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Multiverse
The multiverse,[1] also known as a maniverse, megaverse, metaverse, omniverse, or meta-
universe, is a hypothetical group of multiple universes. Together, these universes comprise
everything that exists: the entirety of space, time, matter, energy, information, and the physical laws
and constants that describe them.[2][3][4][5] The different universes within the multiverse are called
"parallel universes", "other universes", "alternate universes", or "alterverses".[6][7][8]

Contents
History of the concept
Brief explanation
Search for evidence
Proponents and skeptics
Arguments against multiverse theories
Classification schemes
Max Tegmark's four levels
Level I: An extension of our universe
Level II: Universes with different physical constants
Level III: Many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics
Level IV: Ultimate ensemble
Brian Greene's nine types
Cyclic theories
M-theory
Black-hole cosmology
Anthropic principle
Occam's razor
Modal realism
See also
References
Further reading
External links

History of the concept

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In Dublin in 1952, Erwin Schrödinger gave a lecture in which he jocularly warned his audience that
what he was about to say might "seem lunatic". He said that when his equations seemed to describe
several different histories, these were "not alternatives, but all really happen simultaneously".[9]

The American philosopher and psychologist William James used the term "multiverse" in 1895, but in
a different context.[10] The term was first used in fiction and in its current physics context by Michael
Moorcock in his 1963 SF Adventures novella The Sundered Worlds.

Brief explanation
Multiple universes have been hypothesized in cosmology, physics, astronomy, religion, philosophy,
transpersonal psychology, Music and all kinds of literature, particularly in science fiction, Comic
books and fantasy. In these contexts, parallel universes are also called "alternate universes",
"quantum universes", "interpenetrating dimensions", "parallel universes", "parallel dimensions",
"parallel worlds", "parallel realities", "quantum realities", "alternate realities", "alternate timelines",
"alternate dimensions" and "dimensional planes".

The physics community has debated the various multiverse theories over time. Prominent physicists
are divided about whether any other universes exist outside of our own.

Some physicists say the multiverse is not a legitimate topic of scientific inquiry.[11] Concerns have
been raised about whether attempts to exempt the multiverse from experimental verification could
erode public confidence in science and ultimately damage the study of fundamental physics.[12] Some
have argued that the multiverse is a philosophical notion rather than a scientific hypothesis because it
cannot be empirically falsified. The ability to disprove a theory by means of scientific experiment has
always been part of the accepted scientific method.[13] Paul Steinhardt has famously argued that no
experiment can rule out a theory if the theory provides for all possible outcomes.[14]

In 2007, Nobel laureate Steven Weinberg suggested that if the multiverse existed, "the hope of finding
a rational explanation for the precise values of quark masses and other constants of the standard
model that we observe in our Big Bang is doomed, for their values would be an accident of the
particular part of the multiverse in which we live."[15]

Search for evidence

Around 2010, scientists such as Stephen M. Feeney analyzed Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
(WMAP) data and claimed to find evidence suggesting that our universe collided with other (parallel)
universes in the distant past.[16][17][18] However, a more thorough analysis of data from the WMAP
and from the Planck satellite, which has a resolution 3 times higher than WMAP, did not reveal any
statistically significant evidence of such a bubble universe collision.[19][20] In addition, there was no
evidence of any gravitational pull of other universes on ours.[21][22]

Proponents and skeptics

Proponents of one or more of the multiverse hypotheses include Hugh Everett,[23] Don Page,[24]
Brian Greene,[25][26] Max Tegmark,[27] Alan Guth,[28] Andrei Linde,[29] Michio Kaku,[30] David
Deutsch,[31] Leonard Susskind,[32] Alexander Vilenkin,[33] Yasunori Nomura,[34] Raj Pathria,[35]

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Laura Mersini-Houghton,[36][37][38] Neil deGrasse Tyson,[39] Sean Carroll[40]and Stephen

Hawking.[41]

