matters as
the state of medicine and sanitation, the extent to which birth control is practised, and the
availability of food and other resources.

CRUDE BIRTH RATE

The number of live births per 1,000 of the population. We refer to the birth rates as being crude
rates because of their general character. Crude birth rates, for example, do not tell us what
proportion of the population is male or female or what the age distribution of the population is.
Where statistics are collected that relate to birth or death rates to the above categories,
demographers speak to specific rather than crude rates. For example, age-specific death rates
specify the proportions of a population dying per year in each age group.

If we wish to understand population patterns in any detail, the information provided by specific
birth-rates is normally necessary. Crude birth rates, however, are useful for making overall
comparisons between different groups, societies and regions.

FERTILITY RATE

Birth rates are an expression of the fertility of women. 'Fertility' refers to how many live-born
children the average woman has. A fertility rate is quite a complex calculation. It is the number of
children that would be born to an average woman in a given population if she were to live to the
end of her child-bearing years and bear children at the same rate as those currently in the age
group who have just passed the age of child-bearing.

CRUDE DEATH RATE

Also known as mortality rate is calculated in the same way as birth-rates; the number of deaths
per 1,000 of the population per year. Like crude birth rates, crude death rates only provide a very
general index of mortality (the number of deaths in a population). Specific death rates give more
precise information.

INFANT MORTALITY RATE

A particularly important aspect of death rates is the infant mortality rate. The infant mortality rate
is the number of babies per 1,000 live births in any year who die before reaching the age of one.
One of the key factors underlying the population explosion has been the reduction in infant
mortality rates.

LIFE EXPECTANCY

Declining rates of infant mortality are the most important influence on increasing life-expectancy,
that is, the number of years the average person can expect to live.

MIGRATION

The movement of people into or out of a particular territory. Migration is sometimes involuntary,
such as the forcible transportation of 10 million Africans to the Western Hemisphere as slaves
(Sowell, 1981). Voluntary migration, however, is usually the result of complex 'push-pull' factors.

INTERNAL MIGRATION

The following are definitions of the more usual terms used in the study of internal migration.

IN-MIGRANT

A migrant who enters a particular community by crossing its boundary from some point outside of
the community, but within the same nation. This is to be distinguished from the 'Immigrant' which
refers to incoming international migrants.
OUT-MIGRANT

A migrant who departs from the particular area under observation by crossing its boundaries to
live in a point outside, but within the same nation. This is distinguished from the term 'emigrant'
which refers to outgoing international migrants.

NET BALANCE OF INTERNAL MIGRATION

The migration balance of a community or area consists of the number of in-migrants minus the
number of out-migrants. The net balance may either be positive (representing the net gain to the
community) or negative (representing a net loss).

LIFETIME MIGRATION

Lifetime migration is derived by classifying as internal migrants, all persons who changed their
place of residence from one area to another within a country at any time during their lives. In
practice, migrants who have returned to, and are enumerated in their place of birth, are usually
excluded from the life-time migrants.

CURRENT MIGRATION

Current migration is migration that has taken place in some recent fixed period. For example
during the past year, the past five-year period, the past decade etc. On this basis, any person
who has changed his residence from one area to another during the specified period would be
classified as an internal migrant. Persons born abroad and non-resident in the country could on
this basis be classified as internal migrants if they have changed residence within the country:
should be taken to indicate in each case whether immigrants are included in the classification.

DEPENDENCY RATIO

The number of dependent children and retired persons relative to productive age groups.
(Coleman and Salt 1992).
More on the Theory of Demand
By Keeva Beach, Contributor

HELLO EVERYBODY. We are continuing with our look at the Theory of Demand. This wee we want
to take some time to look at the demand curve, movement along the curve and shifts in the
demand curve.

As you will remember, we said that the law of demand stated that at higher prices people will
demand less of a product than at lower prices. Our demand curve is a graphical representation of
this. Our demand curve for the most part is a downward sloping curve and it represents the
relationship between quantity demanded and the price of the good. This relationship is an inverse
one as you would have realised based on the law.

We derive our demand curve from a demand schedule. The demand schedule is a table that
shows the relationship between the price of the good and the quantity demanded.

The table below shows the demand schedule for Richard with regards to shoes.

Price ($) Quantity Demanded

2 25
4 20
6 15
8 10
10 5

Using the information from the schedule, we can now derive our demand curve.

FACTORS AFFECTING DEMAND

There are a number of factors that affect demand. These include:

1. The price of the good.

2. Changes in taste and preference of the consumer.
3. Income of the consumer.
4. Population.
5. Government intervention.
6. Changes in the prices of other related goods, i.e., complements and substitutes.
7. Future expectations in prices and available quantity.
The question that must be answered is how do these factors affect demand? Well first of all I
want all of you to understand that the only factor that causes movement along the demand curve
is a change in the price of the good. When there is a change in the price of the good in question,
there will be movement along the demand curve from one point to another. When there are
changes in the other factors affecting demand there will be a shift of the demand curve. An
increase in demand will cause an outward shift or a shift to the right and a decrease in demand
will cause an inward shift or a shift to the left.

Let us consider these situations.

1. If your income (lunch money) increases, do you think that your demand for food will increase?
Yes, you will now want to buy more food. 2. If there is a decrease in the population of Jamaica,
will there be an increase or decrease in the demand for food? A decrease of course, there will be
less people to buy the food.

3. Complements are those goods that work together, examples include a tennis racquet and
tennis balls, a wheel and tyre and numerous others that you can think of. Now if the price of a
one complement increases, what do you think will happen to the demand for the other
complement - ceteris paribus? The demand for the other complement will decrease. Why? If the
price of tennis racquets increases, people will buy less tennis racquets and if they are buying less
racquets then they will buy less balls.

4. Substitutes are goods that can be used instead of each other. Examples include a Paper-mate
pen and a Miller pen, Juici Patty and Tastee Patty. If the price of one substitute increases, what do
you think will happen to the demand for the other substitute- ceteris paribus? Well the demand
for the substitute will increase as people will generally opt for the cheaper good.

Look at the table below and state whether there will be an increase or decrease in demand and
also if there will be an inward or outward shift of the demand curve or movement along the
demand curve

Next week I will give you the answers and we will start looking at elasticity. Until then, blessings
and peace.

Factor Increase or Decrease Inward/ Outward Shift or

in Demand Movement along the curve
1. Increase in preference for
the good
2. There is an expectation that
there will be price increases in
the future - what will the
present effect be?
3. Decrease in consumers'
income
4. Increase in the price of a
complement.
5. An increase in the price of
the good
An outward shift - d1 to d2 or d3
An inward shift - f3 to d2 or d1

Theories of economics
By Keeva Beach, Contributor
HELLO EVERYBODY! Welcome back from your well rested holidays. I hope you got some good rest
and that you did some work. By now you should have started working on your Internal
Assessment and I hope that all is going well with it.

This week we will start looking at the Theory of Supply.

Supply is defined as the willingness and ability of a producer to make available a product. The law
of supply states that at higher prices produces will supply more of a good and at lower prices
produces will supply less of a good. Think about it, if you are selling a good, would you like to sell
it at a high price or at a low price? Of course you would want to sell it at the highest price
possible because that would mean more revenue for you. Price and quantity supplied have a
positive relationship.

Now our supply curve is used to show the relationship between price and quantity supplied. This
is a positively sloping curve and it is derived from a supply schedule. In the diagram below we see
the supply curve based on the information given in the supply schedule.

QUANTITY
PRICE
SUPPLIED
5 2
10 4
15 6
20 8
25 10

MOVEMENT AND SHIFTS OF THE SUPPLY CURVE

Like demand the only factor that causes movement along the supply curve is a change in the
price of the good. The non-price determinants of supply will cause a shift of the supply curve.
These non-price determinants of supply include:

* changes in the cost of production

* changes in production techniques
* changes in technology
* effects of weather and climate
* effects of taxation
* availability of the factors of production

In the figure below, movement along the supply curve is represented by a repositioning from one
point to another on the supply curve S1 (Point a to point b). An outward shift of the supply curve
or a shift to the right represents an increase in supply (S1 to S2). An inward shift or a shift to the
left of the supply curve represents a decrease in supply (S1 to S0).
Let us say that there was in improvement in the technology available to the production of this
good and you are currently on S1, what would happen? Well that would cause a shift of the
supply curve to S2. If there was an increase in the cost of production and you were on S2 what
would happen? Well there would be an inward shift of the supply curve to either S1 or S0. Please
note well the factors affecting supply and those affecting demand and the effect on each curve as
I have found that students often confuse the effect of these factors.

Economic systems
Yvonne Harvey, Contributor

Yes, it's our time again. I hope that you are all in good health
and ready to digest this lesson. Last week, you were
introduced to certain concepts that would help you to
understand this topic better. The specific objective related to Roger Webb, a fourth grade student at the
Howard Cooke Primary School in Montego
this topic is that the candidate should be able to state the Bay, greets former Governor-General Sir
types of economic systems and identify their institutional Howard Cooke, prior to the start of the
Governor-General's Achievement Awards
Scheme Ceremony, held at the Holiday Inn
Sun Spree Resort in Montego Bay, recently.
In the background looking on are Webb's
peers. - Photo by Noel Thompson
characteristics and goals. In looking at each economic system, we will see how each goes about
answering the three basic economic questions, which we looked at last week. Before we go into
all of this however, we need to define the term ECONOMIC SYSTEM and consider some of the
common goals of governments of these systems.

What is an economic system?

The term describes the ways in which a country allocates or distributes its scarce resources
among alternative and competing wants. In other words, it is the fixed plan or programme used
by a nation to utilise its resources.

Despite the characteristic differences in the various types of economic system, their governments
are concerned with the same issues. Some of these issues include:

 The allocation of scarce resources among alternative uses.

 The distribution of national income among the country's inhabitants.
 The control of inflation.
 Economic growth.

Now, let us look at the THREE main economic systems.

THE FREE MARKET ECONOMY

(Laissez-faire or Capitalist Economy)

 Private individuals and firms own the majority of the productive resources and property,
hence, they are the ones that allocate or distribute what they own.

 The question of what to produce is decided on in response to consumer demand and the
price for which they can sell their goods and services.

 The question of how to produce bears in mind the motive of the producers. Their aim is to
maximise profits. Therefore, in producing, they choose methods that will minimise costs while
maximising profits.

 The goods and services produced are for those who demand them and are willing and able
to pay the price being asked for them. Price is mainly determined by the market forces of demand
and supply. In this system there is freedom of choice. Private individuals and businesses are free
to obtain economic resources and to produce and sell in a market of its choice. Consumers are
also free to purchase with their limited income, those goods and services they feel will satisfy
their wants.

 Another feature of this type of economic system is that most of the social services, such as
hospitals schools, roads and public transport are produced in a haphazard manner. There being
little or no government enterprises means that in the free market economy, governments provide
mainly defence and security and ensure that the laws of the country are upheld and that the
rights of the people are not infringed.

Examples of this type of system are the United States of America and Hong Kong.

THE PLANNED ECONOMY

(Command, State Planned or Collectivist)

 Ownership of the scarce productive resources is by the state or government. Therefore,
the state or the Government allocates these resources.

 The state or the Government produces the basic goods and services that will satisfy the
needs of people and that will result in the maximisation of social welfare, rather than in the
maximisation of profits.

 The Government through its planning committee decides on how to combine the various
factors of production to produce in the most efficient way and a low costs so they can sell at
prices affordable to consumers.

 The goods and services produced are for the country at large, not just for those who can
afford to pay for them. A wide cross-section of persons benefit from goods and services produced
in government-owned operations.

 The state or the Government sets prices and determines the levels of wages in firms and
industries; they also dictate production targets and the distribution of incomes and wealth.

 Freedom of choice is limited to the consumer deciding how to spend his/her money. They
are free to buy whatever goods and services are offered for sale.

 Examples of countries, which practise this type of economic system, are Cuba and China.

Now for the final economic system.

 The dominant feature of this system is the existence of two definite sectors - the private
sector and the public sector. Each sector owns some amount of the scarce productive resources
and will therefore be involved in allocating what they own.

 The private sector will produce what allows them to maximise profits. These tend to be
luxury-type goods demanded by people who can afford to buy them.

Examples of these goods are furniture and appliances.

 The public sector produces for social welfare to satisfy the entire society, thus they tend to
produce utilities such as water, telephone services and transportation. How each sector produces
and its motives for production also differs. However, the sectors do not conflict with each other,
rather they complement or go hand in hand with each other.

 Government sometimes exercises control in the mixed economy by intervention, for

example, by nationalisation or by regulation in the interest of the citizens. Most Caribbean
countries adopt this economic system.

Your assignment this week is to list the advantages and disadvantages of each of the THREE types
of economic systems. You can obtain the information from your principles of business texts and
from this lesson. Bye for now.
Multiple choice questions
Yvonne Harvey, Contributor

HELLO FRIENDS. It's a pleasure to present this week's lesson

which consists of a multiple choice test. The questions are
taken from right across the syllabus. I hope you will benefit
from them and that you will do well.

1. The basic needs of man are:

a) land, money, car

b) food, money, land
c) food, clothing, shelter
d) food, shelter, money
Edwin Allen's Sherene Pinnock taking the
girls 400m hurdles open in 57.03 seconds
2. The most important principle upon which barter trade at the National Stadium on March 29. -
depends is known as: Ian Allen Photo

a) insurable interest
b) indemnity principle
c) utmost good faith
d) double coincidence of wants
3. Mary lives in a country in which the state makes all the decisions about economic activities.
That country has adopted the:

a) planned economic system

b) mixed economic system
c) free economic system
d) Capitalist economic system

4. The most important role of a business in any community is to:

a) pollute the environment

b) earn foreign exchange
c) provide revenue for the government
d) provide goods and services to satisfy the wants of people

5. Consumers are those individuals who:

a) buy their goods from a consumers cooperative society

b) consume all the goods produced by manufacturers
c) provide goods and services for our satisfaction
d) utilise the goods and services provided to satisfy wants

6. The public sector comprises:

a) a body of public corporations, public companies and municipal undertakings

b) a combination of public companies and public corporations
c) an association of all public companies within the country
d) central and local government organisations and state corporations

7. Which of the following business organisations belong to the private sector?

a) municipal authority
b) nationalised industries
c) public corporations
d) public limited companies

8. In a partnership, an investor is a partner.

In a large company, an investor is a:

a) sole trader
b) manager
c) director
d) shareholder

9. What is the maximum number of share holders a private limited company can have?

a) two
b) five
c) fifty
d) eighty
10. The relationship between the highest level of management down to the various departments
is known as:

a) flow
b) rank
c) staff
d) line

11. If X offers Y a book for $5, but Y says that he can only pay $4.50 for it, this is an example of:

a) an offer
b) a counter offer
c) an invitation to treat
d) consideration

12. An item displayed in a store with a price tag is an example of:

a) an offer
b) a counter offer
c) an invitation to treat
d) consideration

13. John buys goods to the value of $150, but is allowed 20% trade discount on the invoice, plus
5% cash discount. He will therefore pay:

a) $112.50
b) $114.00
c) $126.00
d) $142.50

14. If you received less goods than was ordered and paid for, your supplier would send you:

a) a credit note
b) an invoice
c) a debit note
d) a bill of exchange

15. When a cheque is crossed, it means that:

a) something is wrong with it

b) it is cancelled and not good anymore
c) the money cannot be withdrawn immediately, but has to be lodged to an account
d) it can be taken to a bank and the money stated withdrawn at once

16. Which of the following is the most important characteristic of money?

a) acceptability
b) durability
c) limited supply
d) portability

17. The only bank which can claim to be a lender of last resort is the:
a) merchant bank
b) central bank
c) commercial bank
d) trustee savings bank

18. The document that has details of the source of goods, the raw materials from which the goods
are made, is called the:

a) shipping note
b) certificate of origin
c) bill of lading
d) bill of exchange

19. Assurance policies specifically refer to:

a) personal life coverage

b) coverage of risks involving cargo transport
c) loss of goods due to hurricane
d) loss of sale of goods

20. A man insured his property for $80,000, but its true value was $100,000. A fire caused
$10,000 worth of damage. The insurance will pay out:

a) $10,000
b) $8,000
c) $5,000
d) $6,500
Social cohesion in groups and society
By Maureen Campbell, Contributor

Try to do the following questions before reading the lesson; then mark it after having read the
lesson.

