Mapúa Institute of Technology

School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

Experiment No. 5
MEASURING DEVICES

Seat No.: 14
Name: Marasigan, Neil Darren P.
Group No.: 3 Date of Performance: February 09, 2016
Course/Section: ME139L / A1 Date of Submission: February 18, 2016
Student Number: 2013151631

Grade

Engr. Teodulo A. Valle

Instructor
Table of Contents

Objectives ..................................................................................................................................................... 1

Theory and Analysis ..................................................................................................................................... 1

List of Apparatus........................................................................................................................................... 5

Procedures ..................................................................................................................................................... 5

Set-up ............................................................................................................................................................ 7

Final Data Sheet ............................................................................................................................................ 9

Sample Computations ................................................................................................................................. 10

Discussion of Results .................................................................................................................................. 11

Questions and Answers ............................................................................................................................... 14

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................. 16

Recommendation ........................................................................................................................................ 17

References ................................................................................................................................................... 18

Preliminary Data Sheet ............................................................................................................................... 19

Objectives

1. To acquire knowledge about the use, operation and application of different types of measuring
devices.

Theory and Analysis

In general, there are two methods for obtaining the area of irregular figures like indicator diagrams:
1. By measuring ordinates; and
2. By means of a planimeter.
Variations of the method of ordinates are known as trapezoidal, Durand’s, and Simpson’s. To find the
area by any of these methods, divide the figure into an even number of strips by parallel lines. The
accuracy is increased as the number of strips is made larger. The notation used in the formulas is
illustrated in the figure, where yo is the length of the first ordinate, y1 of the second, etc., n is the number
of strips, w is the common width of the strips, and A is the area of the figure. Then the following
approximate formula may be stated:

yo

y1 y 2 y3
Irregular Figure
By trapezoidal rule:

A  w 12 yo  y1  y 2  ...  y n1  12 y n 
.
The most accurate and generally approved method of obtaining the area of irregular figures is by means
of integrating instruments called planimeters. Instruments of this kind may differ in many details, yet all
of them are based in theory on the original Amsler polar planimeter.
The ordinary polar planimeter consists of two arms pivoted to each other, as shown in figure 3. The arm
known as the pole arm has a small pin to serve as a fixed pivot point about which the arm may turn. The
other arm, the tracing arm, has a tracing point which can be moved along the boundary of the area to be
measured. Mounted on the tracing arm is a small wheel, which either turns or slides depending upon the

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motion of the tracing point. The movement of this wheel is indicated by a scale attached thereto, and this
movement or roll in an index of the area traversed.
The theory of the planimeter will be developed by reference to figure 3. Let the point O be constrained to
move in a fixed path along the line MO’ON, and Let the tracing point P follow some irregular closed
plane path. Also let the area swept over by the rod OP be considered positive for movement in one
direction and negative for the other direction. Since one end of the rod (at O) follows along a fixed path
having only a linear dimension, the net area swept through by the rod will be the area of the path followed
by the point P.

Polar Planimeter
Let the length of the rod OP be represented by L and let the point P be moved an infinitesimal distance to
P’, thereby causing rod OP to sweep through an infinitesimal area dA equal to POO’P’. Then

dA  LOO sin   12 L2 d

Where  is the angle made by the rod OP and the tangent at O to the path MON.
The distance R traversed by the tracing wheel relative to a fixed point on the rod OP will be
dR  OO sin   ad

Where a is the distance of the plane of the wheel from the pivot O.
In tracing the entire area, the tracing point returns to its starting position P so that the net angle turned
through by the rod is zero. The net area then becomes

A  LOOsin 
And the net rotation of the wheel becomes

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R  OOsin 
Combining these equations gives

