A.
- Basic principles
Spread Spectrum
Spread Spectrum modulation techniques are defined as being those techniques in which:
- The bandwidth of the transmitted signal is much greater than the bandwidth of the original
message, and
- The bandwidth of the transmitted signal is determined by the message to be transmitted
and by an additional signal known as the Spreading Code.
Two main Spread Spectrum modulation techniques are defined:
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) and Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS).
By transmitting the message energy over a bandwidth much wider than the minimum
required, Spread Spectrum modulation techniques present two major advantages: low
power density and redundancy.
Low power density relates to the fact that the transmitted energy is spread over a wide
band, and therefore, the amount of energy per specific frequency is very low. The effect of
the low power density of the transmitted signal is that such a signal will not disturb (interfere
with) the activity of other systems’ receivers in the same area and that such a signal can not
be detected by intruders, providing a high level of intrinsic security.
Redundancy relates to the fact that the message is (or may be) present on different
frequencies from where it may be recovered in case of errors. The effect of redundancy is
that Spread Spectrum systems present high resistance to noises and interference, being
able to recover their messages even if noises are present on the medium.
Figure 1 - Signals used to modulate the carrier in FHSS and DSSS (Dwell time in FHSS is represented
as 3 x data bit duration. Spreading sequence in DSSS is represented as being 5 chip long)
Notes:
1.- FHSS: The frequency of the carrier has a different value for each dwell time.
2.- DSSS: The frequency of the carrier has a constant, fixed value for each system.
WLAN and WBA applications in the unlicensed spectrum use the frequency band known as
“2.4 GHz” (ranging from 2.4 GHz to 2.4835 GHz, same as the Industrial, Scientific and
Medical - ISM band). The operation in this band is defined by IEEE 802.11.
DSSS has the advantage of providing higher capacities than FHSS, but it is a very
sensitive technology, influenced by many environment factors (mainly reflections).
The best way to minimize such influences is to use the technology in either (i) point
to multipoint, short distances applications or (ii) long distance applications, but point
to point topologies.
In both cases the systems can take advantage of the high capacity offered by DSSS
technology, without paying the price of being disturbed by the effect of reflections.
As so, typical DSSS applications include indoor wireless LAN in offices (i), building to
building links (ii), Point of Presence (PoP) to Base Station links (in cellular
deployment systems) (ii), etc.
On the other hand, FHSS is a very robust technology, with little influence from noises,
reflections, other radio stations or other environment factors. In addition, the number of
simultaneously active systems in the same geographic area (collocated systems) is
significantly higher than the equivalent number for DSSS systems.
All these features make the FHSS technology the one to be selected for installations
designed to cover big areas where a big number of collocated systems is required and
where the use of directional antennas in order to minimize environment factors influence is
impossible.
Typical applications for FHSS include cellular deployments for fixed Broadband Wireless
Access (BWA), where the use of DSSS is virtually impossible because of its limitations.
For licensed spectrum operation, most applications use the so called “sub 11 GHz bands”
including frequencies such as 2.5 GHz, 2.6 GHz, 3.5 GHz, 3.6 GHz, 3.8 GHz, etc.
Spread Spectrum modulation techniques are composed of two consecutive modulation
processes executed on the carrier signal (Fig. 1):
- Process 1 - executed by the spreading code (= the spreading process). It is this spreading
process that generates the wide bandwidth of the transmitted signal.
- Process 2 - executed by the message to be transmitted.
Process 1 - Spreading code modulation
The frequency of the carrier is periodically modified (hopped) following a
specific sequence of frequencies.
In FHSS systems, the spreading code is this list of frequencies to be used for
the carrier signal, a.k.a. the “hopping sequence”
The amount of time spent on each hop is known as dwell time and is typically in
the range of 100 ms.
- Process 2 - Message modulation
The message modulates the (hopping) carrier (FSK), thus generating a narrow
band signal for the duration of each dwell, but generating a wide band signal, if
the process is regarded over periods of time in the range of seconds.
- Redundancy is achieved through the possibility to execute re-transmissions on
different carrier frequencies (hops).
- Process 1 - Spreading code modulation
For the duration of every message bit, the carrier is modulated (PSK) following a
specific sequence of bits (known as chips). The process is known as “chipping”
and results in the substitution of every message bit by (same) sequence of
chips.
In DSSS systems, the spreading code is the chip sequence used to represent
message bits.
- Process 2 - Message modulation
For message bits “0”, the sequence of chips used to represent the bit remains
as dictated by process1 above. For message bits “1”, the sequence of chips
dictated by process 1 above, is inverted. In this way message bits “0” and “1”
are represented (over the air) by different chip sequences (one being the
inverted version of the other one).
- Redundancy is achieved by the presence of the message bit on each chip of the
spreading code. Even if some of the chips of the spreading code are affected by
noise, the receiver may recognize the sequence and take a correct decision
regarding the received message bit.
DSSS
FHSS