BIOLOGY 12 - CELL STRUCTURE & FUNCTION: Chapter Notes

THE CELL THEORY

• although different living things may be as unlike as a violet and an octopus, they are all built in essentially the
same way. The most basic similarity is that all living things are composed of one or more cells. This is
known as the Cell Theory.
• our knowledge of cells is built on work done with microscopes
• English scientist Robert Hooke in 1665 first described cells from his observations of cork slices. Hooke first
used the word "cell".
• Dutch amateur scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek discovered microscopic animals in water
• German scientists Schleiden and Schwann in 1830's were first to say that all organisms are made of one or
more cells.
• German biologist Virchow in 1858 stated that all cells come from the division of pre-existing cells.
• Cells are the building blocks of life.
The Cell Theory can be summarized as:
1. All living organisms are made up of one or more cells
2. The cell is the basic unit of life
3. All cells come from the division of pre-existing cells
• cells come in many shapes and sizes, although most are microscopic:
• most cells are small, about 0.001 cm in length (1/100 of a mm, or 10 µm).
• the smallest cells of the microorganism mycoplasma are 0.3 µm in size
• Some cells are large. e.g. some giant algal cells may be several centimeters long. A chicken's egg is a
single cell.
• 40,000 red blood cells would fill the letter "O" on a page of type. You produce about 2.5 million new
red blood cells every second! Each square cm of your skin contains about 150,000 skin cells.
• Human beings are composed of about 50 to 100 trillion cells.
• cells carry on all the processes associated with life, such as reproducing and interacting with the
environment.
Microscopy
• The study of cell structure includes the fields of CYTOLOGY (for cells) and HISTOLOGY (for tissues),
whereas the function of cells is studied in CELL PHYSIOLOGY,
BIOCHEMISTRY, and CYTOGENETICS.
• The first instrument used in studying cell structure was the light
microscope, which remains an important tool today. The
TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE and the SCANNING
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE have vastly increased our knowledge.
• Before an object can be viewed, it is necessary to stain the material
and cut it into samples thin enough for a light beam or an electron
beam to penetrate them.
• First, the tissue is treated, to "fix" the structures so they will not be
altered by the staining and slicing. Usually this is done by using
chemicals such as ALCOHOL and FORMALDEHYDE.
• Stains have been developed that react differently with different cell
structures, depending on their chemical composition or enzymatic
activity. The use of stains containing radioactive atoms, known as
AUTORADIOGRAPHY, often involves feeding cells specific
compounds with radioactive atoms and then observing the distribution
of radioactive events on a photographic film emulsion.

Relative Powers of Microscopes

1. Compound Light Microscope: maximum resolving power = 200 nm (maximum useful magnification =
~1000 X)
2. Transmission Electron Microscope: maximum resolving power = 0.5 nm nm (maximum useful
magnification = >30,000 X)
3. Scanning Electron Microscope: Gives vivid 3-D images, but less magnification than transmission EM

EUCARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE

• You should still recall some aspects of cell structure. At the most basic Level, the cell's overall structure can be
viewed as:

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 1. Cell Membrane
2. Nucleus
3. Organelles
4. Cytoplasm

1. Cell Membrane: the thin layer which separates the cell contents from it's environment. Plant cells also have
a cell wall surrounding the cell membrane.
2. Nucleus: specialized structure within the cell which contains DNA and controls cell functioning and
reproduction.
3. Organelles: small bodies with specific structures and functions within the cell.
4. Cytoplasm: the liquid substance between the nucleus and the cell membrane, in which the organelles are
located.

Now Let’s Have a DETAILED look at CELL ORGANELLES

The Cell Membrane and the “Fluid Mosaic” Model

• the cell membrane functions in transport of materials in and out of cell, recognition, communication, and
homeostasis.

The Fluid Mosaic Model:

• Cells are surrounded by a thin membrane of lipid and protein, about 100 angstroms (100 x 10-10 m) thick.
•scientists today agree upon The Fluid Mosaic Model of membrane structure. The cell
membrane is a remarkable structure that has properties of a solid and a liquid.
•It forms a "fluid sea" in which proteins and other molecules like other lipids or
carbohydrates are suspended (like icebergs) or anchored at various points on its surface.
•the “sea” or “fluid” partis composed of side by side phospholipids arranged in a bilayer
(called a lipid bilayer).
•The solid part (the “mosaic”) is the variety of proteins etc. embedded in the bilayer.
•each phospholipid has a hydrophobic tail and a hydrophylic head.
•the membrane has consistency of light machine oil.
•the membrane is SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE (will let some substances in but not
others of the same size).