ACTIVITIES

1. Define the following terms:

Cohesion, group, social, interaction and society.

2. Outline briefly the characteristics of your school as a social group and an institution. Identify
THREE differences between a social group and an institution. To what extent are you involved in a
social group and an institution if you belong to a company of Boy Scouts or Girl Guides?

3. ...Brian the captain tried everything, but Graheme's team lost only two wickets before the
lunch break. Everyone on the team was looking downcast.

Brian decided to consult his vice captain who suggested a new strategy. Brian tried it. He changed
the bowler. The next batsman's wicket went flying. Brian ran down the pitch and gave the bowler
a "high five"...

You are a staff advisor to the sports club of a school. Write a speech to be given to the members
of the sports club who are about to elect new officers. In your speech you must:

a. Identify the leadership style shown by Brian

b. Identify and describe another leadership style which could have been used and explain what
the results might have been.

c. Make strong recommendations about the type of persons who should be captain of a team.

4. a. Name TWO social groups to which children belong.

b. Explain FOUR ways in which children may benefit from membership in these groups.

c. Name FOUR institutions in Society.

d. Explain why institutions are regarded as being permanent features of society.

Why do we need to be cohesive?

Groups are the essential agents of humanity. Without groups we would find it difficult to develop a
truly human response in the world and to maintain that response over our entire life. No person is
an island; being human is being part of a group. Every society and groups in society require some
methods to achieve social cohesion, this is necessary to make sure members follow the
guidelines/rules. This is to ensure social order, made possible through cohesion and conformity to
society's norms and values.

What are the factors that promote group cohesion?

Group cohesion or the survival of any group is dependent on all of the following factors,
leadership style, control, authority, co-operation, loyalty and commitment.

1. Loyalty and Commitment

(Firm is one's allegiance, obligation pledge and or involvement)

Effective groups develop strong commitment to a common goal, they must feel a part of the
group and be willing to become involved in its activities and show dedication and allegiance.
Members must agree on who will do particular jobs, schedules, membership requirement and the
making of an execution of decisions.

2. Co-operation
(Working or acting together)

Co-operation occurs when two or more persons or groups work together to achieve a goal from
which all the members will benefit. The opposite of competition where persons oppose each other
to achieve a goal that only one can attain. When people work together toward a common
objective, trust and commitment follow. For example the members of a football team cooperate in
order to win the game but they compete against another team.

1. Leadership

All groups have some form of leadership. Leaders make sure that the members of the group work
together to achieve their goals and objectives. It is argued that without the input of leadership in
a group, this may cause chaos since there is no one to guide, direct, counsel or inspire members
towards the stated goals of the group. Leaders may adopt several styles to function effectively in
different situations. This style is how the leader shares decision making with others.

Examples of leadership styles

Laissez-faire

Leader involvement is minimal as the leader has very little influence on the other members. It is
therefore interpreted that the leader does not show much concern for the achievement of group
goals and for the other members.
Authoritarian/autocratic

This type of leadership style leaves no room for group discussion. The leadership makes all the
decisions and informs the rest of the members. There is a belief by this leader that getting the job
done is the major priority.

Democratic/Participatory

Practising this style a leader acts as merely a guide, interacts a lot with the other members.
Shares decision making, is open for suggestion and utilises talents and experiences of all
members.

2. Authority

The power and right to enforce obedience and delegate power.

Authority is personal power that commands influence, respect, or confidence. Leaders have
varying degrees of power and authority to give directives and to enforce sanctions. Individuals
have authority because of the positions they hold and their expertise. There are three basic types
of authority. Traditional, Charismatic and Rational/legal.

3. Control

Every group and society in general have devised methods of making its members adhere to the
laws of society. Groups therefore develop procedures
to ensure that members conform to expected patterns of behaviour. For groups to function
properly its members must learn the social norms and values of the group.

Forms of social control exist in the wider society, in institutions, in groups and in families, they
are status, roles, values, goals, rules, norms, laws, mores and folkways.

Status: The numerous socially defined positions that we hold in society.

Roles: The behavioural expectations of society for the various positions we hold.

Values: Whatever a group of people defines as good, worthwhile, and important.

Goals: What is good and desirable to pursue during our lives.

Rules: These may be written or unwritten, it prescribes how people should behave in varying
situations.

Norms: Ways of behaving shared by most members of a group, class or culture.

Laws: These are formalised norms regulating human conduct. They are officially stated and
enforced by some form of government.

Mores: These involve a sense of morality. It deals with respect for life and property. Caribbean
laws prohibit murder, incest, rape, child abuse etc.

Folkways: These are habits and customs that guide our daily lives. They are the informal,
unwritten but understood, socially defined norms that guide our daily behaviour. For example
folkways include expectations about what we should eat, how and when we should eat, how we
should dress and how our breath and body should smell, etc.

Sanction: This is either rewards or punishments for conforming to or violating norms. Those who
violate folkways often encounter teasing, laughter, raised eyebrows, or alienation from others,
these reactions are examples of informal negative sanctions.

INSTITUTIONS IN SOCIETY

What is an Institution?

An institution is an enduring cultural structure through which certain fundamental needs of the
society are met and social control is established. It is a formalised group, which is established
with a definite organisation, identity and place in a society.

Institutions have widely shared beliefs, norms that satisfy basic needs. It is also looked on as
arrangements by which individuals groups and organisations resolve problems of living.
Institutions may be of a social, political, economic, educational or religious nature.

HOW MAY WE IDENTIFY AN INSTITUTION?

Characteristics of Institutions

* Serves specific functions in society

E.g. The replacement of members

The socialisation of new members
A sense of purpose
The production and distribution of goods and services
The maintenance of law and security

* Have a body of rules, which define relations between members and also with other institutions.

* A hierarchical structure is a feature of institutions. (bureaucracy)

* There is a system of reward and punishment; this is evident in the school system, as sanctions
are imposed on members who get out of line.
Unemployment and mobilisation of labour
By Yvonne Harvey, Contributor

LAST WEEK we looked at the types of unemployment and your assignment was to prepare an
outline of solutions to this major economic problem. Here are some suggestions that you can
perhaps add to the ones you have.

As noted last week, Fractional Unemployment exists in all countries.

In order to reduce and possibly eliminate frictional unemployment, persons should ensure that
their new jobs are ready to receive them before they leave their old jobs, so that they can move
smoothly from one job to another, without short-term unemployment. Bear in mind, however, that
if you lose your job suddenly, then a smooth movement into another job may not be possible.

Where Demand Deficient Unemployment and Structural Unemployment are concerned, you should
seek to be less specialised when being trained, so that when you are laid off because of deficient
demand and a permanent reduction in demand respectively, you can be employed in other areas
for which they have skills. Specialised labour is normally occupationally immobile, likely to leave
you unemployed for long periods when jobs are lost since education
and skills required in other areas of employment.

Technological Unemployment is on the increase. As technology increases, you should seek to

become trained in the use of new technology. You could perhaps anticipate the adoption of such
technology in your place of work and seek training in advance to prevent being unemployed
because you cannot use or operate new technology. A willingness to be re-trained after the new
technology has been introduced may also prevent employers laying off workers who lack
knowledge regarding new technology.

Not much can be done to reduce Cyclical Unemployment, which results from the downward phase
of the trade cycle. Numerous persons are thrown out of work in many industries at the same time
and so, employment does not increase until there is a movement out of the slump or depression
stage of the trade cycle, into the recovery stage.

Seasonal Unemployment is very common in the Caribbean, especially in the sugar and tourist
industries. Persons should try to anticipate the times of the year when they will be unemployed
and seek employment elsewhere in the same industries, or in different industries. For example,
cane-cutters can seek work inside the sugar factories when the cane-cutting season is over. Those
who tend to fall under Casual Unemployment can also seek additional days work instead of just
sticking to the one or two days per week that they are normally employed so that they will be
gainfully employed for the entire week each week.

Persons who fall in the category of disguised unemployment should be encouraged by policy
makers to seek work and to work once they have obtained work. The physically and mentally
disabled that fall under Residual Unemployment should be given a chance by employers to work
in areas in which they may be competent. Also, governments could provide special forms of
employment for such persons in order to reduce their unemployment.

As indicated last week, we will now move on to mobilisation of labour: self-help and community
work. To mobilise means to organise or bring together, things, ideas and people for particular
action. Mobilisation of labour means that labour is organised or brought together for productive
service.
Self-help and community organisations whose major goal is to provide services of an economic
and social nature to people in need and who are either not provided for or not adequately
provided for by private or public sectors. These bodies or institutions arise or are organised for
the following reasons:

1. The State does not provide certain vital social or cultural facilities or services to many people.

2. Many people do not like government to direct their activities; they prefer to be their own
masters, directing their own affairs.

3. Some people believe that state intervention will detract them from doing what they really want
to do in their own time and in a manner which best suits them.

4. These groups have acted as pressure groups in influencing the government and to ensure that
they get any benefits to which they are entitled.

The major characteristics of these

organisations are:

* they are community-based and as such, they adopt a self-help style of

operation

* their financial resources come from fund-raising, donations, assistance from local and overseas
agencies, governments and other service clubs.

* they assist various needy groups in society through skills training, economic and social
activities.

Examples of self-help or community organised include: village councils, lions club, Red Cross
society, trade unions, Kiwanis, Rotary clubs, Jaycees, also health organisations such as cancer
societies, heart foundations, lupus societies and friends of particular hospitals.

WHAT ARE THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF THESE ORGANISATIONS?

* A number of their projects provide employment and income for persons who would otherwise be
unemployed and without income.

* They also provide skills training and advice. Persons are taught how to make small articles and
agricultural products sold to tourists (e.g. handicrafts) This benefits the country as a whole.

* Many of these groups provide some of their members with small loans so that they can set up
businesses or expand their businesses.

* Some have built basic schools, or helped to maintain them, provided hospital supplies, repaired
roads and fed and provided shelter for the indigent. Recreation centres have also been provided
for communities, thus contributing to the community spirit.

* Through their contribution to production, these organisations have aided in economic growth
and development and they help communities to become better, healthier, safer and more pleasant
places in which to live.

* They encourage toleration of cultures i.e.; they encourage different races and religions to get
along with each other as friends and neighbours.
This week I will leave you with a research assignment.

Choose a self-help or community organisation and:

(a) Write a brief history of the organisation.

(b) Outline the organisations' objectives and functions
(c) List the achievements of the organisation

Labour migration - Part II

By Yvonne Harvey, Contributor

HELLO AGAIN. We are still under unit v of the syllabus; Factors of Production. Last week, the
distinction was made between labour mobility and labour migration and reasons for internal and
external migration were given. The lesson ended with a brief history of labour migration in the
English-speaking Caribbean. This week we will cover specific objective five of the syllabus, which
says that the candidate should be able to discuss the effects of migration of professional and
skilled personnel. In addition, as promised, I will also discuss the rewards of work.

EFFECTS OF EXTERNAL MIGRATION

Many migrants offered their services to the countries in which they settled. Among other things,
they got jobs as porters, post office workers, bus drivers and conductors, teachers, civil servants
and nurses. Others went on to further education and became doctors, economists, lawyers and
accountants, returning to their homeland at the expiration of their studies. Lots of migrants,
however, remained abroad, failing to return to their homeland where they were most needed.

In the foreign country, many found it difficult to get work because of sex and/or race
discrimination, class discrimination and class barriers, and because they had educational
qualifications that were not recognised in the new country. Also, there were language difficulties
and they experienced exploitation of their ignorance of the new country. Most of those who did
get work had to settle for low-paid dirty work, at least to begin with, and they had to be prepared
to live in very bad conditions.

Migration causes the break-up of families. In the early 1950s, it was mostly married men who
migrated, leaving behind their wives and children in the hope of them joining them later. For
many of them, that later never came. In addition, many social problems were created amongst
those who were left behind as parents migrated without making adequate plans for the care and
protection of their children. These children got in trouble with the law and put greater pressure on
the country's social welfare system.

Not all persons who migrated were unskilled, untrained and uneducated. Many were well trained
and skilled e.g. teachers, experienced welders, plumbers, mechanics, etc. When they left, it was
difficult to replace them and in most cases, they were not replaced. This migration of skilled
persons came to be known as the 'brain drain'. The 'brain drain' includes even the migration of
potential members of the labour force such as children who migrate with their parents. Because of
the 'brain drain', home countries suffered from the lack of proper economic development. In the
British Caribbean between 1955 and 1975, the 'brain drain' nearly caused a minor economic
depression.

External migration affects production negatively. Over time, 'negative economic growth' results,
mainly because of scarcity of entrepreneurial skills and a low level of technically trained people in
the region.

Perhaps one positive effect of external migration was that when the unskilled and untrained
migrated externally, this resulted in a reduction in the strain on the national budget of home
countries.

EFFECTS OF INTERNAL MIGRATIONS

Migration of labour internally, e.g., rural migration, means that one area is being upgraded, while
the other area is being depleted. These persons may have been able to help their communities
develop economically, socially or otherwise. The shortage of labour in the areas vacated causes a
setback in terms of development of these areas. Urban drift (rural migration) causes agriculture
to be plunged into serious problems, as there are less and less persons to work in and to develop
this vital area.

Movement to cities and towns from rural areas causes over-population in those areas, resulting in
unemployment, lack of housing, crime and other social disorders, inadequate health services,
competition for good education, traffic congestion and lack of open space. Such movements put
pressure on the authorities in cities and on governments who must provide more social and other
amenities in cities and towns. Lack of housing results in the capturing of and squatting on
(government) crown lands and even on private property. Competition for good education causes
pressure to be brought on the educational system as people seek quality education and compete
for limited spaces in schools and other educational institutions.
REWARDS OF WORK

People work because of the various rewards that work offers them. In looking at the rewards of
work, we are looking at the needs that are satisfied through work. People work for the following
reasons:

* Monetary Reasons: For monetary remuneration. That is, to get money so that they can be
independent and sustain themselves in terms of food, clothing and shelter and in terms of paying
bills etc. It is also a means of acquiring material possessions and power.