A  LR
Where A = area traced by the point in units as chosen for L and R.
L= length of tracing arm from pivot O to tracing point P in any convenient units.
R= distance moved by a point on the periphery of the tracing wheel relative to a fixed point on the
arm OP, in the same units as used for L.
It should be noted that for a given wheel size (resulting in a fixed value of R) the area indicated will
depend upon the length L of the tracing arm.
The following suggestions are made relative to the proper use of a polar planimeter:
1. The figure to be planimetered should be firmly attached to a smooth surface.
2. The pivot point should be located outside the area to be measured and in such a position
that the arms make an angle of about 90° when the tracing point is the approximate center
of the area. For large areas it is always possible to divide the area by straight lines into
smaller areas so that the total area may be found by taking the sum of the smaller areas.
3. Do not touch the periphery of the tracing wheel unless absolutely necessary.
4. Always trace the path in a clockwise direction starting and ending at the same point. For
accurate results trace the path several times and use the average of the values obtained.
5. Do not attempt to set the wheel in a zero position of the scale at the start. Move the
tracing point to the starting position and record the reading, then trace the path and record
a second reading. The area will be the difference between the two readings (multiplied by
a calibration factor if necessary).
6. The instrument may be calibrated by using it to determine the area of a figure of regular
proportions, such as a square or rectangle for which the area may be calculated from
linear measurements.
7. Tracing a path in a clockwise direction will always result in net rotation of the wheel in a
clockwise direction except when the pole point is within the boundary of the figure and
the area of the figure is less than that of the zero circle. In this case the area of the figure
is equal to the area of the zero circle minus the area indicated by the planimeter.

Area of Zero Circle by Experiment - the area of the zero circle of a planimeter may be found readily by
passing the tracing point around the circumference of two circles each larger than the zero circle.
Preferably for this operation the fixed point of the instrument is placed at the center of the circles. If the
calculated areas of these circles are respectively A1 and A2, and r is the radius of the zero circle, then,
since readings of the graduated wheel show only the areas outside the zero circle represented by R1 and
R2, we obtain

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A1   r 2  R1 ,
A2   r 2  R2 ,
2 r 2  A1  A2  R1  R2 

MEASUREMENT OF TIME

Every student is of course familiar with the ordinary spring-driven clock or watch and the synchronous-
motor-driven electric clock. In so far as time-keeping rate is concerned, a well-adjusted watch or clock is
sufficiently accurate for most engineering purposes. The electric clock, when used on utility systems
where the frequency is closely controlled, is a very accurate timepiece. A watch or clock provided with a
means of starting and stopping is known as a timer.

Time measurements are required by the mechanical engineer in connection with determinations of linear
speed, rotational speed, and frequency. The principal source of inaccuracies in time measurement is errors
in starting and stopping. The oscillograph and the high-speed motion picture camera are used for studies
at high speeds. Studies have been made with motion pictures in which the exposure rate was as high as
40,000 frames per second.

MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE

The most frequently encountered problem in distance measurement involves that associated with angular
motion. Most instruments used for obtaining angular or rotational speed are fitted with means for
obtaining surface speeds such as the cutting speed of tools in manufacturing processes.
Rotational speed measurements are the most important engineering measurements of speed. The three
common methods are by:
1. Revolution counter and timer – the simplest speed-measuring device which requires a separate
time-measuring means.
2. Tachometer – is a device which gives directly a continuous indication and/or recording speed.
Although many different methods have been used to provide direct-reading angular velocity
instruments, the ones most commonly used today are those in which the actuating mechanism is
(1) a centrifugal device, (2) an electrical device, and (3) a resonant vibrating reed.
3. Stroboscope – the stroboscopic principle of speed measurement depends for its operation upon
the persistency of vision of the human eye. If a rotating shaft or similar object is seen at the same
point in its cycle, the object seems to be motionless. This is also the basis of the motion picture.

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List of Apparatus

 Steel Rule
 Steel Tape
 Planimeter (Analog and Digital)
 Caliper (Inside, Outside, Vernier)
 Tachometer (Analog, Digital)
 Speed Counter
 Amprobe
 Pitot Tube
 Micrometer
 Stopwatch

Procedures

A. ORDINATE METHOD (TRAPEZIODAL METHOD)

1. Draw vertical lines on both ends of the figure.
2. Divide the figure in equal lengths.
3. Draw vertical lines following the divisions.
4. Measure the lengths of vertical lines touching the upper and lower part of the figure.
5. Record the data.
6. Compute the area using ordinate formula.

