UNIT 1

GEODETIC SURVEYING AND SBPS

Session 1: Geodetic Surveying
Session objective –
1) To get knowledge of Objects,
2) Methods of Geodetic surveying

1.1 Objects
 The object of geodetic surveying is the determination of precise position of different
widely distant points on the surface of the earth.
 Those points are referred to as control stations which are located through Geodetic
Survey are used as reference point in other surveys like engineering Survey,
topographical, cadastral, etc., Such surveys are conducted only by the agencies of the
Governments.
1.2 Methods of Geodetic surveying
 The most common type of geodetic survey is known as triangulation. It differs from the
plane survey mentioned earlier in that more accurate instruments are used instrumental
errors are either removed or predetermined so that they can be compensated for in the
computations and more rigorous procedures are employed to reduce observational errors.
 Another very important difference is that all of the positions established by triangulation
are mathematically related to each other.
 Basically, triangulation consists of the measurement of the angles of a series of triangles.
The principle of triangulation is based on simple trigonometric procedures. If the distance
along one side of a triangle and the angles at each end of the side are accurately
measured, the other two sides and the remaining angle can be computed. Normally, all of
the angles of every triangle are measured for the minimization of error and to furnish data
for use in computing the precision of the measurements
 The measured side of the base triangle is called a base line. Measurements are made as
carefully and accurately as possible with specially calibrated tapes or wires of invar, an
alloy highly resistant to changes in length resulting from changes in temperature. The
tapes or wires are checked periodically against standard measures of length (at the
Bureau of Standards in the United States and corresponding agencies in other countries).
 The geodimeter and tellurometer, operating on electro-optical and electronic principles
respectively, have replaced the older methods of base measurement in the recent surveys.
The work can be completed more rapidly and accurately than with wire or tape. The laser
equipped geodimeter has proven to be the most accurate and it can measure much longer
distances without losing accuracy.
 To establish an arc of triangulation between two widely separated locations, a base line
may be measured and longitude and latitude determined for the initial point at one end.
The locations are then connected by a series of adjoining triangles forming
quadrilaterals extending from each end.
Session 2: Concept of triangulation

Session 2
Session objective –
1) Introduction to Triangulation
2) To understand classification of triangulation.

2.1 Introduction to Triangulation

Fig. 1

 The method of surveying called triangulation is based on the trigonometric proposition

that if one side and two angles of a triangle are known, the remaining sides can be
computed. Furthermore, if the direction of one side is known, the directions of the
remaining sides can be determined. A triangulation system consists of a series of joined
or overlapping triangles in which an occasional side is measured and remaining sides are
calculated from angles measured at the vertices of the triangles. The vertices of the
triangles are known as triangulation stations. The side of the triangle, whose length is
predetermined, is called the base line.
2.2 OBJECTIVE OF TRIANGULATION SURVEYS
The main objective of triangulation or trilateration surveys is to provide a number of stations
whose relative and absolute positions, horizontal as well as vertical, are accurately established.
More detailed location or engineering surveys are then carried out from these stations.

2.3 THE TRIANGULATION SURVEYS ARE CARRIED OUT

(i)To establish accurate control for plane and geodetic surveys of large areas, by terrestrial
methods
(ii)To establish accurate control for photogrammetric surveys of large areas,
(iii) To assist in the determination of the size and shape of the earth by making observations for
latitude, longitude and gravity.
(iv)To determine accurate locations of points in engineering works such as;
(a) Fixing centre line and abutments of long bridges over large rivers.
(b) Fixing centre line, terminal points, and shafts for long tunnels.
(c) Transferring the control points across wide sea channels, large water bodies, etc.
(d) Detection of crustal movements, etc.
(e) Finding the direction of the movement of clouds.

2.4 PRINCIPLE OF TRIANGULATION

Fig. 1.2 shows two interconnected triangles ABC and BCD. All the angles in both the triangles
and the length
L of the side AB, have been measured.
Also the azimuth θ of AB has been measured at the triangulation station A, whose coordinates
(XA, YA), are known. The objective is to determine the coordinates of the triangulation stations B,
C, and D by the method of triangulation. Let us first calculate the lengths of all the lines.

