Chapter 1- Origin and Formation of the Elements
1.1. The Origin of the Light Elements
The Big Bang Model
- Provides an explanation for the formation of light elements, which later evolved into
heavier elements through stellar evolution.
- The big bang theory is not a theory about the origin of the universe, rather it is a description
or model of the universe; that there already existed a packed state with density and
energy from which the universe emerged.
- The name “big bang” was coined by British astronomer Fred Hoyle in 1949.
- It was first proposed by Belgian astrophycist and priest Abbe Georges Edouard Lemaitre
(1894- 1966).
- Lemaitre published a paper stating that the universe is constantly expanding and cooling;
it was not a static universe as Einstein described.
- Three key observational evidence which support the big bang model:
a. Hubble/ cosmic expansion
- Edwin Hubble (1930)
- Hubble’s law (also known as Hubble Expansion)- states that the universe was expanding,
thereby suggesting that it was once compact.
b. Cosmic microwave background (CMB)/ Cosmic Background Radiation
- George Gamow(1940)
- Together with R. Herman and R. Alpher, they predicted that if the early stage of the
universe was hot and dense, then an afterglow of radiation must have filled up the
universe because of the cooling process.
c. Primordial/ big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN)
- G. Gamow, R. Herman and R. Alpher
- These reactions began with the fusion of protons and neutrons, forming nuclei in a process
called nucleosynthesis. Primordial or BBN produced the “light elements” shortly after the big
bang.
1.2. The Origin of the Heavy Elements
- Hydrogen atoms first produced in the big bang would need additional protons and
neutrons to become helium or lithium.
- Protons and neutrons are held together by a strong force. Protons can also be combined
with neutrons to form heavier nuclei through nuclear fusion.
- The atoms formed in the big bang merged into large clouds of gas. These clouds began to
contract under their own gravity, leading to star formation. Consequently, the heavier
elements formed inside stars and scattered space because of instabilities and explosions.
- New elements came into being during and after the explosions.
- Stellar Nucleosynthesis is responsible for the formation of heavy elements.
1.3. Understanding the Life Span of Stars
- Stars must have an energy to exist for a certain length of time. This energy comes from
various nuclear fusion reactions between light elements, involving the release of a huge
amount of energy that keeps the star hot.
- Hydrogen and helium are the nuclei for the synthesis of heavier elements within stars.
- Nuclear reactions explains why bright light emanates from stars and why they have
extremely high temperatures.
- Stars are fueled by nuclear fusion at their cores (processes mostly involved in the
conversion of H to He).
UC- SHS Chapter 1-Origin and Formation of the Elements 1
-Classification of stars according to their mass: small size- merely transforms H to He.
medium- when H atoms are depleted, their
He are further converted to C and O. e.g. sun
massive- undergo further nuclear reactions.
oxygen and carbon fuse to form neon (Ne),
sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), silicon (Si) and
sulfur (S). These elements are transformed
mostly into calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), nickel (Ni),
chromium (Cr), copper (Cu) and others.
- As they age, huge stars with depleted cores and exhausted fuel supplies undergo
supernova (the explosion of a star, resulting in an extreme brightness and release of an
exceedingly high amount of energy which results in the formation of other elements
heavier than iron. They are then ejected into space, finally forming the basis for matter.
Nuclear Fusion Reactions
a. Nuclear fission- splitting of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei. This sustains nuclear power
plants and some nuclear weapons.
b. Nuclear fusion- reaction through which light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus. This
reaction fuels the stars as well as hydrogen or thermonuclear bombs.
- nuclear fusions in stars may be classified into two phases, which form different sets of
elements:
1. Exothermic reactions (forms He) – releases energy in the form of heat or light.
2. Burning phases (forms heavier nuclei): Helium burning, C and O burning, Si burning
Helium Burning
Carbon and Oxygen Burning Silicon Burning
UC- SHS Chapter 1-Origin and Formation of the Elements 2