B. SPEED MEASUREMENT
a. By Speed Counter
1. Adjust the speed counter to zero.
2. Attach the tip of the speed counter to the rotating shaft and simultaneously time for 1 minute
using the stopwatch.
3. Record data rpm.
4. Repeat steps 1-3 for the second and third trial.
b. By Tachometer (Analog)
1. Turn on the motor.
2. Attach the tip of the analog Tachometer and press the button once and wait for the hand to rotate.
3. Record the data rpm.
4. Repeat steps 1-3 for the second and third trial.

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 c. By Tachometer (Digital)
1. Turn on the motor.
2. Attach the tip of the digital tachometer and hold the button and wait for the measurement to
appear on the screen.
3. Record the data rpm.
4. Repeat steps 1-3 for the second and third trial.

C. DIMENSION MEASUREMENT
1. Measure the given specimen using the provided measuring tools (Inside/Outside Caliper, Steel
Rule, Tape Rule, Micrometer Caliper, or Digital Vernier Caliper).
2. Draw the specimen to scale using the acquired measurements.

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Set-up

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8
Final Data Sheet

A. Length and Area (Ordinate Method)

Group Trial w n yo y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6 y7 y8 y9 y10 y11 y12 A

mm mm in2
II 2 19 9 5 42 55 58 54 49 48 52 53 7 - - - 12.28
III 3 14 12 7 37 50 56 58 50.5 52 49 48 57 54 57 5 12.36
IV 4 19.05 9 6 52 52 48 49 53.5 57 55 41.5 2 - - - 12.19

B. Speed Measurement / Current

Motor Trial Speed Tachometer Difference Line

No. Counter Current
RPM Analog Digital S.C. - D. A. - D. A. - S.C. A

I 1 1193 1200 1199 6 1 7 5.7

2 1194 1195 1198 4 3 1 4.8
II 1 1788 1795 1785 7 10 7 3
2 1789 1793 1789 0 4 4 2.9
III 1 1798 1800 1788 10 12 2 6.1
2 1784 1800 1788 4 12 16 6.1

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Sample Computations

1 1 
A  w  y0  y1  y2  y3  y4  y5  y6  y7  y8  y9  y10  y11  y12 
2 2 
1 1 
A  w  (7)  37  50  56  58  56.5  52  49.5  48  51  54  51.5  (5)  mm
2 2 
2 2
 1cm   1in. 
A  7973mm 2
    12.3582in
2

 10 mm   2.54cm 

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Discussion of Results

The experiment deals with the measurement of the length, area, diameter, and speed by using
different methods. The first part of the experiment was all about the measurement of the area. It is divided
into two parts: by using the ordinate method and planimeter method. In the ordinate method, the perimeter
of the specimen is outlined in a paper. The ordinate method was based on the trapezoidal rule of
geometry. With the trapezoidal rule, instead of approximating area by using rectangles, you approximate
area with trapezoids. Because of the way trapezoids hug the curve, they give you a much better area
estimate than either left or right rectangles. And it turns out that a trapezoid approximation is the average
of the left rectangle and right rectangle approximations. The area of a trapezoid is the average of the areas
of the two corresponding rectangles in the left and right sums.
The next part of the experiment is the use of the planimeter method to measure the area of an
irregularly shaped figure. The planimeter is a drafting instrument used to measure the area of a
graphically represented planar region. The region being measured may have any irregular shape, making
this instrument remarkably versatile. The planimeter method may be considered as a more accurate
method than the ordinate method. The latter method is more tedious compared to the planimeter method
where one simply traces the outline of the figure. This method is more convenient and more accurate
compared to ordinate method. The third part of the experiment let us examine the speed of rotation or
angular velocity of three motors with different rated velocities in revolutions per second by using the
tachometer. We use the tachometer to find its actual angular velocity and compared it with the rated
velocity indicated on the motors. Then, the last part of the experiment uses Vernier caliper to measure the
dimensions of a specimen. Accurate measuring is a very critical matter in precision and engineered parts
of all sorts of machines. A caliper must be properly applied against the part in order to take the desired
measurement. For example, when measuring the thickness of a plate a Vernier caliper must be held at
right angles to the piece.
The entire area between the curve and the x-axis, which is to say the integral, can be
approximated by adding together several such trapezia. If there are n trapezia, and n+1 y-values
(ordinates) running from y0 to yn, then the integral is approximately
Tn=2h(y0+2y2+2y2+ +2yn−2+2yn−1+yn)
The formula for the trapezoidal rule by using the formula that we used has a lesser degree of
accuracy compared to the integration process where the equation of the curve is given.
Even though the formal definition of the definite integral is based on the sum of an infinite
number of rectangles, it is preferred to think of integration as the limit of the trapezoid rule at infinity.
The further you zoom in on a curve, the straighter it gets. When you use a greater and greater number of
trapezoids and then zoom in on where the trapezoids touch the curve, the tops of the trapezoids get closer
and closer to the curve. If you zoom in “infinitely,” the tops of the “infinitely many” trapezoids become
the curve and, thus, the sum of their areas gives you the exact area under the curve. The trapezoidal rule
by ordinate method does not provide an accurate approximation of the area. The more number of the
strips or meshes, the more accurate if the approximation.
A planimeter is a measuring instrument used to determine the area of an arbitrary two-
dimensional shape. There are several kinds of planimeters, but all operate in a similar way. The precise