By sine rule in ΔABC, we have

Fig. 2.1 Principle of triangulation

Now the side BC being known in ΔBCD, by sine rule, we have
2.5 CLASSIFICATION OF TRIANGULATION SYSTEM
 Based on the extent and purpose of the survey, and consequently on the degree of
accuracy desired, triangulation surveys are classified as first-order or primary, second-
order or secondary, and third-order or tertiary.
 First-order triangulation is used to determine the shape and size of the earth or to cover a
vast area like a whole country with control points to which a second-order triangulation
system can be connected.
 A second-order triangulation system consists of a network within a first-order
triangulation. It is used to cover areas of the order of a region, small country, or province.
 A third-order triangulation is a framework fixed within and connected to a second-order
triangulation system. It serves the purpose of furnishing the immediate control for
detailed engineering and location surveys.

First-order Second-order triangulation third-

S. No. Characteristics
triangulation triangulation order
1 Length of base lines 8 to 12 km 2 to 5 km 100 to 500 m

2 Lengths of sides 16 to 150 km 10 to 25 km 2 to 10 km

3 Average triangular less than 1" 8" 15"
error(after correction for
spherical excess)

4 Actual error of base 1 in 50,000 1 in 25,000 1 in 10,000

5 Probable error of base 1 in 10,00,000 1 in 500,000 1 in 250,000
6 Discrepancy between 5 √k mm 10 √k mm 25√ k mm
two measures (k is
distance in
kilometre)

7 Probable error of the 1 in 50,000 to1 in 1 in 20,000 to1 in 1 in 5,000 to1 in

250,000 50,000 20,000
Session: 3
Session objective –
1) To study different Triangulation figures
2) Understand the well conditioned Triangle
3.1 Basic triangulation figures
The basic figures used in triangulation networks are the triangle, braced or geodetic quadrilateral,
and the polygon with a central station (Fig. 1.3).

Fig. 3.1.1 Basic triangulation figures

The triangles in a triangulation system can be arranged in a number of ways. Some of the
commonly used arrangements, also called layouts, are as follows :
1. Single chain of triangles
2. Double chain of triangles
3. Braced quadrilaterals
4. Centered triangles and polygons

1. Single chain of triangles

When the control points are required to be established in a narrow strip of terrain such as a valley
between ridges, a layout consisting of single chain of triangles is generally used as shown in Fig.
1.4. This system is rapid and economical due to its simplicity of sighting only four other stations,
and does not involve observations of long diagonals.
On the other hand, simple triangles of a triangulation system provide only one route through
which distances can be computed, and hence, this system does not provide any check on the
accuracy of observations. Check base lines and astronomical observations for azimuths have to
be provided at frequent intervals to avoid excessive accumulation of errors in this layout.

Fig. 3.1.2 Single of triangles

2. Double chains of triangles
A layout of double chain of triangles is shown in Fig. 1.5. This arrangement is used for covering
the larger width of a belt. This system also has disadvantages of single chain of triangles system.

Fig. 3.1.3 Double chain of triangles

3. Braced quadrilaterals

A triangulation system consisting of figures containing four corner stations and observed
diagonals shown in Fig. 1.6 is known as a layout of braced quadrilaterals. In fact, braced
quadrilateral consists of overlapping triangles. This system is treated to be the strongest and the
best arrangement of triangles, and it provides a means of computing the lengths of the sides
using different combinations of sides and angles.
Most of the triangulation systems use this arrangement.

Fig. 3.1.4 Braced quadrilaterals

4. Centered triangles and polygons

A triangulation system which consists of figures containing interior stations in triangle and
polygon as shown in Fig. 1.7 is known as centered triangles and polygons
 Fig. 3.1.5 Centered triangles and polygons

This layout in a triangulation system is generally used when vast area in all directions is required
to be covered. The centered figures generally are quadrilaterals, pentagons, or hexagons with
central [Link] this system provides checks on the accuracy of the work, generally it is
not as strong as the braced quadrilateral arrangement. Moreover, the progress of work is quite
slow due to the fact that more settings of the instrument are required

3.2 LAYOUT OF PRIMARY TRIANGULATION FOR LARGE COUNTRIES

The following two types of frameworks of primary triangulation are provided for a large country
to cover the entire area.