• Plant Cells also have a Cell Wall surrounding their cell membrane.
• the cell wall is made up of a large number of cellulose fibers cemented together (like the cellulose fibers in
paper). Small molecules have little difficulty penetrating the cell wall, while larger molecules may not be able
to pass through. (the cell wall is said to be semi-permeable)

The Nucleus: the Cell’s CPU

•the nucleus is a large, centrally located organelle surrounded by nuclear envelope. The
nuclear envelope is a double membrane (2 phospholipid bilayers thick) that has pores in it
for molecules to enter and exit). The envelope is very porous and is a continuation of the
membranes of the endoplasmic [Link] pores, called nuclear pores, allow
selected molecules into and out of the nucleus. It is also
believed that these pores are the routes by which genetic
messages (RNA) pass into the cytoplasm.

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 •is the control center or "brain" of cell. Contains the DNA and is site of manufacture of
RNA. The DNA is contained by a number of chromosomes, which consist of long strands of
DNA tightly wound into coils with proteins called histones. The combination of DNA and
histone proteins is known as CHROMATIN. Chromosomes function in packaging of DNA
during nuclear division and control of gene expression
•The nucleus, therefore, determines the metabolism, growth, differentiation, structure,
and reproduction of cell.
•The nucleus contains one or more DARK-STAINING discrete structures, known as
NUCLEOLI, which are sites of RIBOSOMAL RIBONUCLEIC ACID (rRNA) SYNTHESIS.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• the ER is a system of MEMBRANOUS TUBULAR CANALS that begins just outside the nucleus and branches
throughout the cytoplasm.
• if ribosomes are attached to the ER, it is called ROUGH Endoplasmic Reticulum. The function of rough ER
is protein synthesis.
• if no ribosomes are attached to the ER, it is called SMOOTH Endoplasmic Reticulum. The function of smooth
ER is synthesis of lipids (Lipids are required for the growth of the cell membrane and for the membranes of
the organelles within the cell and are often used to make hormones) and also to detoxify drugs and
chemicals in the cell (takes place in peroxisome vesicles which are often attached to
smooth ER).
• The endoplasmic reticulum membranes provide an increase in surface area
where chemical reactions can occur.
• The channels of the reticulum provide both storage space for products synthesized by
the cell and transportation routes through which material can travel through other
parts of the cell. The endoplasmic reticulum is also the cell's membrane factory.
Phospholipids and cholesterol, the main components of membranes throughout the
cell, are synthesized in the smooth ER.
• Most of the proteins leaving the endoplasmic reticulum are still not mature. They must
undergo further processing in another organelle, the Golgi apparatus, before they are ready to perform their
functions within or outside the cell.

Ribosomes
• consist of rRNA and proteins
• each ribosome is made of 2 non-identical subunits
• rRNA is produced in the nucleolus and joined with proteins -- then migrate through the nuclear pore to the
cytoplasm for final assembly
• ribosomes attach themselves to the endoplasmic reticulum
• function is site for PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Polysomes
• free-floating structures within the cytoplasm
• generally produce proteins the will be used inside the cell
• consist of clusters of ribosomes bunched together, each of which is transcribing the same
type of protein

Golgi Apparatus
• The Golgi Apparatus (“X” in diagram), named after an Italian anatomist of the nineteenth
century, are stacks of flattened, hollow cavities enclosed by membranes, which are often
continuous with the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum.
• located near to the nucleus and ER.
• The stack is made of a half-dozen or more saccuoles. Looks like a flattened stack of hollow tubes. Each
sac in the organelle contains enzymes that modify proteins as they pass through.
• Thus, the Golgi apparatus functions in modification, assembly, packaging, storage and secretion of
substances.
•it receives newly manufactured protein (from the ER) on it's inner surface.
Within the Golgi apparatus, the proteins are sorted out, labeled, and
packaged into vesicles that "pinch off" the outer surface of the saccuoles.
These vesicles can then be transported to where they are needed within the
cell, or can move to the cell membrane for export to the outside of the cell by
exocytosis.