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way in which they are constructed varies, with the main types of mechanical planimeter being polar,
linear and Prytz or "hatchet" planimeters. The Swiss mathematician Jakob Amsler-Laffon built the first
modern planimeter in 1854, the concept having been pioneered by Johann Martin Hermann in 1814.
Many developments followed Amsler's famous planimeter, including electronic versions. They consist of
a linkage with a pointer on one end, used to trace around the boundary of a shape. The other end of the
linkage is fixed for a polar planimeter and restricted to a line for a linear planimeter. The pointer is traced
around the perimeter of the shape; when the tracing is complete, the area of the shape is indicated on a
scale. The planimeter contains a measuring wheel that rolls along the drawing as the operator traces the
contour. When the planimeter's measuring wheel moves perpendicular to its axis, it rolls, and this
movement is recorded. When the measuring wheel moves parallel to its axis, the wheel skids without
rolling, so this movement is ignored. That means the planimeter measures the distance that its measuring
wheel travels, projected perpendicularly to the measuring wheel's axis of rotation. The area of the shape is
proportional to the number of turns through which the measuring wheel rotates when the planimeter is
traced along the complete perimeter of the shape
The working of the linear planimeter may be explained by measuring the area of a rectangle
ABCD (see image). Moving with the pointer from A to B the arm EM moves through the yellow
parallelogram, with area equal to PQ×EM. This area is also equal to the area of the parallelogram
A"ABB". The measuring wheel measures the distance PQ (perpendicular to EM). Moving from C to D
the arm EM moves through the green parallelogram, with area equal to the area of the rectangle D"DCC".
The measuring wheel now moves in the opposite direction, subtracting this reading from the former. The
net result is the measuring of the difference of the yellow and green areas, which is the area of ABCD.
There are of course the movements along BC and DA, but as they are the same but opposite, they cancel
each other on the reading of the wheel.
A tachometer (revolution-counter, Tach, rev-counter, RPM gauge) is an instrument measuring the
rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a motor or other machine. The device usually displays
the revolutions per minute (RPM) on a calibrated analogue dial, but digital displays are increasingly
common.
Tachometers or rev counters on cars, aircraft, and other vehicles show the rate of rotation of the
engine's crankshaft, and typically have markings indicating a safe range of rotation speeds. This can assist
the driver in selecting appropriate throttle and gear settings for the driving conditions. Prolonged use at
high speeds may cause inadequate lubrication, overheating (exceeding capability of the cooling system),
exceeding speed capability of sub-parts of the engine (for example spring retracted valves) thus causing
excessive wear or permanent damage or failure of engines. This is more applicable to manual
transmissions than to automatics. On analogue tachometers, speeds above maximum safe operating speed
are typically indicated by an area of the gauge marked in red, giving rise to the expression of "redlining"
an engine — revving the engine up to the maximum safe limit. The red zone is superfluous on most
modern cars, since their engines typically have a rev limiter which electronically limits engine speed to
prevent damage. Diesel engines with traditional mechanical injector systems have an integral
governor which prevents over-speeding the engine, so the tachometers in vehicles and machinery fitted
with such engines sometimes lack a red line.
In vehicles such as tractors and trucks, the tachometer often has other markings, usually a green
arc showing the speed range in which the engine produces maximum torque, which is of prime interest to
operators of such vehicles. Tractors fitted with a power take off (PTO) system have tachometers showing
the engine speed needed to rotate the PTO at the standardised speed required by most PTO-driven
implements. In many countries, tractors are required to have a speedometer for use on a road. To save