Fig. 3.2.1 Grid iron system of triangulation

1. Grid iron system
2. Central system.

1 Grid iron system

In this system, the primary triangulation is laid in series of chains of triangles, which usually runs
roughly along meridians (north south) and along perpendiculars to the meridians (east-west),
throughout the country The distance between two such
Chains may vary from 150 to 250 km. The area between the parallel and perpendicular series of
primary triangulation, are filled by the secondary and tertiary triangulation systems. Grid iron
system has been adopted in India and other countries like Austria, Spain, France, etc.
2 Central system
In this system, the whole area is covered by a network of primary triangulation extending in all
directions from the initial triangulation figure ABC, which is generally laid at the centre of the
country (Fig. 1.9). This system is generally used for the survey of an area of moderate extent. It
has been adopted in United Kingdom and various other countries.

Fig. 3.2.3 Central system of triangulation

Well conditioned triangles

The accuracy of a triangulation system is greatly affected by the arrangement of triangles in the
layout and the magnitude of the angles in individual triangles. The triangles of such a shape, in
which any error in angular measurement has a minimum effect upon the computed lengths, is
known as well-conditioned triangle
In any triangle of a triangulation system, the length of one side is generally obtained from
computation of the adjacent triangle. The error in the other two sides if any, will affect the sides
of the triangles whose computation is based upon their values. Due to accumulated errors, entire
triangulation system is thus affected thereafter. To ensure that two sides of any triangle are
equally affected, these should, therefore, be equal in length. This condition suggests that all the
triangles must, therefore, be isosceles.
Let us consider an isosceles triangle ABC whose one side AB is of known length (Fig. 1.10). Let
A, B, and C be the three angles of the triangle and a, b, and c are the three sides opposite to the
angles, respectively.
As the triangle is isosceles, let the sides a and b be equal
Applying sine rule to ΔABC,
We have

Fig. 3.2.4 Triangle in a triangulation system

Session 4:
Session objective
1) Selection of triangulation stations
2) Selection of the layout of triangles.
4.1 Criteria for selection of triangulation stations
1. Triangulation stations should be intervisible. For this purpose the station points should be on
the highest ground such as hill tops, house tops, etc.
2. Stations should be easily accessible with instruments.
3. Station should form well-conditioned triangles.
4. Stations should be so located that the lengths of sights are neither too small for too long. Small
sights cause errors of bisection and centering. Long sights too cause direction error as the signals
become too indistinct for accurate bisection.
5. Stations should be at commanding positions so as to serve as control for subsidiary
triangulation, and for possible extension of the main triangulation scheme.
6. Stations should be useful for providing intersected points and also for detail survey.
7. In wooded country, the stations should be selected such that the cost of clearing and cutting,
and building towers.
8. Grazing line of sights should be avoided, and no line of sight should pass over the industrial
areas to avoid irregular atmospheric refraction.

4.2 Criteria for Selection of the layout of triangles

The under mentioned points should be considered while deciding and selecting a suitable layout
of triangles.
1. Simple triangles should be preferably equilateral.
2. Braced quadrilaterals should be preferably approximate squares.
3. Centered polygons should be regular.
4. The arrangement should be such that the computations can be done through two or more
independent routes.
5. The arrangement should be such that at least one route and preferably two routes form well
conditioned triangles.
6. No angle of the figure, opposite a known side should be small, whichever end of the series is
used for computation.
7. Angles of simple triangles should not be less than 45°, and in the case of quadrilaterals, no
angle should be less than 30°. In the case of centered polygons, no angle should be less than 40°.
8. The sides of the figures should be of comparable lengths. Very long lines and very short lines
should be avoided.
9. The layout should be such that it requires least work to achieve maximum progress.
10. As far as possible, complex figures should not involve more than 12 conditions.
It may be noted that if a very small angle of a triangle does not fall opposite the known side it
does not affect the accuracy of triangulation.
Session 5
Session objective –
1) Determine the different cases for inter visibility
2) Use of different method for inters visibility.