* Physiological Reason: Work satisfies physiological needs. It keeps people fit and active,
especially old age pensioners who keep on working after retirement for this very reason. It also
helps to get rid of boredom and many housewives choose to go out to work for this particular
reward.

* Psychological Reasons: This includes job satisfaction, the fact that they may be given awards
and gifts and the fact that work allows people to become aware of their personalities and their
positions in life and to embrace self-esteem.

* Social Reasons: Work enables people to socialise before, during and after working hours with
their colleagues.

Consider the combination of reasons to see why you as an individual would wish to work. Are
there any other rewards of work? Research and add to what I have given you. Also, based on the
migration part of the lesson, answer this question for homework.

a) What is meant by 'external migration' (2 marks)

b) What is meant by 'internal migration' (2 marks)
c) Discuss two effects of external migration on the labour force (6 marks).

Total Marks: 10

Labour migration
By Yvonne Harvey, Contributor

HI FRIENDS. Let me hope that you all had an accident free and restful holiday. We will continue
looking at the factors of production for a while. This week and next week, the focus will be labour
migration. Before I go into this however I think it is important that we distinguish between labour
mobility and labour migration. Students are often confused about these two concepts and many
consider them to be synonymous.

Mobility of labour simply refers to the movement of labour. If labour moves easily, it is said to be
mobile. If however it is not easily moved, it is said to be immobile. There are two types of labour
mobility, geographical mobility of labour and occupational mobility of labour. Geographical
mobility of labour considers labours movement from place to place i.e., from one geographical
location to another. If labour moves easily geographically, it is said to be geographically mobile. If
labour has difficulty moving in the geographical sense, it is said to be immobile geographically.
Occupational mobility on the other hand, considers the movement of labour from one occupation
or form of employment to another. Specialised labour does not move easily and is therefore said
to be occupationally immobile. The less specialised the labour is, the easier it will move from one
employment to another, i.e, it will be more mobile.
When labour moves geographically, this movement may or may not be permanent. However,
migration is the permanent movement of people from one area to another within a country
(internal migration) or from one country to another (external migration) for at least one year.
When a person leaves a country, they are referred to as an emigrant. When they arrive in the
other country, they are referred to as an immigrant. Internal migration may be from rural to
urban areas (urban drift), and from urban to rural areas, the former being the most popular.
External migration is mostly from less developed countries to more developed countries. Persons
move between countries e.g., between Jamaica and the USA or Canada. Remember though that
we are talking about permanent movements (movements for at least one year).

Why do people migrate? I will now discuss some of the reasons for a labour migration. Some of
the points apply to internal migration, some to external migration and some to both internal and
external migration. As I go through the points, see if you can make the correct applications.
People migrate for the following reasons:

* They may be unemployed and migration promises them employment.

* While they may be employed, migration may mean the opportunity to secure better and higher
paying jobs resulting in higher standards of living.

* Some migrate because of the attraction of town life, especially in the area of entertainment.

* Many migrate for educational reasons, i.e., the desire to improve their education and skills.
Often the opportunities where they live are limited or in some fields non-existent. Also, the
quality of education and training in other places may be higher than where they live.

* Migration is the choice of some in order to obtain a secure new home or more living space,
especially as their families grow in size.

* A number of persons migrate for health reasons, often on a doctor's recommendation. For
example, as person's age, a cold climate may not be conducive to their keeping healthy. Doctors
may suggest that they move to a warmer climate. Or, certain medical treatment that is needed on
a regular basis may not be readily available where one lives and this may be the reason for
migration.

* Some persons migrate in order to take care of relatives or to be reunited with family members
whom they have been separated from for extended periods.

* The increase in rural population and the poor state of a agriculture may cause migration.

* Some rural areas are "depressed" and so people will move from these areas to thriving
industrial areas and to towns and cities.

* A number of persons migrate in order to escape the political and economic pressures that are
heaped upon them in their present locations.

At this point, I will briefly discuss migration in the English-speaking Caribbean. Many of you are
aware of the massive labour migration that took place from the West Indies, especially the
English-speaking Caribbean from the early 1950s. Yes, some of you have parents and relatives
who went to Britain, USA and Canada primarily to seek better jobs and a better way of life. At the
time also, there was very high unemployment in the Caribbean. A few went with the intention of
improving their education skills with the hope of returning to 'build up' their own countries.
Restrictive laws forbidding migration were few and many governments placed advertisements in
local newspapers. Working conditions and good wages enticed many young persons to migrate,
thus there was an influx of West Indians to Britain, USA and Canada from the early 1950s to the
mid 1970s. While migration continued after this period, the effects of migration during the period
mentioned were so serious, that the British, USA and Canadian governments had to step in and
make it harder for West Indians to migrate to their countries. You will note however that in recent
times, advertisements have again been placed in local newspapers encouraging teachers and
nurses in particular to migrate to Britain and the USA and many have been leaving to 'greener
pastures'.

Migration to the Caribbean came after the abolition of slavery. Many Indian and Chinese workers
came to work on the plantations.

What though are the effects of migration? Next week's lesson will address this. It will emphasise
the effects of migration on the labour force and it will discuss the reasons why people work i.e.,
the rewards of work.

In the meantime, try this question:

(a) Distinguish between 'labour mobility' and 'labour migration'. (4 marks).

(b) Discuss three reasons for labour migration. (6 marks).

Bye for now.

Human resource development

By Yvonne Harvey, Contributor

THE FOCUS this week is on how to improve human resources so that they will perform with
greater efficiency in the production process.

Human resources refers to all physical and mental ability in production i.e., all labour and
entrepreneurial skills. Human resource development is the process of making the quality of labour
and the entrepreneur better. This process has been described as investment in human capital. The
result of such investment is usually increased productivity and lower costs of production. The
factors that improve labour productivity are the same ones that improve the human resources.
The human resources can be developed in the following ways:

1. Improvements in the levels of education.

This will make training of the human resources easier. Also, with improved education, employees
can qualify for higher posts i.e., for promotion. With these facts in mind, some employers allow
workers time off to go and educate themselves or to upgrade their education. During this time,
they attend classes and sit exams. Some employers also pay all or part of the cost of classes and
exam fees. Even in schools, the curricula have been changed to help students leaving school to be
more productive so that they enter the job market with skills in several areas.

2. More training and retraining.

Workers who are properly trained will work faster and this will contribute more to the organisation
and the country as a whole. Among many countries, this aspect of human resource development
is sadly lacking. Many employers are themselves untrained and are therefore lax when it comes to
the training of workers. They often see it as a waste of time and money. Re-training is training for
a new or different job in one's work place. Persons who have been promoted or given a different
job to do, often need to be re-trained. One can also re-train in anticipation of promotion or a new
job. Re-training is also very important for persons who have been in their particular jobs for many
years. In order to keep vibrant and learn up-to-date ways of doing things, and in order to
improve efficiency, these persons need 'refresher' courses.

Many Caricom governments provide opportunities for training workers through various agencies
and institutions of learning egg. H.E.A.R.T. and V.T.D.I. in Jamaica. Farmers are also given advice
and trained by agricultural extension officers in plant and animal husbandry.

In Jamaica, many community centres are used as training facilities to help individuals to learn
skills so that they can in turn help themselves. In Trinidad, The Management Development Centre
is performing a very effective role in training people to become good and efficient managers.

3. Greater emphasis on the health of the worker.

A health worker produces more than one who is not. Health provisions for workers may be
inadequate and this will adversely affect their performance. Workers who are not healthy, cannot
be efficient. To this end, employers often contribute toward health schemes for their workers,
allow them sick leave, or even have their own doctors and nurses at the work place. Many places
of work have sick bay facilities for their workers or they have access to first aid in the event of
minor illnesses.

4. Improved working conditions.

If working conditions are poor, the human resources will be adversely affected. Working
conditions include: ventilation, light, workspace, safe surroundings, etc. If conditions are ideal,
eg. more space, air conditioning etc., output will increase. Also, if human resources are to
develop, there must be adequate bathroom, restroom, canteen and recreation facilities. Along
with good ventilation, adequate lighting, enough space to work in, and safe surroundings, the
worker will develop and work more efficiently.

5. Motivation

External motivation in particular can encourage the human resources to improve. For example, if
they are given incentives such as bonuses, they will work harder. Such motivation can also
change negative attitudes toward work into positive attitudes. Positive attitudes may improve
punctuality and eliminate low absenteeism.

6. Adequate amount of and good quality capital

Workers with poor quality machinery and equipment will not work well as they can. In addition,
they must have the right amount of capital to work with. Attention to these areas will improve the
productivity of the human resources.

7. Good management

The manager who is able to organise men and materials efficiently and display appropriate
leadership will find that production and productivity will rise.

For developing countries to experience growth and development, it is essential

that the human resources be developed
sufficiently.
Your task this week will be to write an outline for the following question:

(a) (i) Define the term 'human resources.' (2 marks)

(ii) Give FOUR examples of human resources (2 marks)

(b) Discuss THREE ways in which human resources are developed in your country. (6 marks)

Total Marks: 10

Lessons on demand and supply

By Yvonne Harvey, Contributor

TODAY, I will give you the answers and/or guidelines to the questions given to you last week.
Mark your answers. If there are any questions that you answer incorrectly, you may wish to look
back at the relevant lesson or section of the lesson.

(1) (a) (i) The market equilibrium price is $4.00

(ii) The equilibrium quantity is 75,000 bushels.

No. of Bushels
Price per Bushel No. of Bushels Supplied Surplus
Demanded
(+) or Shortage (-)
000's $ 000's
85 3.40 72 -13
80 3.70 73 -7
75 4.00 75 Neither (+) nor (-)
70 4.30 77 +7
65 4.60 79 +14
60 4.90 81 +21

(2) (a) Two differences between A and B:

(i) Diagram A shows a change in quantity demanded (movement along the curve) while diagram
B shows a change in the demand itself (shift of the curve).

(ii) Diagram A price and quantity demanded changes, while diagram B shows that at the same old
price a new quantity will be demanded.
(b) (i) Demand refers to the quantity required by consumers at a particular price and at a
particular period of time.

(ii) Inverse relationship as price falls, quantity demanded increases. Thus, the two variables,
price and quantity demanded, move in opposite directions.

(c) Four factors that affect consumer demand in this country are:

(1) Price
(2) Income
(3) Taste and Fashion
(4) Taxation

(N.B. Price and any three of the non-price factors of demand would be acceptable as an
answer).

(3) One cannot agree with the statement. Surpluses drive prices down, not up. This is so because
the quantity supplied is greater than the quantity demanded, therefore, the excess supply will
cause prices to fall i.e., prices will be driven down.

Likewise, shortages do not drive prices down. When a shortage exists, quantity demanded is
greater than quantity supplied, therefore, the excess demand will cause prices to rise i.e., prices
will be driven up, not down.

(4) (a) There will be an increase in demand for product B.

(b) There will be a decrease in demand for product B.

(c) There will be a decrease in demand for the product B.
(d) There will be an increase in the demand for product B.

(5) (a) There will be an increase in the supply of product B.

(b) There will be a decrease in the supply of product B.
(c) There will be a decrease in the supply of product B.
(d) There will be an increase in the supply of product B.

QUESTIONS 6-9 MULTIPLE CHOICE

(6) C
(7) D
(8) B
(9) A

(10) Four factors affecting price elasticity of demand are:

(i) Price availability and closeness of substitutes

(ii) Degree of Necessity of the good.
(iii) Cheap commodities
(iv) Time

(N.B. There are other factors that affect price elasticity of demand. Any four factors
would be acceptable as an answer).
(11) (i) Penetration Pricing: seller prices the goods/services low to gain market share on entering
the market. Price may be increased once market share is gained.

(ii) Psychological Pricing: odd prices used because these are seen as more honestly computed in
the eyes of consumers.

(iii) Cost Plus Pricing: price is calculated by adding a mark-up (profit) to the total cost of
production.

(iv) Haggling: buyer and seller 'argue' over the price until they come to a mutual agreement.
International migration
By Marjorie Henry, Contributor

As promised in the last lesson, I wish to conclude objective eight of

'Population and Settlement'. It requires you to describe the pattern
and consequences of international migration in one named Caribbean
country within the last 20 years. I have already shared some
information on the pattern of international migration as this relates to
Jamaica. The consequences of international migration include the
following factors:

(i) Remittances - Labour migration is often regarded as the most

Members of Hopewell High
economically beneficial form of migration to the areas of origin. This is School's student governance
due to the remittances that labour migrants send to their families, body. From left are Keline Dias,
who remain in the area of origin. Taken at a national scale, these peer leader; Kashena Williams,
student council representative
remittances can be very substantial (Hazel R. Barrett). Here are some and prefect; Kadiesha Gordon,
facts that were given at different times in the media on the peer leader; and Shannakay
importance of remittance to the Jamaican economy: Watt, student council
representative and peer leader. -
Photo by Claudine Housen
 An 11 per cent increase in remittance for the month of
September year-on-year has helped boost Jamaica's trade balance,
narrowing the deficit on the current accounts by US$3.6 billion. (Financial Gleaner 26/01/07)

 The September 2006 trade gap was further offset by private transfers, including
remittance inflows of almost US$135 million. (Financial Gleaner 26/01/07)

 Remittance continues to grow. The money is used mainly for personal expenses, school
fees and utility bills.

(ii) Tourism - Overseas Jamaicans who return to visit friends and relatives are officially counted
as tourists and support an important part of the tourist industry. In Jamaica, they made up 6.5
per cent of tourist arrivals, in 2003. They may stay in hotels or with their relatives. They spend
money on rented cars, restaurant meals or shopping (Mark Wilson).

(iii) Brain drain - Professional persons, such as teachers and health care workers, migrate to the
U.S.A., U.K. and Japan. This has a negative impact on the country.

(iv) Returning residents - This group of people has a tendency to build elaborate houses. This
impacts on the value of the land. In a real way, they help to develop their communities.

Go through your recommended textbooks and other available sources to identify additional
factors.

As this is the last lesson before your external examinations, I would like to give you a few
reminders:

 You will be writing two papers in the geography examinations.

 Paper one consists of 60 multiple-choice items drawn from all areas of the syllabus.
Attempt all questions. Remember, this is not a guessing game. Read through the entire question
carefully and then identify the key in the answers given. Do not be fooled by the distracters.

 Paper two is the composition paper comprising four sections, namely, A, B, C and D.
Section A is the map-reading question, and it is the only compulsory question on the paper. You
will have choices in the other sections B, C and D. You must answer a total of four questions, that
is, map reading in section A, and one question from each of sections B, C and D.

 In reference to Paper two, do not begin to write as soon as you get the question paper.
Read through the entire question paper and select the questions you are most prepared for,
bearing in mind that a question must be selected from each section.

 Read the instructions carefully given at the beginning of the paper. Identify the key words
or verbs in the question you choose to do, namely, describe, compare and list.

 Answer the easier questions first to boost your confidence.

 Observe the format of the question you are answering and write your answers accordingly.

 Use geographical terms in your responses.

 Use the marks allocated to each section to guide you in how much to write.

 Try to leave some time before the test is finished to review and correct errors.