12
fitting a second dial, the vehicle's tachometer is often marked with a second scale in units of speed. This
scale is only accurate in a certain gear, but since many tractors only have one gear that is practical for use
on-road, this is sufficient. Tractors with multiple 'road gears' often have tachometers with more than one
speed scale. Aircraft tachometers have a green arc showing the engine's designed cruising speed range.
In older vehicles, the tachometer is driven by the RMS voltage waves from the low tension (LT)
side of the ignition coil, while on others (and nearly all diesel engines, which have no ignition system)
engine speed is determined by the frequency from the alternator tachometer output. This is from a special
connection called an "AC tap" which is a connection to one of the stator's coil output, before the rectifier.
Tachometers driven by a rotating cable from a drive unit fitted to the engine (usually on the camshaft)
exist - usually on simple diesel-engine machinery with basic or no electrical systems. On
recent EMS found on modern vehicles, the signal for the tachometer is usually generated from
an ECU which derives the information from either the crankshaft or camshaft speed sensor.
Tachometers are also used in traffic engineering to estimate traffic speed and volume (flow) of
vehicles. A vehicle is equipped with the sensor and conducts "tach runs" which record the traffic data.
These data are a substitute or complement to loop detector data. To get statistically significant results
requires a high number of runs, and bias is introduced by the time of day, day of week, and the season.
However, because of the expense, spacing (a lower density of loop detectors diminishes data accuracy),
and relatively low reliability of loop detectors (often 30% or more are out of service at any given time),
tach runs remain a common practice.
Accuracy of measurement when using a caliper is highly dependent on the skill of the operator.
Regardless of type, a caliper's jaws must be forced into contact with the part being measured. As both part
and caliper are always to some extent elastic, the amount of force used affects the indication. A
consistent, firm touch is correct. Too much force results in an under indication as part and tool distort; too
little force gives insufficient contact and an over indication. This is a greater problem with a caliper
incorporating a wheel, which lends mechanical advantage. This is especially the case with digital calipers,
calipers out of adjustment, or calipers with a poor quality beam.
Simple calipers are uncalibrated; the measurement taken must be compared against a scale.
Whether the scale is part of the caliper or not, all analog calipers—Vernier and dials—require good
eyesight in order to achieve the highest precision. Digital calipers have the advantage in this area.
Calibrated calipers may be mishandled, leading to loss of zero. When a calipers' jaws are fully
closed, it should of course indicate zero. If it does not, it must be recalibrated or repaired. It might seem
that a Vernier caliper cannot get out of calibration but a drop or knock can be enough. Digital calipers
have zero set buttons.
Vernier, dial and digital calipers can be used with accessories that extend their usefulness.
Examples are a base that extends their usefulness as a depth gauge and a jaw attachment that allows
measuring the center distance between holes. Since the 1970s a clever modification of the moveable jaw
on the back side of any caliper allows for step or depth measurements in addition to external caliper
measurements, in similar fashion to a universal.
The method to use a Vernier scale or caliper with zero error is to use the formula 'actual reading =
main scale + Vernier scale - (zero error)'. Zero error may arise due to knocks that cause the calibration at
the 0.00 mm when the jaws are perfectly closed or just touching each other. Positive zero error refers to
the fact that when the jaws of the Vernier caliper are just closed, the reading is a positive reading away
from the actual reading of 0.00mm. If the reading is 0.10mm, the zero error is referred to as +0.10mm.