Scientists who are generally skeptical of the multiverse hypothesis include: David Gross,[42] Paul
Steinhardt,[43][44] Anna Ijjas,[44] Abraham Loeb,[44] David Spergel,[45] Neil Turok,[46] Viatcheslav
Mukhanov,[47] Michael S. Turner,[48] Roger Penrose,[49] George Ellis,[50][51] Joe Silk,[52] Carlo
Rovelli,[53] Adam Frank,[54] Marcelo Gleiser,[54] Jim Baggott[55] and Paul Davies.[56]

Arguments against multiverse theories

In his 2003 New York Times opinion piece, "A Brief History of the Multiverse", author and
cosmologist Paul Davies offered a variety of arguments that multiverse theories are non-scientific:[57]

For a start, how is the existence of the other universes to be tested? To be sure, all
cosmologists accept that there are some regions of the universe that lie beyond the reach
of our telescopes, but somewhere on the slippery slope between that and the idea that
there is an infinite number of universes, credibility reaches a limit. As one slips down that
slope, more and more must be accepted on faith, and less and less is open to scientific
verification. Extreme multiverse explanations are therefore reminiscent of theological
discussions. Indeed, invoking an infinity of unseen universes to explain the unusual
features of the one we do see is just as ad hoc as invoking an unseen Creator. The
multiverse theory may be dressed up in scientific language, but in essence it requires the
same leap of faith.

— Paul Davies, The New York Times, "A Brief History of the Multiverse"

George Ellis, writing in August 2011, provided a criticism of the multiverse, and pointed out that it is
not a traditional scientific theory. He accepts that the multiverse is thought to exist far beyond the
cosmological horizon. He emphasized that it is theorized to be so far away that it is unlikely any
evidence will ever be found. Ellis also explained that some theorists do not believe the lack of
empirical testability falsifiability is a major concern, but he is opposed to that line of thinking:

Many physicists who talk about the multiverse, especially advocates of the string
landscape, do not care much about parallel universes per se. For them, objections to the
multiverse as a concept are unimportant. Their theories live or die based on internal
consistency and, one hopes, eventual laboratory testing.

Ellis says that scientists have proposed the idea of the multiverse as a way of explaining the nature of
existence. He points out that it ultimately leaves those questions unresolved because it is a
metaphysical issue that cannot be resolved by empirical science. He argues that observational testing
is at the core of science and should not be abandoned:[58]

As skeptical as I am, I think the contemplation of the multiverse is an excellent

opportunity to reflect on the nature of science and on the ultimate nature of existence:
why we are here.... In looking at this concept, we need an open mind, though not too open.
It is a delicate path to tread. Parallel universes may or may not exist; the case is unproved.

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We are going to have to live with that uncertainty. Nothing is wrong with scientifically
based philosophical speculation, which is what multiverse proposals are. But we should
name it for what it is.

— George Ellis, Scientific American, "Does the Multiverse Really Exist?"

Classification schemes
Max Tegmark and Brian Greene have devised classification schemes for the various theoretical types
of multiverses and universes that they might comprise.

Max Tegmark's four levels

Cosmologist Max Tegmark has provided a taxonomy of universes beyond the familiar observable
universe. The four levels of Tegmark's classification are arranged such that subsequent levels can be
understood to encompass and expand upon previous levels. They are briefly described below.[59][60]

Level I: An extension of our universe

A prediction of cosmic inflation is the existence of an infinite ergodic universe, which, being infinite,
must contain Hubble volumes realizing all initial conditions.

Accordingly, an infinite universe will contain an infinite number of Hubble volumes, all having the
same physical laws and physical constants. In regard to configurations such as the distribution of
matter, almost all will differ from our Hubble volume. However, because there are infinitely many, far
beyond the cosmological horizon, there will eventually be Hubble volumes with similar, and even
115
identical, configurations. Tegmark estimates that an identical volume to ours should be about 1010
meters away from us.[27]

Given infinite space, there would, in fact, be an infinite number of Hubble volumes identical to ours in
the universe.[61] This follows directly from the cosmological principle, wherein it is assumed that our
Hubble volume is not special or unique.