5.1 Determination of inter visibility of triangulation stations

As stated above, triangulations stations should be chosen on high ground so that all relevant
stations are inter visible. For small distances, inter visibility can be ascertained during
reconnaissance by direct observation with the aid of binocular, contoured map of the area, plane
mirrors or heliotropes using reflected sun rays from either station.
However, if the distance between stations is large, the inter visibility is ascertained by knowing
the horizontal distance between the stations as under.

5.1.1 Case-I Inver visibility not obstructed by intervening ground

If the intervening ground does not obstruct the inter visibility, the distance of visible horizon
from the station of known elevation is calculated from the following formula:

Where,
h = height of the station above datum,
D = distance of visible horizon,
R = earth’s mean radius, and
m = mean coefficient of refraction taken as 0.07 for sights over land, and.
0.08 for sights over sea.
Substituting the values of m as 0.071 and R as 6370 km in Eq. (1.13), the value of h in meters is
given by
h = 0.06735 D2 ... (1.14)
Where D is in kilometers
In Fig. 1.17, the distance between two stations A and B of heights hA and hB respectively, is D. If
DA and DB are the distances of visible horizon from A and B, respectively,
we have

Fig. 5.1.1 Inter visibility not obstructed by intervening ground

We have D = DA + DB
or
DB = D − DA
For the known distance of visible horizon DB as above, the height of station B is computed. If
the computed value is h'B , then h'B = 0.06735 2B D ... (1.16)
The computed value of height’
Bh is compared with the known value hB as below:
If hB ≥ hB', the station B will be visible from A, and
If hB < hB', the station B will not be visible from A.
If B is not visible from A, (hB' −hB) is the required amount of height of signal to be erected at B.
While deciding the intervisibility of various stations, the line of sight should be taken at least 3 m
above the point of tangency T of the earth’s surface to avoid grazing rays.

5.1.2 Case-II Inter visibility obstructed by intervening ground

In Fig. 1.18, the intervening ground at C is obstructing the intervisibility between the stations A
and B.
From Eq. (1.15), we have
DA = 3.853 hA ... (1.17)
The distance DT of the peak C from the point of tangency T, is given by
DT = DA − DC ... (1.18)

Fig 5.1.2 Intervisibility obstructed by intervening ground

If hC' >hC, the line of sight is clear of the obstruction, and it becomes Case-I discussed above. If
hC' <hC then the signal at B is to be raised. The amount of rising required at B is computed as
below.
From similar Δs A'C'C" and A'B'B" in Fig. 1.19, we

Alternate method (Captain G.T. McCaw’s method)

A comparison of elevations of the stations A and B (Fig. 1.20) decides whether the triangulation
stations are intervisible or not. A direct solution suggested by Captain McCaw is known as
Captain McCaw’smethod.

Let hA = elevation of station A

hB = elevation of station B
hC = elevation of station C.
2S = distance between A and B
(S + x) = distance between A and C
(S – x) = distance between C and B
h = elevation of the line of sight at C
ξ = zenith distance from A to B
= (90°-vertical angle)

From Captain McCaw’s formula

Practically in most of the cases, the zenith distance is very nearly equal to 90° and, therefore, the
value of cosec² ξ may be taken approximately equal to unity.
However, for accurate calculations,
In Eq. (1.23), the value of is usually taken as 0.06735.
Therefore

If h > hC , the line of sight is free of obstruction. In case h < hC, the height of tower to raise the
signal at B, is computed from Eqs. (1.21) and (1.22).

Example 1
Two stations A and B, 80 km apart, have elevations 15 m and 270 m above mean sea level,
respectively. Calculate the minimum height of the signal at B.

Solution:
It is given that
hA = 15 m
hB = 270 m
D = 80 km
From Eq. (1.15), we get

Hence, since the elevation of B is 270 m, the height of signal required at B, is

= 285.25 – 270 = 15.25 ~− 15.5 m.
Session 6
Session objective –
1)What is SBPS ?
2) To understand SBPS Systems.