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Vacuoles and Vesicles: Storage Depots
• A VESICLE is a small vacuole
• vacuoles and vesicles are formed by: 1) pinching off from the Golgi apparatus 2)
endocytosis of the cell membrane 3) extension of the ER membrane (for example, the
large central vacuole of a plant cell).
• are used for transport and storage of materials
• Plant cells usually have one large Central Vacuole.
• the plant cell’s central vacuole functions in 1) water storage 2) food storage 3) waste
storage 4) cell support
• is thought to be an extension of the ER membrane

Lysosomes: Cellular “Stomachs”

• special vesicles which are formed by the Golgi apparatus.
• contain powerful hydrolytic enzymes
• functions in 1) cellular digestion 2) autodigestion or disposal of damaged cell components like mitochondria
3) breakdown of a whole cell (by releasing their contents into the cell cytoplasm). For this reason, they are
sometimes called “suicide sacs.”
• Lysosomes are known to contain over 40 different enzymes that can digest almost anything in the cell,
including proteins, RNA, DNA, and carbohydrates.
•Lysosomes also appear to perform other digestive processes,
such as those connected with phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
•Lysosomes help destroy invading bacteria.
•PEROXISOMES are also single-membrane organelles.
Peroxisomal enzymes remove hydrogen atoms from small
molecules and join the hydrogen atoms to oxygen to form
hydrogen peroxide, and then break it down into water and
oxygen.

Mitochondria: the Cell’s Powerhouse

• Mitochondria are the largest organelles in an animal cell, after the nucleus.
• Are sausage-shaped or filamentous structures surrounded by a double-layered membrane. Mitochondria
vary in diameter from 0.5 to 1 micrometer and in
length up to 7 micrometers. (about the size of
bacteria).
• The mitochondrion has two membranes: an outer
and an inner. The inner is convoluted into shelf-like
folds called cristae. The enzymes responsible for
cellular respiration are arranged, in assembly-line fashion, on the cristae. This is where energy is produced.
• function is AEROBIC ENERGY METABOLISM (also called CELLULAR RESPIRATION). Converts glucose
and fatty acids to ATP, the cell's primary energy molecule, as well as lesser amounts of other energy rich
molecules. The overall formula for cellular respiration is:

Carbohydrate + O2  CO2 + H2O + ENERGY (i.e. ATP)

• In the end, 38 molecules of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) are formed for every molecule of sugar that is used
up in respiration.
• Besides supplying energy, mitochondria also help control the concentration of water, calcium, and other
charged particles (ions) in the cytoplasm.
• Mitochondria have some of their own DNA molecules and ribosomes that resemble those of procaryotic
cells.
• Human mitochondrial DNA is a closed, circular molecule 16,569 nucleotide pairs long.
• Mitochondria are also self-replicating. They "reproduce" by splitting in half.
• mitochondria may have evolved from bacteria that once developed a close relationship with primitive
eucaryotic cells, and then lost the capacity to live outside the cell.
• Another interesting characteristic of human mitochondria is fact that all of a person's mitochondria are
descendants of those of his or her mother.

Chloroplasts & Plastids: Food Makers for the World

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• found in plant cells only.
• membrane-bound structures that usually contain pigments and give plant cells their colours. The most
prominent plastid is the CHLOROPLAST.
• some plastids are storage bodies for starch, proteins, oils.
Chloroplast
• these are the double-membrane bound organelles in which PHOTOSYNTHESIS (the conversion of light
energy to carbohydrates) occurs. Chlorophyll is the chemical that absorbs the energy of the sun to provide
the energy required for reducing CO2 to Glucose.
• Process is basically the opposite of cellular respiration:
CO2 + H2O + ENERGY (i.e. ATP)  Carbohydrate + O2
• inside the chloroplast are membranous stacks of grana (look like pancakes!) where the chlorophyll is located.
Each pancake is call a thylakoid.