Level II: Universes with different physical constants

In the eternal inflation theory, which is a variant of the cosmic inflation theory, the multiverse or
space as a whole is stretching and will continue doing so forever,[62] but some regions of space stop
stretching and form distinct bubbles (like gas pockets in a loaf of rising bread). Such bubbles are
embryonic level I multiverses.

Different bubbles may experience different spontaneous symmetry breaking, which results in
different properties, such as different physical constants.[61]

Level II also includes John Archibald Wheeler's oscillatory universe theory and Lee Smolin's fecund
universes theory.

Level III: Many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics

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Hugh Everett III's many-worlds interpretation (MWI) is one of

several mainstream interpretations of quantum mechanics.

In brief, one aspect of quantum mechanics is that certain

observations cannot be predicted absolutely. Instead, there is a
range of possible observations, each with a different probability.
According to the MWI, each of these possible observations
corresponds to a different universe. Suppose a six-sided die is
thrown and that the result of the throw corresponds to a quantum
mechanics observable. All six possible ways the die can fall Bubble universes – every disk
correspond to six different universes. represents a bubble universe. Our
universe is represented by one of
Tegmark argues that a Level III multiverse does not contain more the disks.
possibilities in the Hubble volume than a Level I or Level II Universe 1 to Universe 6 represent
bubble universes. Five of them have
multiverse. In effect, all the different "worlds" created by "splits"
different physical constants than our
in a Level III multiverse with the same physical constants can be universe has.
found in some Hubble volume in a Level I multiverse. Tegmark
writes that, "The only difference between Level I and Level III is
where your doppelgängers reside. In Level I they live elsewhere in good old three-dimensional space.
In Level III they live on another quantum branch in infinite-dimensional Hilbert space."

Similarly, all Level II bubble universes with different physical constants can, in effect, be found as
"worlds" created by "splits" at the moment of spontaneous symmetry breaking in a Level III
multiverse.[61] According to Yasunori Nomura,[34] Raphael Bousso, and Leonard Susskind,[32] this is
because global spacetime appearing in the (eternally) inflating multiverse is a redundant concept.
This implies that the multiverses of Levels I, II, and III are, in fact, the same thing. This hypothesis is
referred to as "Multiverse = Quantum Many Worlds". According to Yasunori Nomura, this quantum
multiverse is static, and time is a simple illusion.[63]

Related to the many-worlds idea are Richard Feynman's multiple histories interpretation and H.
Dieter Zeh's many-minds interpretation.

Level IV: Ultimate ensemble

The ultimate mathematical universe hypothesis is Tegmark's own hypothesis.[64]

This level considers all universes to be equally real which can be described by different mathematical
structures.

Tegmark writes:

Abstract mathematics is so general that any Theory Of Everything (TOE) which is

definable in purely formal terms (independent of vague human terminology) is also a
mathematical structure. For instance, a TOE involving a set of different types of entities
(denoted by words, say) and relations between them (denoted by additional words) is
nothing but what mathematicians call a set-theoretical model, and one can generally find
a formal system that it is a model of.

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He argues that this "implies that any conceivable parallel universe theory can be described at Level
IV" and "subsumes all other ensembles, therefore brings closure to the hierarchy of multiverses, and
there cannot be, say, a Level V."[27]

Jürgen Schmidhuber, however, says that the set of mathematical structures is not even well-defined
and that it admits only universe representations describable by constructive mathematics—that is,
computer programs.

Schmidhuber explicitly includes universe representations describable by non-halting programs whose

output bits converge after finite time, although the convergence time itself may not be predictable by a
halting program, due to the undecidability of the halting problem.[65][66][67] He also explicitly
discusses the more restricted ensemble of quickly computable universes.[68]

Brian Greene's nine types

The American theoretical physicist and string theorist Brian Greene discussed nine types of
multiverses:[69]

Quilted
The quilted multiverse works only in an infinite universe. With an infinite amount of space, every
possible event will occur an infinite number of times. However, the speed of light prevents us
from being aware of these other identical areas.