I do trust that you have been doing short periods of studying, and you did not wait for the last
minute to cram for the examinations. I am certain that you know that when you are well
prepared, you will experience less stress.

Emigration, immigration
By Marjorie Henry, Contributor

Today, I will focus on Objective 8, the last objective under the topic,
'Population and Settlement'. It states: 'Describe the pattern and Students at Norman Manley
Comprehensive High School
have a whale of a time
during the STAR 'No Violence
in Schools Tour', last
November. - Ricardo
Makyn/Staff Photographer
consequences of international migration in one named Caribbean country within the last 20
years.'

You will recall that migration was discussed in a previous lesson. It was defined and the different
forms were identified. Objective 8 refers to international migration, that is, movement across
national boundaries between countries or to other continents such as North America.

Let me first of all share with you on the pattern of international migration in Jamaica within the
past 20 years. Generally speaking, the pattern of movement for Jamaicans is to three main
destinations, namely, the United States of America, Canada and the United Kingdom. The
information that follows comes from the Economic and Social Survey of Jamaica 2001.

Destination countries

In 2001, emigrants from Jamaica, in relation to the three destination countries, were estimated at
16,673, a decrease from 2000 of 11.4 per cent. This comprised the U.S.A. numbering 13,609;
Canada, 2,767; and the United Kingdom, 297. Emigration to the U.S.A. has been experiencing
declines in recent years. In 1999, emigration was 14,733, surpassed only by 1994 as the lowest
level in over 20 years. In 2000, emigration had decreased to 16,000, but declined by 14.9 per
cent in 2001.

Migration to the U.S.A. continued to be age and sex-selective-favouring females and younger
persons. Service occupations - 16.8 per cent, consistent with previous years, were the largest
occupational category, followed by professional speciality - 3.6 per cent; and administrative
support - 2.8 per cent. Declines were observed in most occupations, with sales experiencing the
largest decrease at 44.6 per cent. Service and professional speciality occupations, however,
experienced increases of 54.2 per cent and 11.7 per cent, respectively.

In 2001, emigration to Canada numbered 2,767, increasing by 12.9 per cent, compared with
2000 and was the highest recorded since 1997. Like the U.S.A., emigration to Canada was
female-dominated, with females comprising 52.4 per cent and outnumbering males in all except
the 26-45 age group. Emigration continued to be age-selective with 69.9 per cent of emigrants 35
years and under. The occupational distribution of migrant workers for 2000 and 2001 indicates
that migration to Canada continues to be skill-selective. Professionals accounted for the largest
occupational category at 10.7 per cent followed by service and precision production craft and
repair at 9.5 per cent and 5.3 per cent, respectively.

A total of 297 persons emigrated to the U.K., 18.2 per cent less than the previous year. Migration
levels to the U.K. continue to be low in contrast with outflows to U.S.A. and Canada, contributing
only 1.8 per cent of total emigrants.

Outflows

Jamaica's population continues to experience higher levels of outflows than inflows. A total of
7,750 immigrants were estimated in 2001, increasing by 13.8 per cent, compared with 2000.
Commonwealth citizens accounted for the largest category of immigrants at 36.0 per cent,
followed closely by deportees at 32.3 per cent. Aliens comprised 1,253, increasing by 4.6 per
cent, compared with 2000; while returning residents totalled 1,177, a reduction of 8.2 per cent. A
total of 2,529 persons were deported to Jamaica in 2001, the highest number ever recorded,
reflecting an increase of 46.2 per cent compared with 2000. U.S.A. was the primary sending
country.

The number of returning residents has declined over the decade, falling to 1,177 in 2000 from a
high of 2,587 in 1994, a decrease of 54.5 per cent. The flow of returning residents was largest
from the U.K. Jamaica experienced a net gain from migrants to the U.K. as the number of
immigrants (returning residents and deportees) more than tripled that of emigrants.

Consequnces

Let us now look at the consequences of migration. By way of an introduction, I quote from the
text Population Geography Conceptual Frameworks in Geography, written by Hazel R. Barrett:
"The consequences of migration are complex, depending on the type of migration involved.
Nevertheless, all migration affects the economic and social systems of both origin and destination,
as well as influencing the migrant as an individual."

In the next lesson, I will share with you on the economic and social consequences of migration in
Jamaica.

I close with a tip to help you manage your tasks: "If certain facts or details must be memorised,
do not try to memorise all of them at one time."

Urbanisation
By Marjorie Henry, Contributor

I prepared some multiple-choice items for you in the last

lesson. These were intended to provide a quick review on
population growth, the topic I have been focusing on for the
past few weeks. Did you attempt all the questions? I trust
you did. Now, check your answers.

1. C;
2. A;
3. A; Mona High School students moan the death of
4. D; a student, on March 6, 2006. - Rudolph
Brown/Chief Photographer
5. B;
6. D;
7. C;
8. B;
9. D;
10. A;
11. B;
12. C;
13. A;
14. D.

As I continue to share with you on population and settlement, I would like to turn your attention
now to specific objectives 3 and 4 under this topic in the syllabus. These are as follows:

3. Define urbanisation

4. Give reasons for urbanisation in the Caribbean.

In reference to the text, Geography - An Integrated Approach, by David Waugh, we are told
that urbanisation is 'the process whereby an increasing proportion of the world's, a nation's or a
region's population lives in urban areas.' In short, it is the continuing increase in the proportion of
city dwellers.

From the objective stated above, we must now reflect on this process in the Caribbean. In an
earlier lesson in which I had discussed migration, defining it and identifying the different types, I
made mention of the different forms of internal migration. These, I stated, included rural to
urban, urban to rural, urban to suburban and so on. I stated further, that the most dominant was
rural to urban and that this type greatly influences the process of urbanisation.

Reference

In reference to the text, The Contemporary Caribbean, written by Robert B. Potter et al, we are
informed that 'virtually every Caribbean country or territory has experienced migration of its rural
population to urban centres, particularly its capital city. In 1960, for example, only 38 per cent of
all West Indians lived in cities. By 1987, this proportion had increased to 54 per cent, and by the
year 2000 had grown to 65 per cent.'

The text also highlights the fact that this increased movement of people into urban areas has led
to rapid population growth, area expansion and uncontrolled sprawl in places like Kingston, in
Jamaica; San Juan, in Puerto Rico; Santo Domingo, in the Dominican Republic; and Port of Spain,
in Trinidad. We will discuss the benefits and problems of urbanisation later. For today, the focus is
on the reasons for urbanisation.

The recommended texts inform us on the push-and-pull factors for the movement of people into
the towns and cities. Often, in the Caribbean, there are problems that cause people to leave the
rural areas. These are the push factors. On the other hand, people from the rural areas are
attracted to the urban areas for several reasons. These are the pull factors. Let's first refer to the
push factors.

Not enough jobs: In some rural areas in the Caribbean the rapid growth of population in recent
decades has meant that there is a surplus work force in the countryside. The situation, therefore,
arises where there are not enough jobs.

Landless peasants: Large families may outgrow the small plot of land that their parents and
grandparents farmed and so be unable to continue their livelihood as farmers. Many farming
families in the hills of Jamaica, St. Vincent, St. Lucia and Dominica have lost a large number of
family members to the cities as they leave in search of jobs.
Failure in the agricultural sector: The removal of subsidies by the European Union from
banana and other local crops has dealt a devastating blow to many banana farms, especially
those of the Windward Islands in the eastern Caribbean. Farming was the main economic activity
for many rural folk and they have been forced to leave their farms in search of opportunities in
the city.

Mechanisation of farms: In Barbados and Jamaica, farmers now use combine harvesters on the
sugar plantations. This reduces the number of cane cutters needed during harvest time. Sugar
cane workers, both old and young, have had to look for an alternative livelihood in nearby towns.

Lack of services: People may also be pushed out of rural areas because of the lack of social
services such as schools, hospitals and recreational facilities. Young people in particular tend to
leave rural areas in search of a better life in the city.

Restricted social life: Young people in particular tend to miss the opportunities for
entertainment if they live in the countryside.

Urbanisation
By Marjorie Henry, Contributor

In the last lesson, I started to review urbanisation and the

reasons for it in the Caribbean. In discussing the reasons, I
shared that internal migration, in particular rural to urban, was
responsible for the increasing number of city dwellers. There are Glenmuir High School sixth-formers,
Jomain McKenzie (Headboy), Kerrie-Ann
two sets of factors involved, namely, push and pull. Existing Cameron, Shanette Dempster, Peter
problems that cause people to leave from the rural areas into the Campbell and Kevin Williams, the 2006
CSEC all-island top performer, discuss a
point of interest in one of their
textbooks, during a break, on
Wednesday, March 21. - Ian Allen/Staff
Photographer
towns and cities are the push factors. These were highlighted in the lesson, last week. When
people from the rural areas are attracted to the urban areas for varying reasons, then these
become the pull factors. In today's lesson, I will share with you some of the pull factors.

Employment: One of the main attractions of towns is that they appear to offer better job
opportunities. In addition, job opportunities in the towns tend to grow. This is because new
manufacturing industries have been started in the major towns of the region, and so there are
more factories that need workers.

Along with manufacturing, jobs are available in construction, retailing and service industries.
Industrial estates such as the Free Zone in Jamaica and Point Lisas, Trinidad and Tobago, also
provide areas of concentrated employment opportunity. Jobs in the city not only offer higher
salaries, but are also more diverse. There is also a better chance of finding a second job in urban
areas.

Social services: Cities and towns in the Caribbean have better social services than rural areas.
Educational opportunities are better in the cities. Kingston has two of the largest university
campuses in the Caribbean, and more than 10 other colleges. The university, teachers' college
and community college campuses in Barbados are located near Bridgetown. The only tertiary
institution in St. Lucia is located in Castries. Most of the larger towns in the Caribbean have
modern hospitals. Many Caribbean countries have limited specialist health resources. Those
specialised services that do exist are located in the capital city.

Utilities: Some rural areas do not have piped water supply, electricity and other basic services.
Most urban households have these facilities.

Entertainment and recreation: Many people are attracted by opportunities for entertainment
and recreation. Cities have less open space, but may have better sports facilities. The capital
cities are usually the centre of entertainment activity.

The 'bright lights/big city' concept has lured many young people to Caribbean capital cities.
Bridgetown, Kingston and Port-of-Spain are three of the 'party' capitals of the Caribbean. There
are cinemas, nightclubs and opportunities to meet people.

Cost of goods and services: Prices are generally lower in the cities. The larger shopping malls,
wholesalers and large supermarkets are in the city centres.

The Contemporary Caribbean written by Robert B. Potter et al, gives a statistical overview of
Caribbean urbanisation. I will quote a small section from this overview.

'In common with other regions of the developing world, rapid urbanisation in the Caribbean has
primarily occurred in the period since the Second World War. Although Caribbean towns and cities
had their origins in the colonial administration and control of territories and the development of
plantation agriculture, their rapid growth has resulted from the high rates of rural-to-urban
migration that have been experienced since 1945. But this movement of population towards the
opportunities offered by urban areas and urban labour markets has also served to swell rates of
natural increase in urban populations. The twin 'push' of rural poverty and the 'pull' of socio-
economic opportunities in the urban areas - both real and perceived - have thereby been causal.

Interestingly, data published by the United Nations (1980) show that the contemporary Caribbean
is not only considerably more highly urbanised than the developing world taken as a whole; in
fact, the region is more highly urbanised than the world in aggregate. This generalisation was
true in 1960, when just in excess of one-third of the total population of the Caribbean region was
classified as urban.'
An 'update' on urbanisation in the Caribbean is offered in the text, Geography for CSEC, written
by Jeanette Ottley, et al. It states that -

'Some Caribbean cities are experiencing a decline in the number of people moving into the city.
While people still visit the city for all the activities described above, many are moving to live in
nearby rural areas. Counter-urbanisation is taking place. In Jamaica, St. Catherine has had an
increase in population, while that in Kingston is decreasing. Over the past decade, many new
residential developments have been created in parts of rural St. Catherine, and Portmore has
expanded. The people in these communities moved there from Kingston, but still commute to and
from the capital for work.'

In the next lesson, I will go on to the population growth in one capital city in the Caribbean.

Urbanisation in the Caribbean

By Marjorie Henry, Contributor

Your brief Easter break has just ended. I trust that over that period you seized the opportunity to
revise and reinforce what you have been taught during the previous terms. The stark reality of
the situation is that your external examinations begin shortly, and you certainly need to be well
prepared for them.

I hope that by now you have purchased copies of the syllabuses for all the subjects you will sit.
You need to be properly guided in what to do in the different subjects and the syllabuses provide
that guideline. As I have mentioned in my lesson at the start of this academic year, the geography
syllabus has been revised and this year, you will be the first set of students to be examined on
this new syllabus.

For several weeks now, I have been sharing with you mainly on the new areas of the syllabus.
However, it will not be possible for me to go through all the new areas before you sit the
examinations. But, having your own copy of the syllabus and working along with your teacher,
you should be able to complete all that you are required to do for the examinations.

Focus
Last term, my focus was on population and settlement, a part of Section III, that is, human
systems. There are still some topics in this section that I would like to complete with you. I will,
therefore, continue where I left off last term, that is, urbanisation in the Caribbean. My focus in
today's lesson is specific objective five which states:

'Explain the population growth of one capital city in one Caribbean country within the last 20
years'.

Note that you are restricted to a particular period of time for which to explain the population
growth of the city you choose to discuss. Kingston is my chosen capital city. My sources of
reference remain the same as in previous lessons, that is, the new edition of The Caribbean
Environment by Mark Wilson and Geography For CSEC by Jeanette Ottley & Marolyn Gentles.

The population of Kingston, the capital of Jamaica, has grown very rapidly during the last 20
years, both through natural increase and through migration from the rural areas. It is the largest
settlement in Jamaica. It has been combined with the urban areas of St. Andrew to create the
Kingston and St. Andrew Metropolitan area, now referred to as the Kingston Metropolitan area
(KMA). In addition to the reasons already stated, Kingston has grown for several other reasons. I
quote directly from the textbook, Geography For CSEC.

 It is the chief administrative centre and seat of government, including all the ministerial
head offices.

 It is the largest industrial centre; there is a large, diverse range of industrial activities
throughout the city. Marcus Garvey Industrial Zone is the largest area.

 Kingston is a centre for sports and entertainment: Jamaica's largest sporting venues are at
Sabina Park and Stadium Park. These are large enough to host international events. There are
also several nightclubs, game halls and cinemas in the city.

 It is a centre for education: Kingston has more primary, secondary and tertiary educational
institutions than any other region in Jamaica. The University of the West Indies and the University
of Technology are regional institutions located in St. Andrew.