6.1 SBPS

Figure 6.1. GPS satellite

6.1.1 What is SBPS?

• Space based positioning, navigation & timing system
• Developed initially by US in1958.
• Can determine exact position of any point on land, sea & air around the earth, with help
of the satellites.
• A modern programmer allowing new type of survey, independent of plumb line, a basic
reference line in all earlier survey systems.
• May yield positional accuracies even in the order of sub centimeter in relatively short
time at reasonable cost.
• Position of a station may be collected in any weather even during night hours no inter-
visibility required.
• No need of making any kind of measurement on the earth’s surface.
Digital Output.
6.1.2 Different types of SBPS
[Link] GPS Global Positioning System (USA)
NNSS – Transit – Doppler Technique – 1958
NAVSTAR – GPS – Code Technique – 1977

 The GPS is maintained and financed by the US Department of Defense and currently
consists of 32 satellites orbiting at an altitude of about 20200 km in six orbital planes,
inclined 55 degrees with respect to the equator (US Naval Observatory). These satellites
transmit signals primarily at two frequencies, called L1 (1575.42 MHz) and L2 (1227.6
MHz). In the future, GPS satellites will also transmit a signal at L5 (1176.45 MHz).

 In a GPS signal transmission, two types of pseudorandom codes are modulated onto the
carrier signal: a civilian code called C/A used for coarse positioning and another one
called P-code for precision positioning. Also, a navigation message is modulated onto the
signal, which includes information about the satellites’ orbits, clocks, and health status.
Generally, only the C/A-code is utilized in civilian receivers for obtaining satellite to user
distances and, thereafter, the user location. The more precise P-code is mostly designed
for military purposes. A GPS receiver obtains and processes signals simultaneously from
multiple satellites. When the satellite locations can be determined from the navigation
message modulated onto the signal, the different satellite to user distance measurements
provides the means to calculate the user receiver’s position, velocity, and time.

 The accuracy obtainable with GPS ranges from a few millimetres to tens of meters
depending on the operating environment, weather conditions, and receiver technology
used (e.g. one or dual frequency use, code or carrier phase measurements, one or several
receivers). Better positioning accuracy can be acquired using more complicated and thus
more expensive technology. Very high accuracy, however, can only be achieved in good,
unobstructed signal conditions, such as in open, outdoor areas. Satellite measurements are
generally very noisy and are especially erroneous in so-called “urban canyons,” where
signals are attenuated (weakened) and reflected due to nearby obstructions such as
buildings

[Link] GLONASS - Global Navigation & Surveying System (Russia)

 This system is similar in operation & proving complimentary to USA’s NAVSTAR - GPS
system. Introduced around 1980

 After vigorous maintenance and reformation efforts in recent years, Russia’s satellite
navigation system GLONASS is again fully operational. GLONASS differs from GPS
especially in the scheme used for signal transmissions; each satellite in GLONASS has its
own transmission frequency. GLONASS satellites orbit in three orbital planes with an
inclination of 64.8 degrees with respect to the equator and at an altitude of about 19000
km. Currently GLONASS has 24 operational satellites (Russian Space Agency).
  GLONASS, like GPS, was originally designed for military purposes, but nowadays its
applications have spread to, e.g., land and sea traffic, and are gradually spreading as well
to other consumer products. GLONASS continues to undergo modernization, and in the
future GLONASS will also use code division technology in its signal transmissions like
GPS (i.e., all the satellites will transmit on the same carrier frequency). New signals and
codes are also being added to GLONASS in order to provide improved accuracy and
interoperability with other systems.

[Link] GALILEOSAT (European Community)

 The ‘European Space Agency (ESA)’ is funding now the GALILEOSAT as a new SBPS
set up known as ‘Global Navigational Satellite System (GNSS) to be operated by 2008.