Centrioles
• Animal cells have two cylindrical bodies, called centrioles, located near the nucleus. The centrioles appear
as sets of triple tubules. Centrioles play a part in cell division.
• Centrioles are short cylinders with a 9+0 pattern of microtubular
triplets.
• each animal cell has one pair of centrioles lying at right angles to each
other next to the nucleus
• centrioles give rise to basal bodies. Basal bodies direct the
formation of cilia and flagella
• assist in the formation of the spindle apparatus in cell division.

The Cytoskeleton
•The network of filamentous proteins
structures within the cell that help it
maintain shape, anchor organelles, or help
the organelles move as necessary. The primary constituents of the cytoskeleton are
microtubules and microfilaments.

Microtubules & Microfilaments

•Microtubules are hollow, cylindrical aggregates of tubelike structure that help give the
cell shape and form; they are also involved in other cell processes.
•made up of 13 rows of globular proteins arranged to form a hollow tube
serve in moving materials within the cell, cell movement, cytoskeleton structure.
• Microfilaments are long, thin, contractile rods that appear to be responsible for the movement of cells (both
external and internal movement).
• made up of double filaments arranged in a helical pattern, with each filament consisting of numerous globular
proteins joined together.
• serve in anchoring organelles and moving them within the cell, cell movement, cytoskeleton structure.

Cilia

• short, hairlike projections that function in cell movement (e.g. Paramecium, cells of human respiratory tract)
• consists of a membrane-bound cylinder, with 9+2 arrangement of microtubules.
• shorter than flagella
• beat stiffly, like oars

Flagella

• longer than cilia, but with same basic anatomy as cilia (membrane-bound cylinder, with 9+2 arrangement of
microtubules).
• beat in undulating whip-like fashion
• function in cell movement (e.g. sperm cells, Euglena)

PROKARYOTIC VS. EUKARYOTIC CELLS

• Two classes of cells exist: the PROKARYOTES and the EUKARYOTES.
• The Prokaryotes include the bacteria and the blue-green algae (the Monera kingdom).
• These are all single-celled organisms that lack both a true nucleus and other
membrane-bounded cellular substructures. Prokaryotic DNA is usually circular.
• The Eukaryotes include plants, animals, protozoa, and fungi.

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 • These cells contain nuclei and other membrane-bound organelles. The genetic material is organized
into chromosomes.
Eukaryotic

Structure Prokaryotic Animal Plant

Cell Membrane YES YES YES
Cell Wall YES NO YES
Nucleus NO YES YES
Mitochondria NO YES YES
Chloroplasts NO NO YES
ER NO YES YES
Ribosomes YES, (small) YES, large YES, large
Vacuoles NO YES, small YES
Lysosomes NO YES, usually NO, usually
Cytoskeleton NO YES YES
Centrioles NO YES NO

THE SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO & CELL SIZE

• Cells cannot get too large. When cells get too large, they must divide. One of the main reasons that cells do
this is because of the way that a cell's volume changes with respect to its cell surface area.
• Suppose a cell measures 1 mm square. Its surface to volume ratio is 6:1
Surface area (for a square): area of one face x 6
Volume: length x width x height
• In the above example: SA = 1 mm x 1 mm x 6 = 6 mm2. Volume: 1 x 1 x 1 = 1 mm3.
• Now, if you double the size of the cell to 2 mm across, the SA increases to 2 mm x 2 mm x 6 = 24 mm2.
Volume increases to 2 mm x 2 mm x 2 mm = 8 mm3. The surface area to volume ratio decreases to 24:8 or
3:1. As the size doubled, the SA:V ratio decreased by half.
• As the size of a cell increases, its surface to volume ratio decreases. This means that, as a cell gets larger,
each cubic unit of cytoplasm is serviced by proportionally less cell membrane. Why is this significant?
Cell Size Surface area Volume SA:V ratio
1 6 1 6:1
2 24 8 3:1
4 96 64 1.5:1
8 384 512 0.75:1

• Cells rely on diffusion for materials (such as nutrients) to get into the cell. Diffusion is not a highly rapid or
efficient means of distributing materials over long cellular distances. No portion of even the largest active cells
is more than 1 mm from the cell membrane.
• How do cells get around the limits of the surface to volume ratio?

1. Divide
2. Slow down metabolism: e.g. unfertilized chicken eggs
3. Get long and thin rather than round and fat: e.g. nerve cells

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4. Folds in the cell membrane: e.g. microvilli of intestinal epithelial cells

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