Inflationary
The inflationary multiverse is composed of various pockets in which inflation fields collapse and
form new universes.

Brane
The brane multiverse version postulates that our entire universe exists on a membrane (brane)
which floats in a higher dimension or "bulk". In this bulk, there are other membranes with their
own universes. These universes can interact with one another, and when they collide, the
violence and energy produced is more than enough to give rise to a big bang. The branes float
or drift near each other in the bulk, and every few trillion years, attracted by gravity or some
other force we do not understand, collide and bang into each other. This repeated contact gives
rise to multiple or "cyclic" big bangs. This particular hypothesis falls under the string theory
umbrella as it requires extra spatial dimensions.

Cyclic
The cyclic multiverse has multiple branes that have collided, causing Big Bangs. The universes
bounce back and pass through time until they are pulled back together and again collide,
destroying the old contents and creating them anew.

Landscape
The landscape multiverse relies on string theory's Calabi–Yau spaces. Quantum fluctuations
drop the shapes to a lower energy level, creating a pocket with a set of laws different from that
of the surrounding space.

Quantum
The quantum multiverse creates a new universe when a diversion in events occurs, as in the
many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics.

Holographic

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The holographic multiverse is derived from the theory that the surface area of a space can
encode the contents of the volume of the region.

Simulated
The simulated multiverse exists on complex computer systems that simulate entire universes.

Ultimate
The ultimate multiverse contains every mathematically possible universe under different laws of
physics.

Cyclic theories
In several theories, there is a series of infinite, self-sustaining cycles (for example, an eternity of Big
Bangs, Big Crunches, and/or Big Freezes).

M-theory
A multiverse of a somewhat different kind has been envisaged within string theory and its higher-
dimensional extension, M-theory.[70]

These theories require the presence of 10 or 11 spacetime dimensions respectively. The extra 6 or 7
dimensions may either be compactified on a very small scale, or our universe may simply be localized
on a dynamical (3+1)-dimensional object, a D3-brane. This opens up the possibility that there are
other branes which could support other universes.[71][72]

Black-hole cosmology
Black-hole cosmology is a cosmological model in which the observable universe is the interior of a
black hole existing as one of possibly many universes inside a larger universe. This includes the theory
of white holes, which are on the opposite side of space-time.

Anthropic principle
The concept of other universes has been proposed to explain how our own universe appears to be fine-
tuned for conscious life as we experience it.

If there were a large (possibly infinite) number of universes, each with possibly different physical laws
(or different fundamental physical constants), then some of these universes (even if very few) would
have the combination of laws and fundamental parameters that are suitable for the development of
matter, astronomical structures, elemental diversity, stars, and planets that can exist long enough for
life to emerge and evolve.

The weak anthropic principle could then be applied to conclude that we (as conscious beings) would
only exist in one of those few universes that happened to be finely tuned, permitting the existence of
life with developed consciousness. Thus, while the probability might be extremely small that any
particular universe would have the requisite conditions for life (as we understand life), those
conditions do not require intelligent design as an explanation for the conditions in the Universe that
promote our existence in it.

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An early form of this reasoning is evident in Arthur Schopenhauer's 1844 work "Von der Nichtigkeit
und dem Leiden des Lebens", where he argues that our world must be the worst of all possible worlds,
because if it were significantly worse in any respect it could not continue to exist.[73]

Occam's razor
Proponents and critics disagree about how to apply Occam's razor. Critics argue that to postulate an
almost infinite number of unobservable universes, just to explain our own universe, is contrary to
Occam's razor.[74] However, proponents argue that in terms of Kolmogorov complexity the proposed
multiverse is simpler than a single idiosyncratic universe.[61]

For example, multiverse proponent Max Tegmark argues:

[A]n entire ensemble is often much simpler than one of its members. This principle can be
stated more formally using the notion of algorithmic information content. The algorithmic
information content in a number is, roughly speaking, the length of the shortest computer
program that will produce that number as output. For example, consider the set of all
integers. Which is simpler, the whole set or just one number? Naively, you might think
that a single number is simpler, but the entire set can be generated by quite a trivial
computer program, whereas a single number can be hugely long. Therefore, the whole set
is actually simpler... (Similarly), the higher-level multiverses are simpler. Going from our
universe to the Level I multiverse eliminates the need to specify initial conditions,
upgrading to Level II eliminates the need to specify physical constants, and the Level IV
multiverse eliminates the need to specify anything at all... A common feature of all four
multiverse levels is that the simplest and arguably most elegant theory involves parallel
universes by default. To deny the existence of those universes, one needs to complicate the
theory by adding experimentally unsupported processes and ad hoc postulates: finite
space, wave function collapse and ontological asymmetry. Our judgment therefore comes
down to which we find more wasteful and inelegant: many worlds or many words. Perhaps
we will gradually get used to the weird ways of our cosmos and find its strangeness to be
part of its charm.[61][75]

— Max Tegmark

Modal realism
Possible worlds are a way of explaining probability and hypothetical statements. Some philosophers,
such as David Lewis, believe that all possible worlds exist and that they are just as real as the world we
live in (a position known as modal realism).[76]

See also
A Universe from Nothing
Beyond black holes
Cosmogony
Hugh Everett III
The Fabric of Reality
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Impossible world
Laura Mersini-Houghton
Copenhagen interpretation
Many-worlds interpretation
Holographic principle
Modal realism
Multiverse (religion)
Nature timeline
Parallel universes in fiction
Roger Penrose
Philosophy of physics
Philosophy of space and time
Reductionism
Martin Rees, Astronomer Royal
Simulated reality
Ultimate fate of the universe
Hindu Cosmology

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Further reading
Carr, Bernard. Universe or Multiverse? (2007 ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Deutsch, David (1985). "Quantum theory, the Church–Turing principle and the universal quantum
computer" ([Link] (PDF).
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A. 400 (1818): 97–117.
Bibcode:1985RSPSA.400...97D ([Link]
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CiteSeerX [Link].2382 ([Link]

doi:10.1098/rspa.1985.0070 ([Link]
Ellis, George F.R.; William R. Stoeger; Stoeger, W. R. (2004). "Multiverses and physical
cosmology". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 347 (3): 921–936. arXiv:astro-
ph/0305292 ([Link] Bibcode:2004MNRAS.347..921E ([Link]
[Link]/abs/2004MNRAS.347..921E). doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07261.x ([Link]
[Link]/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2966.2004.07261.x).
Manly, Steven (2011). Visions of the Multiverse (1st ed.). Pompton Plains, New Jersey: New Page
Books. ISBN 9781601631299.
Surya-Siddhanta: A Text Book of Hindu Astronomy by Ebenezer Burgess, ed. Phanindralal
Gangooly (1989/1997) with a 45-page commentary by P. C. Sengupta (1935).
Melmond (2019). I Know the Multiverse Is Real ([Link] All Poetry.

External links
Interview with Tufts cosmologist Alex Vilenkin ([Link]
e-among-other-timely-topics) on his new book, "Many Worlds in One: The Search for Other
Universes" on the podcast and public radio interview program ThoughtCast. ([Link]
[Link]/)
Joseph Pine II about Multiverse ([Link]
[Link]/[Link]?id=751_0_1_0_C), Presentation at Mobile Monday Amsterdam, 2008
Multiverse – Radio-discussion on ([Link] Four with
Melvyn Bragg
What Is The Multiverse? ([Link] A layman's
explanation
Why There Might be Many More Universes Besides Our Own ([Link]
60318-why-there-might-be-many-more-universes-besides-our-own), by Phillip Ball, March 21,
2016, [Link].

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