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Questions and Answers

1. What fundamental difference exists between a speed indicator and a tachoscope?

- A speed indicator is a meter fixed to a vehicle that measures and displays its speed while
a tachoscope is an instrument which registers the number of revolutions made by a shaft in a
certain time. It consists of a revolution-counter combined with a time-piece, there being an
automatic cut-out for the revolution-counter.

2. What is the name of an instrument that might be used to determine if there is any variation
in speed of a device operating at a nominal constant speed of 2600 rpm?

- Accurange Line Scanner

3. Distinguish power and torque.

- Power is the rate at which energy is transferred, used, or transformed.

Torque, moment or moment of force is the tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis,
fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a pull, a torque can be thought of as a twist to an
object. Mathematically, torque is defined as the cross product of the lever-arm distance and force,
which tends to produce rotation.

4. Why is it important to avoid extreme temperature conditions in using the planimeter?

- Because of linear expansion, the planimeter will not be accurate anymore if its
dimensions change. It is important to avoid extreme temperature conditions, since material
expansion or shrinkage happens at very extreme temperatures. This can cause significant
measuring errors

5. Based on the PSME code, give the classification of common measuring instruments used in
industry.

- The classifications of common measuring instruments used in industry are: Linear

measurements this includes ruler, combination set, depth gage, calipers. Measuring machine
instrument for transferring instruments this includes caliper, dividends and telescopic gages and
angular measurements this includes protractor, sine bar, combination set, angle gage, and dividing
head.
6. What are the three common methods of rotational speed measurements based on the code?

- The three common methods are the Speed Counter and Timer, Tachometer, and
Stroboscope. Speed counter measures speed by simultaneous accompaniment by a timer.
Meanwhile, the tachometer registers the readings automatically in just few seconds. Finally, the

14
 stroboscope measures the speed of a rotating body by the change of its motion: the appearance of
lines as speed alters. It uses the observer’s eye to measure speed.

7. What are the special-purpose measuring tools?

- Special-Purpose Measuring Tools are designed for specialized applications such as
measuring tape and drill gage, wire gage, screw pitch gage, radius gage, thickness, and feeler
gage.

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Conclusion

After conducting the experiment, we were able to acquire knowledge about the use, operation and
applications of different types of measuring devices. We measured length, area, diameter and speed. We
were able to determine the area of a given figure using the ordinate method.
The determination of the speed of the motor shaft using a speed counter and tachometer were also
achieved. The speed counter also known as revolution counter counts the revolutions of the shaft when it
is placed at the end of the shaft and it should be accompanied by a stop watch or timer. The tachometer is
an automatic device that measures revolutions per minutes. I can conclude that the measurement of the
tachometer is more accurate than that of a speed counter because you only need one device and it is not
prone to human error.
Lastly, I was able to determine the dimensions, inside and outside diameters of a given specimen
using different types of calipers. We were able to determine inside and outside diameter calipers. We also
used a digital Vernier caliper for more accurate measurement of dimensions. Then, a scaled front view
drawing of the figure was made based on the measurement acquired using the calipers.
The possible sources of errors in this experiment are the inaccurate reading since a ruler was used
in the ordinate method; even minute differences in the actual length in each strip can cause a big
difference in the actual area of the irregular figure. Another error which is found in the ordinate method is
the inconsistent distances between vertical strips which can lead to some erroneous results. The timing of
the stop watch or timer operator with the speed counter operator is also a factor.

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Recommendation

I would recommend that we should have been able to use the planimeter. The planimeter wasn’t
used at all since it was not working so it was just for display purposes, well at least we saw the apparatus.
It is suggested that the planimeter would give a better way of getting the area of the irregular figure
compared to the ordinate method which depends on the number of strips used. The more strips, the closer
the approximation is. As for the speed measurement, the equipment were good and easy to use. You can
easily get the RPM of the motors using the apparatus given.

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References

 Wise Geek. What is a Vernier Caliper? Retrieved from:

[Link]
 Wise Geek. What is a Revolution Counter? Retrieved from:
[Link]
 Simpson’s Rule. Retrieved from the world wide web:
[Link]
 Pearson. How Planimeters Work. Retrieved from:
[Link]

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Preliminary Data Sheet

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