 Kingston is a centre of business and commerce: Financial institutions, such as banks,

insurance companies and the stock exchange, shopping malls and an array of other commercial
activities are located in the city.
Urban growth and decline
By Marjorie Henry, Contributor

In the last lesson, I started to share with you information to

explain the growth of Kingston within the last 20 years. As a
quick recapitulation of the lesson, it was stated that the
rapid population growth resulted from the high rates of
rural-to-urban migration as well as natural increase. This
movement of the population towards the city of Kingston
was as a result of the opportunities offered for jobs,
education, business, commerce, sports, entertainment, and
other services. The migrants in turn swelled the rate of
natural increase.
Letting it all hang out at New Generation's
summer camp. - Contributed
The reference textbooks tell us that the population of the
Kingston Metropolitan Area experienced its greatest increase
in growth (23.9 per cent) between 1970 and 1981. The city actually reached its peak population
in 1960. Since then, the rate of growth has declined. In the period 1982-1980, the city's
population grew by 9.7 per cent, and by 1991-2001, the percentage growth was only 0.25 per
cent. Over the past 20 years, the population of Kingston declined. This is partly as a result of
counter-urbanisation. The growth experienced in the 1970s and 1980s contributed to over-
population of the city. There are several contributing factors to the decline in the population of
Kingston. Some are highlighted below.

Decline in Kingston's population

Some land has been redeveloped for business so there is less room for housing.

Many people have gone to less-crowded areas in the suburbs, where living conditions are better.

Mainly as a result of government policies, low-income housing has been developed outside of the
city, for example, Portmore.

The development of road networks, for example Highway 2000, and the widening of roads,
facilitate daily commuting from residences outside the city to work in the city.

Robert B. Potter, one of the authors of The Contemporary Caribbean, made a statement in
reference to urbanisation in the Caribbean, which is quite applicable to the decline of population
in the city of Kingston. He stated that suburban relocation occurs mainly among the wealthier
classes, in part a consequence of their desires to distance themselves from the overcrowded inner
cities, and in part a consequence of rising incomes and rising expectations to seek the status
provided by such a 'metropolitan' residential move.

Development of shopping plazas

The development of shopping plazas, and in particular hypermarkets, on the outskirts of the city
where land is available, could also be taken as a contributing factor to the decline in the
population of the city.

Associated with the growth of Kingston are certain problems and benefits. You must be aware of
these as required by Objective 6 of the current section of study in the syllabus. For those of you
who live in the KMA, reflect for a while on the problems that have arisen in Kingston as a result of
urbanisation. Do you experience any difficulty in getting to and from school? If so, what
contributes to that?

Have you noticed where some people live, the type of houses they live in and the conditions
under which they live? Is everyone gainfully employed? Why are they not employed? What do
they do instead of formal employment? The answers to these will provide the information you
need on the problems of urbanisation.

Although the focus is on the city of Kingston, for those of you living in the rural areas, reflect on
the situation in the major towns in your parish. Similar situations exist even if on a smaller scale.
The discussion continues in the next lesson.

I leave you with a thought: Knowing what you want to achieve and practising some good time
management habits can go a long way toward helping you achieve the things you need and want
to do.
Kingston's population growth problems
By Marjorie Henry, Contributor

There are problems and benefits associated with the

population growth of Kingston. In today's lesson, I would like
to focus on the problems. I do trust that you reflected on the
questions I asked you in the previous lesson, and you are
therefore well aware of some of these problems.

The available data inform us that high densities of population

have developed particularly in west and east Kingston. At the
same time, opportunities for employment have failed to keep Colour me seaweed green. Rocky Point
Fishing Beach in Clarendon. - Ian Allen/Staff
pace with needs. The Government has made attempts to Photographer
attract industry; however, factory employment has failed to
create sufficient jobs in Kingston.

In recent times, the closing down of some factories in the garment industry has worsened the
problem of unemployment. In addition, it is felt that the private sector and foreign investors are
not investing enough in the economy to help to increase the level of employment. The
Government expects the private sector to be in partnership with them to help to develop
employment benefits.

High unemployment has led to the development of other alternatives in order to survive. These
include illegal activities and the growth of the informal sector. There are more and more higglers
and hawkers referred to officially as informal commercial importers (ICI).

Along with unemployment is the problem of overcrowding. Both are indices of population
pressure. Conditions of overcrowding, evident in the lower-class areas of Kingston, have led to
squatting, hence the development of ghettos and slums.

Poor condition
Houses in these areas are generally made out of inferior materials and are in poor condition.
Where roads exist in these ghettos, they are in poor condition. Insanitary conditions exist and the
residents are exposed to the threat of diseases. There is also an absence of good schools in these
squatter settlements.

Social decay is closely linked to the poor living conditions and unemployment. Unemployment has
caused young people in particular to be idle. They, in turn, form gangs and eventually become
engaged in gang warfare. Drugs and guns have become a part of these gangs as well. I am
certain that you have heard and maybe observed all of this. The consequences, as you know, are
devastating.

Congestion

Traffic congestion is another problem of urbanisation. Factories, offices and other services are
located in or near the city. The population needs to access these, and therefore a transportation
service is needed. The available public transportation cannot adequately meet the needs of the
commuting public. This situation has, in part, contributed to the increase of privately owned
vehicles. This compounds the problem of traffic congestion particularly during the peak hours.
There are also illegal taxis, commonly called 'robots' that assist with transportation, but at the
same time add to the traffic congestion.

Urbanisation of Kingston has led to different forms of pollution, namely, noise, air, land and water.
Large amounts of domestic and industrial waste are generated in the congested city. There has to
be the proper management of the disposal of waste.

In the city of Kingston, the National Solid Waste Management Authority does this. The waste is
usually collected and taken to landfills, which are becoming filled up and have been known to
burn spontaneously for days owing to the build-up of methane and other gases. The underground
water in aquifers under the dump sites also become polluted through seepage of liquids into the
lower layers of the soil.

The emission of gases from the numerous vehicles moving on the roadways and the operation of
some factories are responsible for both noise and air pollution. These emissions sometimes create
a haze over the city, and this in turn causes an increase in temperatures as well as a mild form of
acid rain.

In spite of all these problems and others not mentioned, there are some benefits to be derived
from urbanisation. Think on some for the next lesson.

Here is a thought on managing your tasks: Divide lengthy or difficult assignments into short,
manageable units.
Migration
By Marjorie Henry, Contributor

The focus in the last lesson was on the factors affecting

population growth, namely, births, deaths and migration.
Births and deaths were already discussed. We continue
today with migration. I should mention here that
information on population growth for any one country is
usually obtained through a population census. This is
done periodically, for example, every ten years.

At the end of the last lesson, I asked two questions. Let

me repeat them today.
Spanish Town High School students watched and
1. What are the different forms of migration? cheered on the artistes who were a part of The
STAR's No Violence in School tour at the school in
St. Catherine, on Thursday, December 7, 2006. -
2. Why do people move? Ricardo Makyn/Staff Photographer

Discussion:

Migration takes different forms. It can be internal or external. Internal migration refers to
population movement (immigration) to an area/a region or country, whereas external migration is
the movement (emigration) from a region or a country. External migration, unlike internal, affects
the total population of a country. The migration balance is the difference between the number of
emigrants (people who leave the country) and immigrants (people arriving in the country).

Countries with a net migration loss lose more through emigration than they gain by immigration
and, depending upon the balance between birth and death rates, may have a declining
population. Countries with a net migration gain receive more by immigration than they lose
through emigration and so are likely to have an overall population increase.

Migration can also be temporary or permanent. Permanent migration has been more popular in
the Caribbean than temporary migration. There is external migration to developed countries such
as Britain, Canada and The United States of America.

Within the Caribbean, there is also intra-island migration, in which people move from one island
to another. This is greatly encouraged in recent time, with the coming on-stream of the first
phase of the CARICOM Single Market (CSM). Skilled workers, technical people, media personnel,
university graduates and musicians are some of the persons targeted to move within the region
as a result of the CSM.

Internal migration takes different forms, namely, rural to urban, urban to rural, urban to
suburban, urban to urban, rural to rural. The most dominant is rural to urban. This type greatly
influences the process of urbanisation. This topic of urbanisation will be discussed at a later date.
We now go on to the next question, that is, why do people move?

There are push factors that influence people to migrate from their country or area within their
country and pull factors in the country or area of destination. People move from the Caribbean to
developed countries for several reasons. These include:

 Overcrowding especially in small-island territories that have a high population density.

 Employment opportunities in the home territory. A chronic state of unemployment may

exist there.

 Politics, where people are uncomfortable with the political climate in their home country.

 Educational facilities may be insufficient or inadequate.

These could all be seen as push factors. Countries where favourable conditions exist and such
that can address these problems, people will move there. These provide the pull factors. The
factors mentioned for external migration can also be applied to intra-island and internal
migration. The list is by no means exhausted. Can you think of other reasons why people
migrate?
Population distribution
By Marjorie Henry, Contributor

Population distribution In the previous lesson, I started to review

population and settlement, one of the two topics in section three of
the syllabus, that is, human systems. The lesson ended with
definitions of some demographic terms namely, population
distribution and population density. I also looked at the factors that
bring about population growth - births, deaths and migration. As I
continue with the topic today, I would like, first of all, to refer to
the techniques used to represent population distribution and
population density.

Population distribution is shown on a statistical map called a dot Students of Edith Dalton James High
School getting wild at the NO
map. The dots used on the map are quantitative symbols, each Violence in Schools concert. - Ian
having a specific and fixed value. It is therefore possible to count Allen/Staff Photographer
the number of dots on the map, and then multiplying by the dot
value, to calculate the total population. The dot map can give a
clear visual impression of the differences in distribution, contrasting, as far as possible, areas of
greater concentration with areas of a sparser or more scattered nature.

Simple exercise

Let me deviate a bit and give you a simple exercise. Look at the following diagrams and then
answer the questions following.
One dot equals five persons

1. Which diagram shows a greater concentration of people?

2. Which diagram shows a sparse population?

3. How many persons are living in Area A?

Your correct answers are 1. - B; 2. - A; 3. - 40. In the event that you did not understand how to
do the third question, let me explain. There are eight dots in that area. Each dot represents five
persons. Hence, 8 x 5 = 40 persons.

I also mentioned in the lesson last week, the formula to calculate population density, namely

TOTAL POPULATION OF COUNTRY

TOTAL AREA

Let's find out the population density of Area A. We are assuming that the size of the area is 4km
squared.

Area A = 4km squared

Population = 8 x 5 = 40 persons

Density of population = 40/4 = 10 persons per km squared

Let us also assume that Area B is the same size as Area A. Calculate the population density of
Area B. Which area has a higher population density? Now check your answers.

1. The population density of Area B is 30 persons per km squared.

2. Area B has the higher population density.

The statistical map used to represent population density is the choropleth map (or shading map).
This map shows the average distribution of the population within an administrative unit, for
example, a parish, in the case of Jamaica. The shading becomes denser as there is an increase in
the distributional values. Look in your textbooks for examples of choropleth maps. Try to interpret
them.

Population growth, the third demographic term mentioned in the previous lesson, is affected by
births, deaths and migration. Migration relates to the number of persons entering the country to
live permanently (immigration) and the number of persons leaving the country permanently
(emigration). Natural increase is what is needed from the data on births and deaths. To obtain
this information, the number of deaths is subtracted from the number of births. Add to the
number for natural increase, the number from migration, to arrive at the total population increase
for the year.

In reference to the data provided by Mark Wilson in his text The Caribbean Environment, we can
be informed about the growth of the population in Jamaica, in 1994. At the start of that year the
population was 2,482,900. Over the year, there were 59,200 births and 13, 500 deaths. The
natural increase was therefore 45,700. The number of persons leaving the island permanently
(emigrants) was greater than those who came to live permanently (immigrants). The net
migration was -18,800. The net population increase was 26, 900. At the end of the year, the
population was 2,509,800.

Assignment

Here is an exercise for you to calculate population growth.

At the beginning of the year, the city of George's Gap has a total population of 10,000,000. There
is no migration. The birth rate is 20 per 1000 and the death rate is 15 per 1000. What will be the
increase in total population in George's Gap
Factors influencing population growth
By Marjorie Henry, Contributor

I ended the last lesson with reference to the factors that

influence population growth. I gave you an exercise to do,
that of calculating the population growth of an imaginary
town named George. If you had followed the steps given in
the lesson, you should have had no difficulty in arriving at
the correct answer. Let me restate the question and then
work it through.

'At the beginning of the year, town George has a total

population of 10,000,000. There is no migration. The birth
rate is 20 per 1000 and the death rate is 15 per 1000.
What will be the increase in total population in town Students from Bridgeport High School sing a
Christmas carol. - Photo by Anthony Minott
George by the end of the year?'

Birth rate (20) - Death rate (15) = 5 per 1000

5/1000 X 10,000,000 = 50,000

The population of George increased by 50,000. So, at the end of the year, the population is
10,000,000 + 50,000 = 10,050,000.

In today's lesson, I will share with you the general factors that influence population distribution
and population density. These can be categorised as physical, economic, social, political,
transportation and communication. In the text, Population Geography, written by Hazel R.
Barrett, it is stated that - 'The overriding factor affecting population distribution is the ability of a
population to make a satisfactory living. This in turn may be dependent on ecological factors, as
well as socio-economic and political considerations.' These factors vary both in space and time.
Where they are positive, they encourage many persons to live there, resulting in a dense
population. The reverse is true, that is, where these factors are negative, few persons are there-
hence a sparse settlement is present.

The information on the factors affecting population distribution and population density globally is
presented in the table. My source of reference is the text, The Wider World written by David
Waugh. Although the syllabus requires you to be aware of these factors in a named Caribbean
country, the information is being given to offer a broader perspective on the subject. Afterwards,
we will select those that are applicable to the Caribbean country.

FACTORS SPARSELY POPULATED AREAS DENSELY POPULATED AREAS

Rugged mountains where Flat, lowland plains are attractive
temperature and pressure decrease to settlement (the Netherlands) as
Relief with height; active volcanoes (the are areas surrounding some
Ades); high plateaus (Tibet) and volcanoes (Mt. Etna).
worn down shield lands.
Areas receiving very low annual Areas where the rainfall is reliable
rainfall (the Sahara Desert); areas and evenly distrubuted throughout
having a long seasonal drought or the year, with no temperature
Climate unreliable, irregular rainfall (the extremes and lengthy growing
Sahel countries); areas suffering season (north-est Europe); where
high humidity (the Amazon basin); sunshine (the Costa del Sol) or
very cold areas, with a short snow (the Alps) is sufficient to
 growing season. attact tourists; and areas with a
monsoon climate (south-east Asia).
Areas such as the coniferous forests Areas of grassland tend to have
of nothern Eurasia and nothern higher population densities than
Vegetation
Canada, and the rainforests of the places with dense forest or desert.
tropics.
The frozen soils of the Artic (the Deep, humus-filled soils (the Paris
permafrost in Siberia); the thin soils Basin) and, especially river-
of mountains (Nepal); the leached deposited silt (the Ganges and Nile
soils of the tropical rainforest (the deltas) both favour farming.
Soils Amazon basin); also, increasingly
large areas are experiencing severe
soil erosion resulting from
deforestation and overgrazing (the
Sahel).
Many areas lack a permanent supply Population is more likely to
of clean fresh water, mainly due to increase in areas with a reliable
insufficient, irregular rainfall or to a water supply. This may result from
lack of money and technology to either a reliable, evenly distributed
build reservoirs and wells or lay rainfall (nothern England) or where
Water Supply pipelines (Ethiopia) there is the wealth and technology
to build reservoirs and to provide
clean water (California). Places
with heavy seasonal rainfall (the
monsoon lands of south-east Asia)
also support many people.
Areas devoid of minerals and easily Areas having or formerly having
obtainable sources of energy rarely large mineral deposits and/or
attract people or industry energy supplies (the Ruhr) often
(Paraguay) have major concentrations of
Resources
population, these resources ofen
led to the development of
largescale industry (the Pittsburgh
region, U.S.A).
Areas where it is difficult to Areas where it is easier to
construct and maintain transport construct canals, railways, roads
systems tend to be sparsely and airports have attracted
Communications populated, e.g. mountains (Bolivia), settlements (the North European
deserts (the Sahara) and forests Plain), as have large natural ports
(the Amazon basin and nothern which have developed for trade
Canada). (Sigapore).
Areas with less developed, Regions with intensive farming or
subsistence economics usually need industry can support large
large areas of land to support numbers of people on a small area
relatively few people (although this of land (as in the Netherlands).
Economic is not applicable to south-east Asia).
Such areas tend to fall into three
belts: tundra (the Lapps), desert
fringes (the Rendille) and tropical
rainforests (shifting cultivators).
Areas where the state fails to invest Decisions may affect population
Political sufficient money or to encourage distribution - e.g. creating new
development - either economically cities, such as Brasilia; by opening
 or socially (the interior of Brazil) up pioneer' lands for development
as in Israel.