 Europe’s own satellite navigation system, Galileo, is designed for civilian use and has
been under development for almost a decade. Problems in financing, design, and
interoperability with, for example, the US GPS have delayed the plans and deployment of
the new system. One of the most important motives for developing Galileo has been the
goal to be independent from USA’s and Russia’s military systems. Dependency on other
systems is regarded to affect European safety and bring about too much insecurity for all
the applications and services depending nowadays on satellite-based navigation. Two test
satellites (GIOVE-A, GIOVE-B) have already been in orbital operation since 2005 and
2008, respectively, and in October 2011 two of the first in-orbit validation satellites were
launched successfully into their planned orbits. The Galileo system will consist overall of
30 satellites in three orbital planes with an inclination angle of 56 degrees with respect to
the equator, orbiting at an altitude of about 23000 km (European Space Agency). Galileo
is expected to be fully operational around 2018-2020. Galileo satellites will transmit
signals on the same frequencies as GPS but modulated with different code techniques.

[Link] COMPASS

 The Chinese satellite navigation system under development, called COMPASS, is

somewhat similar in design to the US GPS. COMPASS will consist of 35 satellites, five
of which will orbit in geostationary orbits (Beidou/Compass Navigation Satellite
System). The geostationary part of the COMPASS is called Beidou and will transmit
differential error corrections related to GNSS signals. COMPASS is estimated to be
operational at the latest in 2020.
Session 7

Session objective

1) To understand the Segments of Space Based Positioning Systems.

2) To understand their role

7.1 Segments of Space Based Positioning Systems

The space based positioning system can be divided in to three segments: the Space Segment, the
User Segment, and the Control Segment.
7.2 The Space Segment
 The Space Segment consists of the systematically arranged constellation of sufficient
number of the sun synchronous & earth pointing satellites in near circular orbit. The
constellation ensures that at least 4 satellites are in view from any point on earth at any
time of day.
 Each GPS satellite transmit a signal, which has main three components as follows,
i. Two sine wave, which are also known as carrier frequencies.
ii. Two digital codes, which also known as PRN (Pseudo Random Noise) codes.
iii. A navigational message.

 The carriers & codes are mainly used to work out the range. The navigational message
contains, along with other information the position information as function of time. The
transmitted signals are controlled by highly accurate & stable atomic clock (oscillator)
fitted on satellites. The stability of this Rubidium-Cesium clock/oscillator is in the order
of 10-14.

Fig. 7.1 Segments of Space Based Positioning Systems

7.3 The Control Segment
 The primary task of the ‘Control Segment’ is to track SBPS satellites for orbit & clock
determination, prediction modeling, time synchronisation & uploading of data & message
into the SBPS satellite. The control segment consist of a master control station, few
monitoring station nearly evenly distributed nearly all along the equator & few ground
antennas again nearly evenly distributed nearly all along the equator. The monitor control
stations continuously tracks the satellite & record information about their positions as
function of time. Master Control Station collects data from ‘Monitor Control Stations’
and work out satellite orbit & clock parameter and passes the results to ‘Ground
Antennas. The ground Antennas uploads these satellite orbit & clock parameters to
satellites.
7.4 User segment
 The user segment comprises of anyone using a GPS receiver to receive GPS signals and
determine their position and/or time. Typical applications within the user segment are
land navigation, vehicle location, surveying, marine navigation, aerial navigation,
machinery control, etc.
 The user equipment consists of an antenna, a receiver, a data-processor with software and
a control/display unit. The GPS receiver measures the pseudo range, phase and other data
using navigation signals from minimum 4 satellites and computes the 3-D position,
velocity and system time. The position is in geocentric coordinates in the basic reference
coordinate system: World Geodetic reference System 1984 (WGS 84), which are
converted and displayed as geographic, UTM, grid, or any other type of coordinates.
Corrections like delay due to ionosphere and troposphere refraction, clock errors, etc. are
also computed and applied by the user equipment / processing software.

7.5 The SBPS in Use

1. The current in use SBPS includes the GPS & GLONASS.
2. GPS (Global Positioning System) is the space based positioning, navigation & timing
system developed by US ‘Department of Defense (DoD)’ emerged in late 60’s & early
70’s.
3. The space based positioning system of Russia is known as GLONASS – Global
Navigation & Surveying System.
4. The ‘European Space Agency (ESA)’ is funding now the GALILEOSAT as a new space
based positioning set up known as ‘Global Navigational Satellite System (GNSS)’ and
was likely to be operative by 2008, but still the project is not completed.
5. India is also planning for its own space based positioning system named as GAGAN –
GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation System.
Session 8
Session objective
1) Able to understand different positioning system
2) Understand SBPS Accuracy
3) Understand SBPS Heights
4) Use of SBPS

8.1 SBPS: Positioning Methods

It involves only one GPS receiver that simultaneously receives signals from at least four
satellites to determine its own co-ordinates with respect to the center of the earth.

8.1.1 Point or Absolute Positioning

Fig 8.1.1: The Absolute or Point Positioning Technique

The Absolute or Point positioning involves only one GPS receiver that simultaneously receives
signals from at least four satellites to determine its own co-ordinates with respect to the center of
the earth. The Absolute or Point positioning Systems are further divided into two categories viz.
Precise Positioning System (PPS) and Standard Positioning System (SPS). The PPS receivers
have access to both codes & are used by the military & authorized users and are not affected by
access denial techniques. The service available to civil community is SPS. For SPS only C/A
code is available. The precision of SPS is about 50m.

8.1.2 Differential Positioning Systems

It involves two receivers, one called as a base and the other called as a rover, simultaneously
tracking the same satellites to determine their relative co-ordinates. The base whose co-ordinates
are known precisely remains stationary at a site and the rover may or may not be stationary

• The adjustments made by DPS technique represents at the adjustments made by DPS
technique represents a net sum of various errors present in the process such as that due to
satellite clock, ephemeris, atmosphere and selective availability (SA).
• The DPS doesn’t address problems of local nature such as that due to the receiver clocks,
receiver channel noise, multipath, 2D fix with high altitude, high GDOP.
• The DPS technique may not be sufficient to eliminate errors when the receiver and the
base station are too far from each other
8.2 SBPS Accuracy

8.2.1 SBPS Accuracy can be:

• More than 15 meters with absolute positioning SBPS,
• Sub-meter to 5 meters with relative positioning SBPS,
• Sub-centimeter accuracy from survey products.

8.2.2 SBPS Accuracy depends on:

• Design of receiver,
• Technique of range reduction,
• Relative positions of satellites (GDOP),
• Time spent on measurements,
Use of Relative Positioning techniques

8.3 SBPS Heights

H = GPS Height i.e. Height above mathematical ellipsoid.

h = MSL Height i.e. Height above Geoid.
N = Correction parameter from astro gravimetric data.
Height above MSL or Geoidal height = h = [ GPS or Ellipsoidal height, H ] – [ Geoidal
Undulation ‘N’ from astrogravimetric data ]
The geoidal undulation (N) is derived from astrogeodetic or gravimetric data, the accuracy of
which is limited to few cm. World Gravity Models are available for computing the value of N at
the observation station. Thus, the MSL heights obtained directly from GPS will contain the error
N, limiting its accuracy. However, in differential
GPS levelling, due to cancellation of a large part of this error, the relative heights can be
determined to a much higher accuracy. The estimated precision of determination of heights using
GPS is about 1.5 times the precision of horizontal component

8.4 Applications of Space Based Positioning Systems

This technique can be used effectively on major scale in surveying & mapping, offshore
construction, photogrammetry, surface/navigational/air traffic, geography, geology, geophysics,
tourism, revenue, monitoring earth’s rotation & polar motion, Geographic Information System
(GIS) / Land Information System (LIS), military, remote sensing, resource management, tidal
gauging, crystal dynamics etc. GPS can also be used to demark earthquake/flood affected area to
study plate movements, centers of volcanic eruptions, etc.
In the surveying, GPS has replaced traditional methods in many applications. GPS positioning
has been found to be a cost effective process, in which at least 50% cost reduction can be
obtained. GPS is a more productive technique for survey as it could save more than 75% of time.
As for the future, it is said that the number of GPS applications will be limited to only to ones
imagination.