Population distribution and density

By Marjorie Henry, Contributor

In the last lesson, I shared with you some of the factors that
determine population distribution and density, globally. Here
is a short exercise to test how much you remember. Do it
without referring to the lesson, please.

Answer TRUE or FALSE to the following questions:

This large gathering of students get involved

in one of the performances during the 'No
Violence in Schools' tour at the Norman
Manley High School. - Ricardo Makyn/Staff
Photographer
1. Flat, lowland plains are needed for agriculture, and therefore the population in such areas is
sparse.

2. Areas experiencing high humidity have a sparse population.

3. Extensive areas of coniferous forests encourage lumbering, so many persons would be

attracted to them.

4. Areas having large mineral deposits and/or energy supplies result in a concentration of
population.

5. A dense population is associated with areas receiving an even distribution of rainfall and a
reliable water supply.

Now, check your answers.

1 - F
2 - T
3 - F
4 - T
5 - T

Did you get all your answers correct? I hope you did.

What other factors did you think of that affect population distribution and density? Did you
consider social factors? These certainly impact on where people live. Included in the social factors
are:

 The availability of housing.

 Access to educational facilities - schools of different levels, colleges and universities.
 The availability of recreational and entertainment facilities.
 Access to health care - clinics and hospitals.
 Other associated services.

Now, as you reflect on this topic of where people live, bear in mind the fact that no one factor will
cause people to settle in any one area. There is, in fact, a combination of factors. For example, an
area may have a suitable terrain, a fairly good communication system, but lacks development,
economically and socially. Comparatively speaking, not many persons would be attracted to such
an area; hence, a sparse population results. Of course, you can think of other examples.

Having looked at the global factors to get a broader perspective of things, let us now examine the
situation in a named Caribbean country as required by the syllabus. Naturally, Jamaica is my
choice.

Whenever an example from the Caribbean is required, I encourage you to choose your own
country as far as possible. So now, we will focus on the factors for population distribution and
density in Jamaica. I do hope you gave this topic some thought as I encouraged you to do at the
end of the last lesson. To guide us, we will select from the list of factors already given for the
situation globally.

Physical
1. Physical: If you were to look at a physical map of Jamaica (and I would encourage you to do
so ), you would have observed that:

 The highest areas are to the east of the island - comprising the Blue and the John Crow
mountains. These areas also have very steep slopes and are susceptible to slope failure.

 The dominant limestone area called The Cockpit Country, which is a part of the central
inlier of the island, has a very rugged terrain.

Both of these areas have a sparse population. On the other hand, the plains and poljes are low-
lying areas. Agricultural activities are possible in these areas and this encourages a dense
population. In Jamaica, most settlements are found on the low-lying plains.

Drainage

2. Drainage: Swamplands are present in sections of the south coast, namely, The Great Morass
in St. Elizabeth, and also in the eastern end of the island. These badly-drained areas are of
limited use for agricultural activities and are thinly populated.

Soil

3. Soil: Fertile soils are needed for agriculture. These can be found on the coastal plains of the
island, in such parishes as Clarendon and St. Catherine. As I have already mentioned, a dense
population is usually found in areas where agricultural activities are carried out.

Population distribution and density in Jamaica

By Marjorie Henry, Contributor

In the previous lesson we discussed the factors that

influence population distribution and density in Jamaica. I
have already shared information on the effects of relief,
drainage and soil on where people live in Jamaica. The
topic continues in today's lesson.

Water supply
Members of Glenmuir High School's graduating
In former years, people tended to settle near rivers and class during the school-leaving exercise on June
22, 2006, in May Pen, Clarendon. - Nathaniel
springs so that they could access water. That has changed Stewart/Freelance photographer
over time with the introduction of pumping stations and
piped water. With improved technology, water can be
made available to settlements wherever they are located.

Mineral deposits
There are areas in Jamaica where bauxite can be found. The mining of this ore has led to an
increase in the population in several areas. For example, the town of May Pen, in Clarendon, and
Mandeville, in the hills of Manchester.

Social

There are several things to be considered under social factor.

1. The availability of housing. Both private developers and the Government provide this. Through
the National Housing Trust, many housing developments have been constructed. Examples are
the Mineral Heights Housing Scheme just outside the town of May Pen, in Clarendon, and Angels,
near Spanish Town, in St. Catherine. I am certain that you can find examples in your own
parishes. The National Housing Trust seeks to provide affordable housing. It has become a
common practice for people to live in these housing schemes, for example Mineral Heights, and
commute daily to their jobs several miles away, for example, in Kingston.

Legislations

2. The development of housing schemes is not the only way in which the Government determines
where people live. Because Jamaica is prone to natural disasters, in particular, hurricanes, there
are legislations in place prohibiting people to live on gully banks, river banks, and along sections
of the coastal areas. In short, the extremely-low areas are to be avoided since these are prone to
natural disasters. In addition, in hilly regions, for example, in the parish of Portland, some slopes
are susceptible to failure. These are also to be avoided.

3. There are also examples of informal settlements. These are situations where squatting occurs
on unoccupied government or private lands. Once started, others follow. There have been
instances where the Government has upgraded these squatter areas by putting in infrastructure
such as paved roads, water supply and electricity.

Population density

4. Educational facilities - Access to tertiary education (colleges and universities) can influence
population density. These facilities are usually located in the urban areas and as the need for
academic advancement arises, individuals may settle in these areas to access these institutions.
Factors affecting population growth
By Marjorie Henry, Contributor

I had promised that I would discuss the factors affecting

population growth in today's lesson, and I will still keep
that promise. However, before I do so, here are two short
questions on population distribution and density, the topic
I concluded in the last lessons. They are intended for a
quick review of the topic.

(i) Define the term 'population distribution'.

(ii) For a named Caribbean country, explain how EACH of

Huddled under a tree, fourth-form Montego Bay
the following factors influences the distribution of High School students do a last-minute review of
population: their Spanish notes on September 27, 2005. -
Claudine Housen/staff photographer

 Relief
 Communication
 Economic activity

Here are the expected responses.

(i) Population distribution refers to the way in which human settlements are spread within a given
place or country.

(ii) The named Caribbean country is Jamaica. Each factor will be discussed separately in point
form.
RELIEF

 Most of the population live in the low, alluvial plains in the south of the island. Many towns
are located on the plains, the largest centre being the capital city, Kingston.

 Few people live in the mountainous interior as the steep slopes and generally rugged
terrain limit agricultural activities, among other things. In addition, the steep slopes are often
susceptible to slope failure and other forms of mass movement. People are, therefore, not
encouraged to live in such areas.

COMMUNICATION

 A road network that spans the island connects the towns found on the coastal lowlands.
The availability of transportation routes encourages a dense population on these lowlands.

 The rugged terrain of the interior of the Blue Mountains and the Cockpit Country are not so
easily traversed by roads and remain sparsely populated.

ECONOMIC ACTIVITY

 Jobs are available mainly in urban areas where there are industries and services. Kingston
has a large population since these employment opportunities are there.

 The major economic activity on the north coast is tourism. This has encouraged
settlements outside the main tourist centres such as Ocho Rios, Montego Bay, Negril and Port
Antonio.

 Mining activity, particularly bauxite, has led to an increase in population in several areas,
for example, Ewarton in St. Catherine, Mandeville in Manchester, and May Pen in Clarendon.

I now wish to turn your attention to population growth. As mentioned in a previous lesson, the
factors affecting this are births, deaths and migration. The population grows when the number of
babies born each year is greater than the number of infants and adults who die.

On the other hand, if the number of deaths were to be greater than the number of births, then
the population would fall. In summary then, the rate of population growth in any country is
determined by the birth rate and the death rate. The birth rate is the number of babies born per
thousand people in the country. The death rate is the number of deaths per thousand people in
the country. The birth rate minus the death rate gives the natural increase.

Migration brings about changes in the size of the population in any one country. It affects the
distribution of people over a given area as well as affecting the total population of a region and
the population structure of a country or city.

What is migration? It is movement from one place to another. In human terms, it usually refers to
a permanent change of home. What are the different forms of migration? Why do people move?
Try to find answers to these questions as you read on the topic.
Exercise on population growth
By Marjorie Henry, Contributor

For the past few weeks, I have been sharing with you on
the topic of population growth. I do trust that you have
been doing additional reading so that you can be fully
informed on the topic. Before I move on to another aspect
of the syllabus, I have developed some multiple-choice
questions for you to do. They are intended to review the
topic. Choose the best response to each question. Answer
all of them.

Population growth occurs when

A. a large number of babies are born each year.

Members of the 2006 Glenmuir High School
B. a large number of infants and adults die each year. graduating class on June 22, 2006 in May Pen,
Clarendon. - Nathaniel Stewart/Freelance
Reporter
C. the number of babies born each year is greater than
the number of infants and adults who die.

D. the number of babies born is more or less equal to the number of infants and adults who die.

The definition for 'natural increase' is:

A. The birth rate minus the death rate.

B. The death rate minus the birth rate.
C. The number of babies born per thousand people.
D. The number of deaths per thousand people.

The population of Jamaica has grown mainly because of

A. natural increase.
B. many babies are born.
C. emigration.
D. immigration.

Large population increases in the United States are due mainly to

A. a high birth rate.
B. a low death rate.
C. migration.
D. immigration

The movement of people from one place to another resulting in a permanent change of
residence is called:

A. mass movement.
B. migration.
[Link].
[Link].

Which of the following is not a form of migration?

A. Internal and external

B. Temporary or permanent
C. Intra-island
D. Migration balance

The process of entering one country from another to take up permanent or semi-
permanent residence is called:

[Link]
B. emigration
[Link]
[Link] migration

Which of the following is a pull force that influences people to migrate from their own
country?

A. Overcrowding in their small country.

B. Educational opportunities in the country of destination.
C. A chronic state of unemployment in the home country.
D. Uncomfortable political climate in the home country.

Which is the dominant form of internal migration?

[Link] to urban
B. Urban to suburban
C. Urban to rural
D. Rural to urban
Controlling pollution in Carib territories
Marjorie Henry, Contributor

The discussion on question nine of Section D, on the June 2008 examination paper, concludes
today with a focus on section C of that question. Here is that part of the question:

(c) Explain how TWO measures that have been implemented by Caribbean countries can reduce
EACH of the following:

(i) The emission of greenhouses gases (6 marks)

(ii) Land pollution (6 marks)

In reference to the syllabus, the specific objectives being tested here are:

 Describe measures used to reduce the harmful effects of pollution.

 Explain the measures used to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases.

Note carefully the wording of the question. You are being asked for measures that have been
implemented. In other words, those that are actually in place or practised. Make sure that your
response is not on measures that could be implemented.

Measures that have been implemented by Caribbean countries to reduce the emission of
greenhouse gases include the following:

 Greenhouse gases are emitted into the atmosphere when we are engaged in activities that
require the use of electricity. Much has been done in Jamaica, for example, through the electronic
media, to educate the people on the need to reduce the use of electricity. Electrical appliances are
to be switched off when not in use. This will help to reduce the use of electricity, which is
generated from the burning of fossil fuels such as oil.
 Trees help to absorb the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. As a result, the Government
has introduced forested areas, maintained existing forested areas and parks, as well as facilitated
the planting of trees along major roadways.
 Vehicular traffic is growing in Caribbean cities. As people buy more cars and demand
better transport facilities, fuel is burnt and more greenhouse gases are emitted into the
atmosphere. People are encouraged to plan their travel patterns by avoiding unnecessary trips
and to carpooling as much as possible. In addition, the use of public transport is encouraged.
These will help to reduce the emission of nitrous oxide as fewer vehicles are used on the roads.
 Chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) is an invention of people. The gas is commonly used in
refrigerators and air conditioners. It is also used as a solvent. It takes a long time to break down
in the atmosphere. Governments have encouraged a reduction in the use of this substance.

Measures that have been implemented by Caribbean countries to reduce land pollution
include:

 The development of landfills. Landfills are specially designed disposal sites. Waste is
compressed, so that less space is needed. It is covered, so no large area of rotting garbage is left
exposed. On some landfills, methane is collected and burnt.
 Proper disposal of household and industrial garbage is encouraged. People are required to
dispose of things such as unwanted wrappers, bags, paper cups in proper garbage bags or bins.
 The recycling and reuse of materials are being practised.
 Laws have been introduced to make open dumping of garbage illegal. Citizens are charged
a fine if they are caught disposing garbage in an improper manner.
 There is a ban on the burning of garbage in an open area.

The list is certainly not exhausted. Think of other measures that can be added to the list for both
categories. In the next lesson, the last question in this section will be discussed.

Continuing June 2008 paper - section B

Marjorie Henry, Contributor

I started the discussion of Question 9 from the June 2008 paper in the last lesson. Having already
discussed section (a), I will now share with you section (b) of the question.
(b) (i) Define the term air pollution. (2 marks)

(ii) Describe THREE causes of river pollution in a named Caribbean country. (6 marks)

This section of the question is based on these specific objectives from the syllabus:

 define pollution
 describe the types of pollution

Please be advised that in answering subsection (ii), you must describe the way the water
becomes polluted. In addition, you are to give the name of a Caribbean country where this is
happening or has occurred. Here are possible answers to the questions.

(i) Air pollution is the contamination of the air by harmful or toxic substances.

(ii) There are several ways in which river pollution can occur. This can be as a result of industrial
discharges or agricultural and urban activities.

 Industrial pollutants include sulphur and nitrogen, particles of heavy metals, persistent
chemicals which get into the water supply and accumulate, and reactive organics that contribute
to the formation of photochemical oxidants. These enter streams, polluting them.
 Industries discharge large amounts of waste materials. Some of these are raw sewage,
livestock manure, discharges from slaughter houses, food-processing plants and other industrial
firms. These are examples of organic pollution. When these enter the drainage system, there is
an increase in plant growth. This reduces oxygen levels in the water, a process known as
eutrophication. This process can kill wildlife in rivers, especially fish, for example in Jamaica.
 Chemicals from fertilisers and pesticides used in agricultural activities are the most
common form of pollution from agriculture. They are washed into the soil and streams, thereby
contaminating the water supply. For example, a section of the Rio Grande, Jamaica where large
quantities of gramazone were found in the water in 2005.
 Clearing of land for cultivation causes erosion and leads to increased sedimentation in
rivers. The beds of the rivers become blanketed, causing harmful changes in the spawning and
rearing habitat of fish and altering food supply.
 Where there is irrigation, the water that runs off the fields carries with it sediments,
fertilisers, pesticides and natural salts leached from the soil. These eventually enter the
groundwater supplies and pollute the river.
 Increasing population, urban expansion and new housing projects affect both water quality
and water quantity. There is an increase in domestic sewage and solid wastes. Much of this is
being dumped into gullies and rivers. In some rivers large numbers of discarded cans and bottles
can be seen floating. These, in turn, contribute to organic pollution. For example the Caroni River
in Trinidad.
 Garbage in landfills and litter near water sources can also contribute to water pollution.
Contaminated water from these landfills may also seep into groundwater reservoirs and pollute
them. The polluted groundwater may flow out of the ground into streams and rivers and be
consumed by human and animals.
Dealing with pollution
Marjorie Henry, Contributor

The discussion on the June 2007 CSEC question paper continues today with reference to question
9.

This question is based on the following objectives in the syllabus:

5. Describe the types of pollution.

10. Explain the measures used to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases - and deforestation.
Section (a) of this question has a bar graph to be completed. This, I will omit since I had already
guided you through the construction of a bar graph when question 6 was done. I will, therefore,
go on to section (b) of the question. This has two subsections. Here is the first part:-

(b) (i) State FOUR causes of river pollution.

Sources of river pollution include the following:

 Chemicals from fertilisers and pesticides find their way into streams.
 Organic substances from agricultural processing and fertilisers.
 Animal waste from poultry and livestock farms.
 Chemical pollution from industries usually ends up in the waterways.
 Solid waste and other bulky materials from industries.
 Sewage and raw effluent from factories.
 Raw sewage from non-functioning sewerage treatment plants.
 Improper disposal of domestic solid waste in the river.
 Oil and grease from gas stations.
 Silt from quarries.

Please note that you are not required to discuss these causes, simply STATE them.

Here is the other subsection of section (b):-

(b) (ii) Identify TWO sources of air pollution and give an example of EACH source.

Sources of air pollution include the following:-

 The burning of fossil fuels, that is, sulphur dioxide and smoke. Acid rain formation results.
 Industrial plants which emit substances such as fluorides, ammonia or chlorides.
 The exhaust of motor vehicles which emit hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and ethylene.
 The combustion of the fuels used to supply energy in factories and oil refineries.
 Quarries and construction sites produce dust, and so do some factories.
 Ash that is produced where sugar cane is burnt before harvesting.
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) are industrial chemicals used to make foam, in some aerosol
sprays, and in air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment. When they are released, there is
pollution.

Here is section (c) the last part of question 9.

(c) Explain how TWO measures implemented in

i) a named Caribbean territory can protect the forests.

ii) a developed country have reduced the emission of greenhouse gases.

iii) a named Caribbean territory can reduce the indiscriminate disposal of solid waste.

In response to (c) (i), I am choosing Jamaica as my named Caribbean territory. By highlighting

some of the functions of the Forestry Department, we have an insight into what is being done to
protect the forests in the island. These include:

 Sustainable management of forests in Crown lands or in forest reserves and the effective
conservation of those forests.
 Directing and controlling the exploitation, in a rational manner, of forest resources by the
introduction of adequate systems for renewal of those resources.
 Preparing and implementing a national forest management and conservation plan.
 Establishing and promoting public educational programmes to improve understanding of
the contribution of forests to national well-being and national development;
 Control and supervision of the cutting, harvesting, milling and sale of timber and other
forest produce.

In answering section (c) (ii), bear in mind that the greenhouse effect is the result of an increasing
build-up in the amount of carbon dioxide in the air. It is caused by the increased consumption of
fossil fuels, burning of rain forests, car exhaust emissions, the release of chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) and methane gas resulting from animal rearing and rice cultivation.

This fact should guide you in your response, since, generally speaking, it is a lessening of the
activities named that will result in a reduction of the emission of greenhouse gases

Saving the environment

Marjorie Henry, Contributor

The previous lesson ended with a discussion of section (c) (ii) of question 9, the penultimate
question on the June 2007 CSEC examination paper. Let me restate the question:

Explain how TWO measures implemented in a developed country have reduced the emission of
greenhouse gases.

Developed countries that have implemented measures to reduce the emission of greenhouse
gases are Canada, the European countries and the United States of America. Please note that you
are not required to name a developed country but the measures you refer to must be those taken
in this group of countries.

The measures taken include the following:

 Reducing of the use of CFCs in aerosol, air conditioning and refrigeration. When less CFCs
are emitted into the atmosphere, the depletion of the ozone layer is slowed.
 The recycling of materials such as plastic. This cuts down on the use of fossil fuels.
 Banning the use of leaded gasolene in favour of unleaded.
 Encouraging the use of gasohol (that is, gasolene plus ethanol), which reduces the amount
of fossil fuels utilised. In turn, this leads to a reduction in the amount of carbon dioxide that goes
back into the atmosphere.
 Reducing the use of paper, which lessens the removal of trees. Trees are an integral part of
the carbon cycle as they remove the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Recycling of paper is
encouraged.
 The use of nuclear energy.
 The use of alternative energy sources, for example, wind, solar and hydroelectric.
The last sub-section of section (c) addresses the matter of the disposal of solid waste. Let me
remind you of the question:
Explain how TWO measures implemented in a named Caribbean territory can reduce the indiscri-
minate disposal of solid waste.
Some of the measures taken in Jamaica to reduce the indiscriminate disposal of solid waste
include:
 The implementation of statutory laws with regards to the disposal of garbage. Selected
sites have been developed for the disposal of hazardous waste.
 Having litter wardens to monitor the disposal of garbage and also the implementation of
fines for littering.
 The collection and sale of old scrap metals. These are shipped abroad to be reused. This is
a legal operation.
 Recycling of plastic bottles. These are used to make resin which in turn is used in the
manufacturing of bottles.
 Having public awareness programmes.

The list of measures mentioned for all of section (c) is certainly not exhausted. Try and find out
for yourselves other measures taken to deal with each environmental matter mentioned in the
question. You may wish to find out what is happening in other Caribbean territories.

Urbanisation (question 5 cont'd)

Marjorie Henry, Contributor

In today's lesson, we will complete the discussion of question 5 started previously.

I hope you took some time to identify additional problems associated with urbanisation in the
Caribbean as I suggested.

Section (d), the last part of the question, has two sub-sections. Let us now look at some of the
reasons people move from rural areas to towns and offer an explanation for them as is required in
sub-section (I).

(I) Employment: Young people in particular are unwilling to work on the farm in the rural areas
as well as to work for small wages. They will, therefore, move to the city to find more lucrative
jobs, which in the end will pay them better wages. There are also insufficient industries in the
rural areas to offer employment.

(ii) Lack of farming lands: Invariably, there is fragmentation of land due to the inheritance
system. The acreages that result are often not viable.

(iii) Educational facilities: There is a shortage of educational facilities at the tertiary level,
especially for the young people. These include training centres, colleges and universities.
(iv) Recreational facilities: Opportunities for entertainment and recreation are often limited in
the rural areas.

Sub-section (ii) is asking you to suggest actions that could be taken to reduce rural to urban
migration. Actions can be interpreted as steps. The actions or steps you suggest must be
something specific that can be done, something that the government, for example, can put in
place. Here are some suggestions:

(I) Establish more industries in the rural areas. These industries will provide sources of
employment, especially for the young people.

(ii) Set up more tertiary institutions, for example, colleges, to train people. The distance learning
programme that is affiliated with the university should be expanded so that more persons can
become enrolled in it. In addition, there can be an increase in the number of university campuses
in the rural areas.

(iii) Government could provide financial assistance to train people in different skills.

(iv) Create more opportunities for entertainment and recreation, for example, more football fields
and cricket pitches could be set up. In addition, more community centres could be established.
These allow for varied and many activities.

(v) With the important role that agriculture plays in the economy of the country, efforts could be
made through the Rural Agricultural Development Authority to train farmers in the use of better
productivity.

(vi) Improvement of roads which will allow for easy access to markets and other areas within the
rural areas.

(vii) Expand and improve the social amenities. Install and/or extend piped water, electricity and
telecommunications in rural areas.
Answering questions
Marjorie Henry, Contributor

In today's lesson, the discussion of question eight taken from the June 2008 examination
continues. Let me hope that you read the question, which was given in the last lesson. With
reference to your geography syllabus, you should have observed that the specific objectives on
which this question is based are:

 Describe the impact of one of the following on life and property: volcanic eruptions,
earthquakes and hurricanes
 Explain the response to natural hazards in a named Caribbean country at an individual,
national and regional level.
It goes without saying that you must understand the question before you attempt to answer it. A
method that has been suggested to assist you in understanding the question is that of decoding
the question. To do this, you must first identify the word that tells you what you are supposed to
do, that is, the key verb. Refer to section b of the question. Just in case you missed the last
lesson, here is that section of the question:
 For a country you have studied, describe FOUR ways in which EITHER an earthquake OR a
volcanic eruption OR a hurricane affected life or property.

Key verb

The key verb here is describe. This means that you are to write down details about the object.
This leads to the second aspect of decoding the question, namely, the object. This tells you on
what to perform your task. To help you identify the object, ask yourself - What am I required to
describe? Again, in reference to the question, the response would be - how one of the natural
hazards named (earthquake, volcanic eruption, and hurricane) has affected life or property. The
third aspect of decoding is that of identifying the limiting factor. This tells you how to go about
your task. Within the context of the question, the description of the effect on life and property of
any of the natural hazards must be for a country you have studied. Note also that you are limited
to the number of ways you should describe, that is, four.

Election and parliamentary definitions

Glossary of election and parliamentary terms.

Amendment: A change proposed to a motion, a bill or committee report with the intention of
improving it or providing an alternative.

Backbencher: A member of parliament who is not a minister and does not sit on the front
benches reserved for Cabinet ministers or for opposition party officials.

Ballot box: A receptacle for voters' ballots.

Bicameral: A legislature which has two separate chambers. In Jamaica, they are the Senate and
the House of Assembly.

Bill: A set of proposals that might become a law if Parliament agrees to it.

By-election: A special election held to fill the seat of a parliamentarian who has died or resigned.

Cabinet: The group of senior ministers in a government.

Campaign: Competition by rival political candidates and organisations for public office.

Candidate: A person running for office in an election.

Civil servants: People who work for the government. They are expected to be neutral.

Coalition: An arrangement between more than one political party. This would usually happen
when no party wins more than half the seats in the Parliament.

Constituency: A geographical district from which a member of parliament is elected.

Constitution: The set of basic rules by which a country or state is governed.

Debate: A discussion in which the arguments for and against a subject are presented according
to specific rules.

Dissolution: The bringing to an end of a Parliament, either at the conclusion of its five-year term
or by proclamation of the governor general. It is followed by a general election.

Electorate: The collective name given to all the people who have the right to vote.

Elections: These are used to pick the people in charge of our country. Everyone over the age of
18 usually gets the chance to vote in an election.

Gerrymander: The dividing of a state, county into election districts so as to give one political
party a majority in many districts while concentrating the voting strength of the other party into
as few districts as possible.

Grass roots: The involvement of common citizens in an issue or campaign.

Ideology: An ideology is a set of ideas about how the country should be run.

Incumbent: A person currently in office.

Independent: A voter or candidate who does not belong to a political party.

Landslide: An election in which a particular victorious candidate or party receives an

overwhelming mass or majority of votes.

Laws: These are rules deciding what can and can't be done in a country.

Leader of the Opposition: The leader of the party which is the next largest after the
government party in the Parliament, members do not support the government.

Legislation: The process of making new laws.

Manifesto: A formal statement of political beliefs and objectives presented by a party to the
electorate.

MP: Member of parliament, a person elected to a seat in Parliament.

Nominee: The person chosen by a political party to serve as its representative in a general
election.

Non-partisan: An idea or person that does not support a specific party, cause or candidate.

Opposition: The party or parties and independent members who do not belong to the governing
party. The role of the opposition is to provide knowledgeable criticism of the government and
propose ways to improve its policies and legislation.

Partisan: A supporter of a person, group, party, or cause, especially a person who shows a
biased.
Party: A group of persons with common political opinions and purposes, organised for gaining
political influence and governmental control.

Policies: These are the ideas and proposals that the different parties have for changing things
that they don't like, or improving things they are in favour of.

Poll: The place where people vote.

Portfolio: The term used to describe the responsibilities of a member of Cabinet.

Pressure groups: These are organisations that want to change policy.

Prime minister: The leader of the party in power and the head of the government.

Privy Council: A formal advisory body to the Crown appointed by the governor general on the
advice of the prime minister.

Public gallery: The seats on the balcony of the main Chamber where the public can sit and
watch what's happening in Parliament.

Referendum: A referendum is held when the government wants to find out what everybody in
the country thinks about a particular subject.

Rights and responsibilities: In a democracy, everyone has rights and responsibilities, e.g. you
have the right to drive a car, but you have the responsibility to obtain a licence first.

Shadow Cabinet: The leadership of the opposition, poised to take the reins of government and
its ministries in the event elections are called and lost by the ruling majority party.

Sitting: A meeting of Parliament for a session.

Speaker: The member who is elected by Parliament as its presiding officer.

Table: To place a document before Parliament for consideration.

Unicameral: Consisting of one chamber or house, especially of a lawmaking body.

Vote: The way citizens choose a representative in an election.

Voter turnout: The number of people who actually vote on the day of the election.
How do you vote?
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

The electoral system

A country's electoral system encompasses the method used to calculate the number of elected
positions in government that individuals and parties are awarded after elections. An electoral or
voting system is how votes are translated into seats. It determines how many votes and what
kinds of votes are necessary to award seats to candidates and parties in an election. Different
electoral systems give voters different kinds of choices which can then affect the decisions voters
will make.

Electoral systems practised in the Caribbean

Proportional-representation (PR) systems

Candidates are elected in proportion to the number of votes they receive; that is, the proportion
of seats won by each group or party should equal the proportion of votes cast for those groups or
parties. For example, if a party wins 45 per cent of the votes it should win about 45 per cent of
the seats and if a party gets 15 per cent of the votes, it should gain 15 per cent of the seats.

The proportional-representation voting systems attempts to make the percentage of offices

awarded to candidates reflect the percentage of votes that they received in the election. It is
believed to be the most widely used set of electoral systems in the world.

Characteristics of the PR systems

 Each party presents a list of candidates to the electorate and voters vote for the party list
of their choice rather than individual candidates.
 Parties win a proportion of seats in the legislature that approximates their proportional
share of the national vote.
 Winning candidates from each party are selected from their party's list in the order of their
ranking on the list until the number of seats allocated to the party is filled.

Advantages of the PR system

1. This system gives more of an accurate translation of votes into seats, even the smaller parties
may gain parliamentary seats with the use of this system.

2. Votes are not 'wasted'; every vote counts more than under the first-past-the-post system.

3. There is no chance of gerrymandering when this system is used.

4. It makes it unlikely that one party will hold all the seats in a particular country.
Disadvantages

1. The relationship that may exist between a representative of a constituency would disappear in
a proportional system.

2. A representative elected would or might be more willing to help directly in the constituency to
influence votes in the future.

3. Individuals on the list may find themselves trying to please the leadership so that his or her
name may be placed as near to the top as possible.

First-past-the-post voting (FPP)

This system of vote counting is the simplest - the voter only votes for one candidate and whoever
gets the highest number of votes is elected. It is the easiest vote-counting system to calculate
results. The winning candidate is the one who gains more votes than any other candidate, but not
necessarily an absolute majority.

 The territory of a country is divided into some number of territorial units or constituencies,
each of which elects one member to serve in the national legislature. Jamaica has 60 such
constituencies.
 Candidates must receive a majority of the votes to win the election.

Advantages

1. Easier to understand and can reproduce relatively speedy results.

2. Prevents the election of any candidates who lack an absolute majority of the vote.

3. Avoids the situation where a candidate can be elected on a small percentage of the vote.

Disadvantages

1. Results do not always reflect the wishes of the electorate. The party winning of the national
vote does not necessarily win a majority of the parliamentary seats.

2. There is a possibility that gerrymandering can be used to help someone to win an election.

Activities

1. Name the type of electoral system used in Jamaica.

2. Name the type of electoral system used in Guyana.

3. Explain how the method of allocating seats after a general election under the system named in
question 2 above differs from the method used in the system named in question 1 above.

4. As leader of a political party, outline THREE important points you should make to your
supporters regarding the benefits to be gained by a named type of electoral system.

Citizenship - your rights and responsibilities

Maureen Campbell, Contributor
A citizen is a native or naturalised member of a country who pledges allegiance to his government
and is entitled to its protection. Citizenship, on the other hand, is membership in a society,
community or country and this position carries with it rights to political participation - an
individual or person having such membership is referred to as a citizen.

Citizenship may be further looked at as membership in a country, with guaranteed rights,

privileges as well as duties and responsibilities. Citizenship of Jamaica is acquired through birth,
marriage or naturalisation.

The Constitution of Jamaica states that:

 Persons born in Jamaica and persons born outside of Jamaica of Jamaican parents have an
automatic right to Jamaican citizenship.
 Women who have married Jamaican men and former citizens of the United Kingdom and
colonies who had become naturalised or registered as British subjects in Jamaica can also register
as Jamaican citizens.

Parliament is given power in the constitution to make further provision for the acquisition,
deprivation and renunciation of citizenship, and the governor general is given the power to
deprive of their Jamaican citizenship, those Jamaican citizens who acquire citizenship or the rights
of citizenship of another country.

Fundamental rights and freedoms

Citizenship status implies some responsibilities and duties to your country. Every person,
regardless of race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex is entitled to certain
fundamental rights and freedoms in the Caribbean and elsewhere. These include

 Protection of right to life

 The right to personal liberty
 Freedom of movement
 Freedom from inhuman treatment
 Enjoyment of property and privacy of home
 Freedom of conscience
 Freedom of association
 Respect for private and family life
 Freedom from discrimination
 Protection from arbitrary arrest and the right to a fair trial
 Protection of peaceful assembly
 Freedom of expression
 The right to vote
 Freedom of worship
 Right to an education
 To share in the government of his or her country - one of the greatest rights of a citizen.
 To be able to enjoy these rights and freedoms, a citizen is expected to have respect for the
rights and freedoms of others and for the public interest at large or his rights and freedoms may
be withheld.

It must also be made clear that in the public interest, individual rights may also be suspended in
a manner that is prescribed by the Constitution, such as in the event of war, calamity of threat of
subversion, all for the public's interest and well-being.
If, by any chance, an individual believes that his or her rights are being violated or threatened, he
or she may apply to the Supreme Court or appeal to the Court of Appeal for enforcement of his or
her rights and for redress where applicable.

Responsibilities of citizens

Every citizen or member of a community is obligated to:

 As a citizen, you should strive to pay your share of tax that is levied for the good of the
community. Failure to do so may result in sanctions.
 Obey the laws of the land; your whole life and well-being depend on it.
 Serve as a witness in the court if summoned. People are finding this harder and harder to
do every day, but it is deemed a responsibility of each and every citizen.
 Serving on a jury if called.
 Being loyal to one's country.
 Understanding and using the judicial process accordingly. The courts are there to help us
settle our disputes. We should try to use them and not take matters into our own hands.
 Being an active member in the community.
 Being an active member in civic organisations.
 Voting properly and wisely in elections.
 Being a cooperative citizen with law-enforcement agencies.
 Being well-informed on current affairs or issues, listen the news, read the daily
newspapers, keep abreast of what is happening in our country and elsewhere.
 Being helpful and respectful to one's neighbours and remember, do to others as you would
have them do to you.

Activities

The right to an education is found in the constitution of Caribbean countries:

a State THREE other rights enjoyed by citizens in your country.

b. Explain THREE ways in which citizens may benefit from the right to an education.

c. Give THREE reasons why the rights and freedoms of citizens are guaranteed by the constitution
of your country.

d. Suggest TWO ways in which citizens may protest if they fear their rights are being taken away
from them.

e. Suggest TWO actions a citizen may take to obtain redress after being wrongfully arrested by
the police.

Interpreting the law

Maureen Campbell, Contributor

THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The judiciary is the branch of government that is primarily responsible for interpreting the law. It
construes the laws enacted by the legislature. It may be viewed as the systems of law courts,
judges and magistrates, and the police service which work together to maintain a just society.
The specific function of judges is to interpret the law. The judiciary performs the third function in
the democratic triangle of the Government.

[Link]/node

The main function of the courts is to see that justice reaches people who have been wronged. In
Jamaica and most other Caribbean countries, there are various courts that handle criminal
matters at the trial level, as shown above. These are the Resident Magistrate, Supreme Court,
Court of Appeal and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council which act as a final court of
appeal.

Judicial Committee of the Privy Council

The Constitution allows cases to be referred to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the
United Kingdom. This court, which sits in London, England, is the final court of appeal for
Jamaica. It hears appeals, both criminal and civil, from the Jamaican Court of Appeal.

Court of Appeal

Defendants have the right to appeal a conviction of any of the three trial courts to the Court of
Appeal, which is the highest court in the island. The Court of Appeal consists of the president of
the Court of Appeal, the chief justice and six judges.

Supreme Court

The Supreme Court consists of the chief justice, a senior puisne judge and 14 puisne judges. They
try felonies other than those involving firearms, which are tried before a judge of the Gun Court.
The court exercises both criminal and civil jurisdiction, with a single judge sitting with a jury
consisting of 12 in murder cases and seven in other [Link] cases come to the Circuit
Court or Supreme Court from the resident magistrate. The Supreme Court is also concerned with
civil actions arising from negligence, breach of contract, slander, libel, trespass, divorce
administration, equity, guardianship of infants and the estate of lunatics.

Resident Magistrate's Court

There is a resident magistrate's court for each parish, trying matters that are less serious -
misdemeanors - both civil and criminal. This court may also conduct preliminary inquires for more
serious criminal cases. The resident magistrate is coroner for the parish to which he or she is
assigned.

Petty Sessions

A petty sessions court deals with minor offences and is usually presided over by a justice of the
peace. This court deals with offences such as small thefts, assaults, malicious injury to property,
drunkenness and cruelty to animals among other lesser crimes.

Traffic Court
The traffic court deals with breaches of the Road Traffic Act within the Corporate Area of Kingston
and St Andrew. Traffic breaches in the other parishes are dealt with in the resident magistrate's
courts.

The Coroner's Court

A coroner is an officer who holds inquests on the bodies of persons supposed to have died by
violence or accident, in order to determine whether the death was natural or caused.

Chief Justice

The chief justice is appointed by the governor general, on the recommendation of the prime
minister, after consulting the leader of the opposition. He or she is the head of the judiciary and
is, by virtue of the office, chairman of the Judicial Service Commission. This person is responsible
for administrative matters such as appointments and transfers.

President of the Court of Appeal

The president of the Court of Appeals is appointed by the governor general, on the advice of the
prime minister, after consultation with the leader of the opposition. In addition to his duties in the
Court of Appeals, where he presides whenever he is sitting, the president of the Court of Appeal is
a member of the Judicial Service Commission.

Source: [Link]

Activities

1. Make your own diagram outlining the court system in Jamaica.

2. Why is the judiciary necessary in any country?

3. What part does the police play in the judiciary system.

4. What can citizens do to ensure that the judiciary system is functional and is meeting the needs
of each citizen?

5. Is the judiciary system working as it should in your country? Give reasons for your answer. If
not what can you suggest to help to strengthen its performance?

6. Name five other types of courts in Jamaica other than those mentioned above.
Policymakers
Maureen Campbell, Contributor
The executive

The executive is the branch of government responsible for the day-to-day management of a
country. Under the doctrine of the separation of powers, the executive is not supposed to make
laws (that is the role of the legislature) or to interpret them (the role of the judiciary). Its purpose
is to enforce them.

The executive arm of government comprises the head of state, the prime minister and the
ministers of government. These persons are collectively called the Cabinet. The prime minister
and the Cabinet are selected from Parliament. The prime minister is the leader of the majority
party and is appointed from the House of Representatives by the governor general. The prime
minister appoints the ministers of the Cabinet.

The prime minister

The prime minister forms and presides over the Cabinet. This individual advises the queen on the
appointment of the governor general and he or she advises the governor general on the
appointment of the six members of the Privy Council. The prime minister also advises the
governor general on the dissolution of Parliament and on appointments of the chief justice, the
president of the Court of Appeal and the three service commissions all deemed necessary and
enshrined in the constitution. In the case of the appointments of the senior members of the
judiciary and the service commissions, the prime minister's advice is given only after consultation
with the leader of the Opposition.

Cabinet

The Cabinet is acknowledged as the centre of the system of government. It initiates government
policies and programmes and is responsible for the general direction and control of the
government. In Jamaica, the Cabinet must consist of the prime minister and not fewer than 11
other ministers; no upper limit is specified. Not more than four ministers must be appointed from
the Senate, and they may have portfolio responsibilities. The other Cabinet ministers are
appointed from the House of Representatives. These ministers usually have responsibilities for
particular areas, for example, health, education, foreign affairs and the work of the minister is
carried out by a large number of government employees or civil servants.

Cabinet ministers may be assisted by ministers of state and parliamentary secretaries. Each
minister conducts the ordinary business of his ministry without referring to any other minister.
However, important matters, especially those which may become the subject of discussion in
Parliament, are brought before the Cabinet for discussion and decision.

Cabinet is traditionally convened on a weekly basis, although it may meet as the circumstances
dictate. It is a confidential, closed forum that enables Cabinet ministers to collectively and frankly
discuss and decide on matters of significant interest to the Government and the public, as well as
to keep them informed about matters of public interest or controversy. The business of Cabinet is
guided by the democratic principles of collective responsibility; all Cabinet ministers accept and
uphold responsibility for all Cabinet decisions, regardless of their personal views.

Other functions of the Cabinet:

 To make policies
 To issue directions for enforcing laws and policies
 To initiate bills
 To formulate budgets
 To appoint ambassadors
 To appoint commissions and board members to statutory bodies
 To grant resident status and citizenship to aliens.

The budget debate in Parliament

The Budget Debate is opened by the minister of finance, who outlines how the various
programmes and policies of the Government will be financed and how the money will be raised.

Other speakers include:

1. The prime minister

2. The leader of the Opposition

3. The Opposition spokesman on finance

4. Ministers selected by the government

5. Select opposition spokespersons

Please note that the Budget Debate is closed by the minister of finance after all the presentations
are made.

The sectorial debates

Ministers of government and all members of Parliament who did not contribute to the budget
debate are expected to make their presentations in these sessions

Activities

1. Define each of the following: constitution, Parliament and Cabinet.

2. State the composition and functions of the executive arm of government

Who is in charge?
Maureen Campbell, Contributor

The Legislature

The legislature is a type of representative with the power to create and change laws. The law
created by a legislature is called legislation or statutory law. The legislature in Jamaica is called
the Parliament. The main job of the legislature is to make and amend laws. The legislature is
considered a power branch, which is equal to and independent of the executive. In addition to
enacting laws, legislatures usually have exclusive authority to raise taxes and adopt the budget
and other money bills.

The legislature in Jamaica consists of two houses. The Senate, also called the Upper House, and
the House of Representatives, also known as the Lower House. A legislature with only one house
is called unicameral. A bicameral legislature possesses two separate houses, described as the
Upper House and the Lower House, which often differ in duties, powers and the methods used for
the selection of members.

Senators, parliamentarians

The senators are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister and the
leader of the opposition who both select representatives to this house, with the government
holding the majority in this house. The House of Representatives consists of members directly
elected by the people in an election. The house of representatives plays the main part in the
parliamentary system. In most parliamentary systems, the Lower House is the more powerful
house, while the Upper House is merely a house of advice or review.

The governor general represents The Queen in Parliament, and his role is a formal one. Once per
year, with the opening of Parliament, the governor general is expected to deliver the Throne
Speech. Otherwise, his parliamentary functions are limited to his formal assent to bills passed by
the houses of Parliament.

The maximum life of Parliament, as stipulated by the constitution, is five years, at the end of
which Parliament is dissolved and a general election is held. A general election might also be
called at anytime before the end of the five years.

Functions of parliament

1. The passing of laws, as most bills are initiated in the house of representatives.

2. Approving of funds to be granted or taxation levied.

3. Authorising public expenditure, adopting the budget.

How a bill becomes law

The legislature makes laws which determine procedures and roles in society. There are at least
eight stages in making a law. A bill is introduced in the house of representatives where it is
debated by both government and opposition. After much discussions and changes and
amendments, it is voted on before being carried to the senate.

In the senate, it is again discussed and further changes and amendments can be suggested if the
senate disagrees with any aspect of the bill. If this happens, it is sent back to the House of
Representatives where it is again discussed and changes and amendments made before it is
voted and passed into law. However, if the house disagrees with the senate's amendment, it
informs the senate, which is then asked to reconsider the bill.

When an agreement is reached and the bill has been passed through all its stages in both houses,
it requires only the royal assent to make it law. The governor general, The Queen's
representative, will have to give this formal assent for the bill to become a law.
Bills might be introduced in either the House of Representatives or the Senate, but no bill
involving finance can be first introduced in the senate. Public bills designed to give effect to
government policy are introduced by a minister or other officer of the government. Private bills,
on the other hand, might be introduced by any other member of the house; that is, by the
governing party or from the opposition.

After a bill has been introduced in the house, it must pass through several stages known as
readings.

Activities

1. Name two countries that have a unicameral Parliament and two that have a bicameral
Parliament.

2. Explain how a bill becomes a law by using the following format:

 Introduction of the bill

 First reading
 Second reading
 Committee stage
 Report stage
 Third reading

3. In what ways do the duties of the Senate differ from that of the House of Representatives?

4. Find out what is the difference between a private bill and a public bill.